Maternal childrearing attitudes and behavioral academic self-esteem in preschool children
by Ruth Cox McGann
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Home Economics
Montana State University
© Copyright by Ruth Cox McGann (1990)
Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between maternal childrearing attitudes
and self-esteem in four to five year old preschool children attending a university based preschool or
day care in rural southwestern Montana. The factors of: (a) maternal childrearing attitudes towards
acceptance, strictness, democratic practices, training for independence, positive methods of control, and
specific methods of control; and (b) child's sex, were examined in relation to the total Behavioral
Academic Self-Esteem (BASE) score measures of self-esteem. The study also examined the
relationship between responses of mothers of male children and mothers of female children to a
17-item Mother's Questionnaire (a modified version of the Parent Attitude Research Instrument).
Mothers (N=51) of four to five year old preschool children who attended either Montana State
University's Child Development Center or Associated Students of MSU Day Care Center completed a
17-item questionnaire designed to measure maternal attitudes toward childrearing. The teachers of
these children (N=5l) completed a selfesteem rating scale (BASE). Correlational studies were
conducted between maternal attitude measures and total BASE score measures of self-esteem. Maternal
response patterns and total BASE score measures of self-esteem were tested for homogeneity with
respect to sex.
Results indicated that: (a) there was a significant relationship between maternal childrearing attitude
subscale measures of acceptance, positive methods of control, and total BASE score measures of
self-esteem; (b) there were no sex-based differences in total BASE scores; and (c) mothers of female
children did respond differently than mothers of male children to one questionnaire item designed to
measure maternal attitudes towards acceptance. These results suggest that the relationship between
certain maternal childrearing attitudes and self-esteem measures may vary according to the age and sex
of the sample, and that there were no sex based differences in self-esteem measures in this sample of
preschool children.
MATERNAL CHILDREARING ATTITUDES AND
BEHAVIORAL ACADEMIC SELF-ESTEEM
IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
by
Ruth Cox McGann
A t h e s i s su bmitted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f t h e re qui re m e nt s f o r t h e degree
of
Master o f Science
in
Home Economics
J-
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
May 1990
ii
APPROVAL
o f a t h e s i s sub mit te d by
Ruth Cox McGann
This t h e s i s has been read by each member of t h e t h e s i s committee
and has been found t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y re g a r d in g c o n t e n t , English usage,
for mat, c i t a t i o n s , b i b l i o g r a p h i c s t y l e , and c o n s i s t e n c y , and i s ready f o r
submission t o t h e College o f Graduate S t u d i e s .
________ 6 1/J J jK A C Date
C h ai rp er so n , Graduate Committee
Approved f o r t h e Major Departmen
SlltlQn
Date
^Tiead, Major Department
Approved f o r t h e College o f Graduate S t u d i e s
Date
Graduate l7Dean
N
1
iii
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
re qu ir e m e nts f o r a m a s t e r ' s degree a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , I
agree t h a t t h e Li b ra r y s h a l l make i t a v a i l a b l e t o borrowers under
ru le s of the Library.
B r i e f q u o t a t i o n s from t h i s t h e s i s a r e al low abl e
w it h o u t s p e c i a l p e rm is s i o n , provided t h a t a c c u r a t e acknowledgement o f
so urc e i s made.
Permission f o r e x t e n s i v e q u o t a t i o n from o r r e p r o d u c t i o n of t h i s
t h e s i s may be g r a n te d by my major p r o f e s s o r o r , in h e r absence, by th e
Dean o f L i b r a r i e s when, in t h e opinio n o f e i t h e r , t h e proposed use of
t h e m a t e r i a l i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u rp o s e s .
Any copying o r use o f the
m a t e r i a l in t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed
w it h o u t my w r i t t e n p e rm is s i o n .
Signature.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would l i k e t o extend my g r a t i t u d e and deep a p p r e c i a t i o n to a l l
t h e many people who have worked with me and supported my e f f o r t s
thro ug ho ut t h i s e n t i r e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s .
In p a r t i c u l a r , I would l i k e
t o thank my husband, Steven, and my two c h i l d r e n , Chris and S c o t t , f o r
t h e i r co nt in ued encouragement and s u p p o r t .
I would a l s o l i k e to
extend my thanks t o my gra d u a te committee members. Dr. Jam 's Bullock,
Dr. Sandy Osborne, and B i l l i e Warford, f o r t h e i r encouragement, time,
and e x p e r t i s e .
F i n a l l y , I would l i k e t o extend s p e c i a l a p p r e c i a t i o n
t o my t e c h n i c a l s t a f f f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e in making t h i s t h e s i s a
possibility:
Linda S t e e l e and S c o t t Alexander, s t a t i s t i c i a n s ; Carol
B i t t i n g e r , computer s p e c i a l i s t ; Judy H a rr is o n , t y p i s t ; and Marlene
S h o r t, O f f i c e o f Graduate S t u d i e s .
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL
. . . . .
...................................
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO U S E .................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
Hi
................................................................................................
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................
v
LIST OF TABLES
ABSTRACT
.
......................
......................................................................
x
CHAPTER:
MATERNAL CHILDREARING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORAL
ACADEMIC SELF-ESTEEM. IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN . .
I n t r o d u c t i o n ......................................................................
Sta te me nt o f t h e Problem ................................... . .
R a t i o n a l e ..........................................................................
Conceptual Framework ....................................................
S u c c e s s e s ...................... .............................. .... . . .
Success in t h e Area o f S i g n i f i c a n c e . .
Success in t h e Area o f Power . . . . . .
Success in t h e Area o f Competence . . .
Success in t h e Area o f V i r t u e ..................
Values ..........................................................................
A s p i r a t i o n s ..................................................................
Defenses ......................................................................
P a r e n ta l A t t i t u d e s and Behaviors A sso ci at ed
with t h e Formation o f S e lf- Es te e m . . .
Acceptance .............................................................
Pe rm is si ve ne ss and Control ..........................
Pe rm is si ve ne ss ................................... .... .
Control .............................................................
Democratic P r a c t i c e s ............................... . .
T r a in i n g f o r Independence ..........................
S u b j e c t i v e and Behavioral M a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f
Se lf - E s te e m in Ch ild ren ...............................
Nominal D e f i n i t i o n s ....................................................
I
<0 0 0 0 0 ^ 1 0 1 4 ^ 1—
I.
10
10
10
11
12
12
13
13
14
15
15
17
19
Vl
TABLE OF CQNTENTS-Continued
Page
2.
3.
4.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE.....................................................................
21
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between P o s i t i v e Self -E st eem
and E f f e c t i v e Functi oning .....................................................
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between t h e Early Years o f Life
and t h e Formation o f P o s i t i v e Self- Estee m ..................
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between P a r e n ta l A t t i t u d e s
Toward C h i l d r e a r i n g and t h e Formation of
P o s i t i v e S e lf- Es te e m in Ch ild ren ...................................
S u m m a r y ................................................................................................
O b j e c t i v e s ............................................................................................
Research Hypotheses ......................................................................
40
METHODS AND PROCEDURES..................................................................
41
Sample P opu la tio n .......................................
M e a s u r e s ..................................................................................
Tool: P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research Instrument . . . .
C o n s tr u c t V a l i d i t y .............................................................
P r e d i c t i v e V a l i d i t y .........................................................
R e l i a b i l i t y ...............................................
C r i t i q u e Summary........................................................
Tool: Behavioral Academic Self -E st eem
Rating Sc a le ..........................................................................
F a c t o r S t r u c t u r e .......................................
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ......................................................................
S c o r i n g ...................................................................................
BASE C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .........................................................
Normative D a t a ......................................................................
R e l i a b i l i t y ..................................
V a l i d i t y ...................................................................................
S tu de nt Sex Comparisons . .............................................
Grade Level D i f f e r e n c e s ..................................
O pe ra t io nal D e f i n i t i o n s .................................................... .... .
Procedures . . ...................................................................................
Data Reduction and Transformation .......................................
Data A na ly si s ...................................................................................
41
43
43
44
46
46
46
48
50
50
51
52
52
53
54
55
55
55
57
58
58
RES UL TS.........................................................................
60
Main A n a ly si s ............................................................. . . . . .
Hypothesis I ...............................................................................
Hypothesis 2 .................................................................
Hypothesis 3 ...............................................................................
61
61
62
63
21
23
26
38
39
vn
TABLE OF CONTENTS-r-Conti nued
Page
5.
F u r t h e r A n a ly si s ...............................................................................
O b je c ti v e I . . . . .......................................................................
O b j e c t i v e 2 ..............................
O b je ct i v e 3 ...........................................
.
Summary o f F i n d i n g s ............................................................
65
65
69
70
72
DISCUSSION...........................................................................................
73
F i n d i n g s ................................................................................................
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f Acceptance and Preschool
S e l f - E s t e e m ....................................................
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e SubsCale
Measure o f S t r i c t n e s s and Preschool
S e l f - E s t e e m ..................................................................... .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f Democratic P r a c t i c e s and
Preschool Se lf-Es teem ............................... . . . . .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f T ra in i ng f o r Independence
and Preschool S e l f - E s t e e m ......................................... .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale ,
Measure o f P o s i t i v e Methods o f Control
and Preschool S e lf- Es te e m ..............................
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measures Towards S p e c i f i c Methods of
Control and Preschool S e lf- Es te e m ...........................
C h i l d ' s Sex and Preschool S el f- Es tee m ...........................
Comparison o f Mother-Son and MotherDaughter Responses t o t h e M other's
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ........................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s ..............................................................................
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r Research .......................................
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r P a re n ts and Educators ...............................
S u m m a r y ................................................................................................
73
REFERENCES
74
74
75
75
76
77
77
78
79
80
81
83
84
V ii i
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
APPENDICES:
A.
Page
FACTORS MEASURED BY THE BEHAVIORAL ACADEMIC
SELF-ESTEEM RATING SCALE .............................................................
92
LETTERS TO DIRECTORS OF PRESCHOOL AND DAY
CARE C EN TE R .......................................................................................
94
C.
FIRST COVER LETTER TO MOTHERS.........................
97
D.
SECOND COVER LETTER TO MOTHERS,GENERAL
INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE, AND MOTHER'S
QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................................................
100
E.
FOLLOW-UP LETTERS TO MOTHERS .....................................................
106
F.
PERMISSION LETTERS FROM CONSULTING
PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC .............................................................
109
B.
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Page
Summary o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and behav ior s
and o t h e r a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t are
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e formation
o f high , medium, and low s e l f - e s t e e m in
p r e a d o l e s c e n t b o y s ..........................................................................
31
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f academic s e l f - e s t e e m and
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e ranges f o r male and female
f o u r y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n ...........................................
52
C o r r e l a t i o n s between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g
a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measures and t o t a l (BASE)
s c o r e ....................................................................................................
61
C o r r e l a t i o n s between maternal a t t i t u d e s toward
s p e c i f i c methods o f c o n t r o l and t o t a l (BASE)
s c o r e ..................................................................................
63
C o r r e l a t i o n s between c o n t r o l t o t a l and t o t a l
(BASE) s c o r e ...............................................
64
Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r M ot her 's Q uest ion ­
n a i r e items 1-8 and 1 0 - 1 7 .........................................................
66
Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r M oth er 's Quest ion ­
n a i r e item 9 .........................................................................
68
Summary o f f o u r y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n
t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e s ......................................................................
69
Summary o f f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n
t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e s ......................................................................
69
C o r r e l a t i o n s between each M ot her 's Quest ion ­
n a i r e item and t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e .......................................
70
ABSTRACT
The purpose o f t h i s stu dy was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s and s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r to
f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g a u n i v e r s i t y based
preschool o r day c a r e in r u r a l south weste rn Montana. The f a c t o r s o f:
(a) maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s towards a c c e pta nc e , s t r i c t n e s s ,
democratic p r a c t i c e s , t r a i n i n g f o r independence, p o s i t i v e methods of
c o n t r o l , and s p e c i f i c methods o f c o n t r o l ; and (b) c h i l d ' s sex, were
examined in r e l a t i o n t o t h e t o t a l Behavioral Academic Self-Estee m
(BASE) s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m . The stu dy a l s o examined the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between re sp onses o f mothers o f male c h i l d r e n and mothers
of female c h i l d r e n t o a 17-item Mo the r' s Q u e s ti o n n a ir e (a modified
v e r s i o n o f t h e P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research I n s t r u m e n t ) .
Mothers (N=Sl) o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n who
a t t e n d e d e i t h e r Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development Center o r
A ss o c ia te d S tu d e n ts o f MSU Day Care C en te r completed a 17-item
q u e s t i o n n a i r e de signed t o measure maternal a t t i t u d e s toward
c h i l d r e a r i n g . The t e a c h e r s o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n (N=Sl) completed a s e l f ­
esteem r a t i n g s c a l e (BASE). C o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s were conducted
between maternal a t t i t u d e measures and t o t a l BASE s co r e measures of
s e l f - e s t e e m . Maternal response p a t t e r n s and t o t a l BASE s co r e measures
o f s e l f - e s t e e m were t e s t e d f o r homogeneity with r e s p e c t t o sex .
Results indicated t h a t :
(a) t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measures of
a c c e p ta n c e , p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l , and t o t a l BASE s co r e measures
o f s e l f - e s t e e m ; (b) t h e r e were no s ex - bas ed d i f f e r e n c e s in t o t a l BASE
s c o r e s ; and (c) mothers o f female c h i l d r e n did respond d i f f e r e n t l y
than mothers o f male c h i l d r e n t o one q u e s t i o n n a i r e item designed to
measure maternal a t t i t u d e s towards a c c e p ta n c e . These r e s u l t s suggest
t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c e r t a i n maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s
and s e l f - e s t e e m measures may vary a c c ord in g t o t h e age and sex of t h e
sample, and t h a t t h e r e were no sex based d i f f e r e n c e s in s e l f - e s t e e m
measures in t h i s sample o f preschool c h i l d r e n .
I
CHAPTER I
MATERNAL CHILDREARING ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORAL
ACADEMIC SELF-ESTEEM IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Introduction
The achievement o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m i s g e n e r a l l y con sid ered
a d e s i r e d developmental outcome f o r c h i l d r e n in our s o c i e t y .
Recent
r e s e a r c h has e l u c i d a t e d s e v e ra l of t h e f a c t o r s found t o be r e l a t e d to
t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
focus on a few o f th o s e i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r s .
This study w il l
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the
purpose o f t h i s s tu dy i s t o pro vid e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s and s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool
children.
Statement o f t h e Problem
The achievement o f a f a v o r a b l e s e l f - a t t i t u d e , o r a p o s i t i v e s e l f ­
esteem, i s reg a rd ed by a number o f t h e o r i s t s and r e s e a r c h e r s as being
e xtr em el y i m p o r ta n t t o t h e e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l
w i t h i n our s o c i e t y (Coopersmith, 1967; Erik son, 1958; Maslow, 1954;
Rogers, 1954).
The e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t c h i l d r e n e n c o u n te r during t h e e a r l y y e a r s of
t h e i r l i v e s a r e reg a rd ed as being s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o th e
development o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and t h e e v a l u a t i v e a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t ,
2
which i s s e l f - e s t e e m (Bloom, 1964; McNelly, 1972; Wylie, 1961;
Yamamoto, 1972).
A number o f r e s e a r c h e r s concur t h a t i t i s during th e
preschool y e a r s t h a t c h i l d r e n begin t o :
(a) view themselves as
s e p a r a t e p e r s o n s , (b) judge t h e i r s e l f worth, and (c) p la c e value on
themselves as i n d i v i d u a l s ( B la ze r, 1981; Burns, Boals, & P r u e t t , 1987;
B u t l e r , 1969; Coopersmit h , 1967; Gordon, 1968; M i l l s , 1984; Monte,
1987; Schwartz, 1966).
I t i s a l s o d uri ng t h e preschool y e a r s t h a t
c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s a r e l e s s f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d and more l i k e l y
t o be r e s p o n s iv e t o i n t e r v e n t i o n (Rubin, 1978).
M il ls (1984) su bmi tte d t h a t t h e t a s k o f developing a p o s i t i v e
s e l f - c o n c e p t duri ng t h e e a r l i e r fo r m at i v e y e a r s o f a c h i l d ' s l i f e i s so
im p o r ta n t t h a t i t should not be l e f t t o chance o r i n c i d e n t a l t e a c h i n g .
Furthermore, he su gge st ed t h a t p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s should be co gniza nt
o f t h e methods and pro c e du res t h a t help young c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e p o s i t i v e
self-concepts.
A number o f r e s e a r c h e r s have su gg est ed t h a t p a r e n t s pla y a
c r i t i c a l r o l e in t h e for mation o f t h e i r c h i l d ' s s e l f - e s t e e m (ClarkeS t e w a r t , 1977; M i l l s , 1984; Samuels, 1977) and, in f a c t , may e x e r t th e
o r i g i n a l and perhaps t h e most powerful i n f l u e n c e on t h e c h i l d ' s
dev elop ing s e l f - c o n c e p t and s e l f - e s t e e m (Champion, 1973; Hanson &
Maynard, 1973; Gordon, 1968).
Recent r e s e a r c h has begun t o e l u c i d a t e s p e c i f i c p a r e n t a l p r a c t i c e s
and a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d r e a r i n g as being c o r r e l a t e d with high s e l f ­
esteem l e v e l s in s p e c i f i c p o p u l a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n ( A t l a s , 1973; Cl arkeS t e w a r t , 1977; Coopersmith, 1967; Elrod & Crase, 1980; Flynn, 1979;
G r a y b i l I , 1978; Growe, 1980; Medinnus & C u r t i s , 1963; Quadri & Kaleem,
3
1971; Schwartz, 1967; S e a r s , 1970; Wylie, 1961).
However, t h e m a j o r i t y
o f t h i s r e s e a r c h has involved c h i l d r e n between 6 and 15 y e a r s o f age
(Blanton, 1985).
Very l i t t l e r e s e a r c h p e r t a i n i n g t o s e l f - e s t e e m and
t h e c o r r e l a t e s o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m formation has been conducted
with t h e preschool aged p o p u la ti o n (ages t h r e e t o f i v e ) .
Blanton
(1987) and Hughes (1984) c i t e d s i m i l a r re a so ns t o e x p l a i n t h e lack of
r e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a .
The primary reason c i t e d i s la c k o f
p s y c h o m e t r i c a l l y sound r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t s .
Not u n t i l r e c e n t l y have
adequate measurement t o o l s been made a v a i l a b l e t o stu dy s e l f - e s t e e m in
t h e preschool aged p o p u l a t i o n .
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t ' s (1982)
Behavioral Academic S e lf- Es te e m Sc a le (BASE) was i d e n t i f i e d by Hughes
(1984) as t h e i n s tr u m e n t o f c hoice f o r a s s e s s i n g s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s in
preschool p o p u l a t i o n s (ages f o u r through f i v e y e a r s o f a g e ) .
Following an e x t e n s i v e review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on s e l f - e s t e e m and
t h e c o r r e l a t e s o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m for mation in c h i l d r e n , both
Blanton (1987) and B la z e r (1981) found Coopersmit h ' s (1967) study of
t h e a n t e c e d e n t s o f s e l f - e s t e e m t o be t h e most d e f i n i t i v e .
In f a c t ,
Blanton (1987) d e s c r i b e d Coopersmit h ' s work as " th e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l
r e s e a r c h " (p. 23) in t h e a r e a o f p a r e n t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as
c o r r e l a t e s o f high s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
Coopersmit h ' s (1967) o r i g i n a l s tu dy looked a t a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s
t h a t were r e l a t e d t o t h e for mation o f high s e l f - e s t e e m in 10 t o 12 y e a r
old boys.
He used a number o f d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h methods t o help him
a s c e r t a i n which v a r i a b l e s were p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d with high s e l f ­
esteem l e v e l s in t h i s p o p u l a t i o n group.
One o f t h e methods he used was
a modified P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research In st rum en t developed by Scha ef er
4
and Bell (1958).
Based on Coopersmith1s r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s , t h e r e were
s p e c i f i c maternal a t t i t u d e s t h a t were p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d with high
s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s in 10 t o 12 y e a r old boys.
Both t h e maternal
a t t i t u d e s i d e n t i f i e d by Coopersmith (1967) and h i s conceptual framework
w i l l be u t i l i z e d in t h i s s tu d y .
In summary, t h e r e i s evidence t o su g g es t t h a t :
(a) s e l f - e s t e e m i s
an im po rt an t developmental outcome f o r c h i l d r e n , (b) t h e e a r l y
childhood preschool y e a r s a r e an im p o r ta n t pe rio d f o r l a y i n g th e
f ou nd a tio n f o r t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m , (c) p a re n ts
pla y a c r i t i c a l r o l e in t h e for mation o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m ,
(d) e f f o r t s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m may
have a g r e a t e r impact duri ng t h e e a r l i e r y e a r s in a c h i l d ' s l i f e ,
(e) e f f o r t s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m
should not be l e f t t o chance, (f ) s p e c i f i c p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s have been
found t o be c o r r e l a t e d with p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in school aged
c h i l d r e n 6 t o 15 y e a r s o f age, and (g) very l i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been
performed c o r r e l a t i n g p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with
p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n f o u r t o f i v e y e a r s o f age.
R a t io n a le
There i s evidence t o su g g es t a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s and a t t i t u d e s c h i l d r e n e n c o u n te r during t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f
t h e i r l i v e s and t h e for matio n o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m .
In view of t h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n , i t seems p a r t i c u l a r l y s a l i e n t t h a t p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s be
aware o f :
(a) e x i s t i n g l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n any pop u la ti o n of
preschool c h i l d r e n , (b) f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e for mati on of
5
p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n t h i s p o p u l a t i o n , and (c) methods t h a t may
enhance t h e for mation o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m , as well as methods t h a t
may reme dia te low l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n t h i s po p u la ti o n group.
Thus, t h e purposes o f t h i s stu dy a r e t o :
(a) a s c e r t a i n and
d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g maternal a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d r e a r i n g with a
d e fi n e d p o p u la ti o n o f mothers o f preschool c h i l d r e n f o u r t o f i v e y e a r s
o f age, u t i l i z i n g th o s e q u e s t i o n s ta ken from t h e Pa re nt A t t i t u d e
Research Instrum en t (S ch a e fe r & B e l l , 1958) t h a t Coopersmith (1967)
found t o be p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d with high s e l f - e s t e e m in 10-12 y e a r
old boys; (b) a s c e r t a i n and d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m
w i t h i n t h i s same d e fi n e d preschool age p o p u la ti o n o f f o u r and f i v e y e a r
old c h i l d r e n , u t i l i z i n g preschool t e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f s e l f - e s t e e m based
on t o t a l s c o r e s o b ta in e d from t h e Behavioral Academic Self-Estee m
r a t i n g s c a l e (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982); (c) a s c e r t a i n what
c o r r e l a t i o n s may e x i s t between t h e maternal a t t i t u d e measures and th e
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n t h i s p o p u la ti o n o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old
preschool c h i l d r e n and t h e i r mothers; and, in a d d i t i o n , compare and
c o n t r a s t mother-son and m oth e r- d a u g h te r outcomes.
Conceptual Framework
In o r d e r t o b e t t e r unde rs tan d which a n te c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s in a
c h i l d ' s l i f e c o r r e l a t e with t h e development o f high s e l f - e s t e e m , th e
conceptual framework for m ula te d by S t a n l e y Coopersmith (1967) w il l be
u t i l i z e d in t h i s s t u d y .
For t h e purposes o f t h i s s tu d y , s e l f - e s t e e m
w i l l be d e f i n e d as t h e e v a l u a t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e more globa l c o n s t r u c t
o f s e l f - c o n c e p t (Coopersmith, 1967).
6
Coopersmith (1967) reviewed a l l o f t h e major t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t s
from which s e l f - e s t e e m could be viewed (Adler, 1927; Cooley, 1922;
Er ikson, 1958; Hartmann, 1958; Rosenberg, 1965; S u l l i v a n , 1953); he
concluded t h a t t h e r e was no s i n g l e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t e x t in which s e l f ­
esteem could be viewed as a u n i f i e d t h e o r y .
s im ila r conclusion.
Cotton (1983) came t o a
She s t a t e d , "The v a s t amount o f i n t r a d i s c i pi in a r y
l i t e r a t u r e on s e l f - e s t e e m i s marked by widely d i s p a r a t e v o c a b u l a r i e s ,
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s and r e s e a r c h paradigms" (p. 122).
Thus, w it h o u t a s i n g l e comprehensive t h e o r e t i c a l framework from
which t o view s e l f - e s t e e m , Coopersmith (1967) for mulated a t h e o r e t i c a l
framework from which t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e and d e l i n e a t e t h e major
c o n d i t i o n s and e x p e r ie n c e s ( a n t e c e d e n t s ) t h a t seem t o be a s s o c i a t e d
with t h e development o f p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m .
He based
h i s framework on t h e view o f pre vio us t h e o r i s t s , su p p o rt from the
e m pi ri c a l l i t e r a t u r e , and h i s own r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s .
He proposed
t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c de te rm in in g v a r i a b l e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m be c l a s s i f i e d
under t h e f o u r p r i n c i p l e concepts o f (a) s u c c e s s e s , (b) v a l u e s ,
(c) a s p i r a t i o n s , and (d) d e f e n s e s .
Based on t h i s framework, Coopersmith (1967) sug ges te d t h a t the
degree o f s e l f - e s t e e m i n d i v i d u a l s a c t u a l l y exp ress would r e f l e c t th e
e x t e n t t o which t h e i r s u c c e s s e s approach t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s in a re a s of
performance t h a t a r e p e r s o n a l l y v a lu e d .
The de fe nse s would a c t to
d e f i n e and i n t e r p r e t what i s t r u l y v a lu e d , t h e a c tu a l le v e l of
a s p i r a t i o n , and what i s regarded as s u c c e s s f u l .
Thus, t o achiev e a
p o s i t i v e s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l s would have t o reach a le v el of
performance in valued a r e a s t h a t meet o r exceed t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s , and
7
th e y would have t o dimin is h and r e j e c t t h e der o g a to ry i m p l i c a t i o n s of
any d i f f e r e n c e s o r d e f i c i e n c i e s .
Each o f Coopersmith1s f o u r p r i n c i p l e concepts w i l l be reviewed.
In a d d i t i o n , each o f t h e s e f o u r conce pts and how th e y r e l a t e t o the
a n t e c e d e n t p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s and p r a c t i c e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e formation
o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m w it h in each major concept c a t e g o r y w i l l be
discussed.
The s u b j e c t i v e and b e hav io r al m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s e l f ­
esteem, as d e s c r i b e d by Coopersmith (1982) in h i s BASE w i l l a l s o be
reviewed, as well as how th e y r e l a t e t o t h e f o u r p r i n c i p l e concepts
Coopersmith (1967) i d e n t i f i e d in h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework.
Successes
There a r e f o u r d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f e x p er ie n c e t h a t may be used to
define success.
Each pro v id e s i t s own c r i t e r i a f o r ju dgin g whether an
i n d i v i d u a l has a t t a i n e d t h e valued o b j e c t i v e , but a l l pro vid e a sense
o f i n c r e a s e d s e l f - e s t e e m when th e y a r e a t t a i n e d .
Coopersmith (1967)
d e f i n e d t h e f o u r so urc es o f s e l f - e s t e e m and th e f o u r c r i t e r i a f o r
d e f i n i n g s u cc e ss in each major a r e a s as f o ll o w s :
"(a) s ig n ific a n c e —
t h e a c c e p ta n c e , a t t e n t i o n and a f f e c t i o n o f o t h e r s ; (b) power—t h e
a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l s e l f , and i n f l u e n c e and c o nt ro l o t h e r s ;
(c) competence—t h e s u c c e s s f u l performance in meeting demands f o r
achievement; and (d) v i r t u e —adherence t o moral and e t h i c a l standa rds "
(p. 38 ).
I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o achiev e high s e l f - e s t e e m by
n o t a b l e a t t a i n m e n t in any o f t h e s e f o u r a r e a s .
However, t h e i n d iv id u a l
must va lu e t h a t a r e a in o r d e r t o f e e l s u c c e s s f u l .
Coopersmith (1967)
8
emphasized t h e importance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s immediate i n t e r p e r s o n a l
environment in i n f l u e n c i n g t h i s s e l f - j u d g m e n t .
He p a r t i c u l a r l y
emphasized t h e importance o f t h e f a m ily , s c ho ol, a n d / o r p e e r s .
Success in t h e Area o f S i g n i f i c a n c e
Success in t h e a r e a o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i s measured by t h e concern,
a t t e n t i o n , and love t h a t i s ex pr e sse d by o t h e r s .
The number of
s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i v i d u a l s and t h e frequ en cy with which t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s
e x p re s s a c c e p ta n c e , warmth, i n t e r e s t , and a f f e c t i o n pro v id e t h e b a s i s
f o r favorable s e lf - a p p r a i s a l.
Accepting p a r e n t s , in p a r t i c u l a r , have
an enhancing e f f e c t on s e l f - e s t e e m .
By showing t h e i r s u p p o r t ,
encouragement, i n t e r e s t , a f f e c t i o n , comradeship, r e l a t i v e l y mild y e t
r a t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e , and in d u l g e n t a t t i t u d e toward t r a i n i n g f o r
independence and a s s e r t i v e n e s s , a c c e p t i n g p a r e n t s engender a sense of
importance (Coopersmith, 1967).
Success in t h e Area o f Power
Success in t h e a r e a o f power i s measured by i n d i v i d u a l s ' a b i l i t i e s
t o c o n t r o l t h e i r own b e h a v io r o r t h a t o f o t h e r s .
The i n d i v i d u a l s '
power i s determined by t h e r e c o g n i t i o n and r e s p e c t th e y r e c e i v e from
others.
The a c t u a l power o f c h i l d r e n w i l l vary with t h e i r age and
m a t u r i t y , and h e l p f u l p a r e n t s w i l l p e rm it g r e a t e r power as c h i l d r e n
m a n i f e s t g r e a t e r a b i l i t y and m a t u r i t y o f judgment.
The e f f e c t o f such
p a r e n t a l r e c o g n i t i o n i s t o pro vid e c h i l d r e n with a sense o f
a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e i r views and improves t h e i r a b i l i t y t o r e s i s t
p r e s s u r e t o conform.
Such t r e a t m e n t i s l i k e l y t o develop w it h in
9
c h i l d r e n a sens e o f p o i s e , l e a d e r s h i p , independence, autonomy, and
c o n t r o l over s e l f and o t h e r s (Coopersmith, 1967).
Success in t h e Area o f Competence
Success in t h e a r e a o f competence i s marked by high l e v e l s of
performance, with t h e l e v e l and t a s k s v a ry in g with age.
Coopersmith
(1967) sup porte d and expanded on W h it e 's (1959) proposal t h a t from
in fa n c y onward c h i l d r e n e x p e r ie n c e a b i o l o g i c a l l y given and p l e a s u r a b l e
sense o f e f f i c a c y t h a t accompanies t h e i r e nco unte rs with t h e
environment, and t h i s becomes t h e b a s i s f o r i n t r i n s i c m o ti v a ti o n toward
f u r t h e r l e v e l s o f competence.
White f u r t h e r s t r e s s e d t h e importance of
c h i l d r e n ' s spontaneous a c t i v i t y in d e r i v i n g f e e l i n g s o f e f f i c a c y and
sug ges te d t h a t t h e e x p e r ie n c e s fo ll o w i n g independent achievement may be
h ig h l y r e i n f o r c i n g in t h e i r own r i g h t and do not depend upon e x te r n a l
agents.
W h i t e 's f o r m u la t io n does no t deny t h e general importance of
s o c i a l approval and d i s a p p r o v a l , but proposes t h a t t h e r e a r e i n n a te
so urc es o f s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t accompany mastery o f t h e environment, and
t h a t th e y a r e independent o f e x t r i n s i c s o c i a l rewards and punishment.
Coopersmith proposed t h a t p a r e n t s can s u p p o rt t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s sense o f
e f f i c a c y by p r o v id i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r i t s development.
Coopersmith
a l s o f e l t t h a t independence t r a i n i n g should i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d
t h a t c h i l d r e n w i l l t a k e a more a c t i v e r o l e in t h e i r e n c o u n te rs with t h e
environment and may r e s u l t in more f r e q u e n t f e e l i n g s o f competence.
10
Success in t h e Area o f V ir tu e
Success in t h e a r e a o f v i r t u e i s marked by adherence to o n e 's own
moral, e t h i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s .
Pa re nt s i n i t i a l l y e s t a b l i s h
t h e s e b a s i c gui din g p r i n c i p l e s , which c h i l d r e n e v e n t u a l l y i n t e r n a l i z e .
Child ren w i l l l i k e l y develop a p o s i t i v e s e l f - a t t i t u d e i f th e y adhere to
th o s e e t h i c a l and r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s which they have i n t e r n a l i z e d
.(Coopersmi t h , 1967).
Values
Coopersmith (1967) a l s o t h e o r i z e d t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between
i n d i v i d u a l s ' v a lu es and t h e i r sens e o f s u c c e s s .
He hypothe si zed t h a t
i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r e d in t h e importance th e y a t t a c h e d t o t h e va rio us
s u c c e s s e s in t h e i r l i v e s .
He a t t r i b u t e d t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s t o d i f f e r i n g
i n t e r n a l i z e d v a lu es perso ns a cq u ir ed from t h e i r p a r e n t s and o t h e r
s i g n i f i c a n t people in t h e i r l i v e s .
Coopersmith surmised t h a t a c c e p ti n g
and r e s p e c t f u l t r e a t m e n t i s more l i k e l y t o r e s u l t in more f l e x i b l e
v a lu es and g r e a t e r acc ep ta nc e o f t h e v a l u e s t h a t t h e p a r e n t s espouse
and e x p r e s s .
Aspirations
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s p i r a t i o n and esteem has r e c e iv e d l i t t l e
st udy ; y e t , Coopersmith (1967) su ggest ed t h a t when t h e gap between
i n d i v i d u a l s ' l e v e l s o f a s p i r a t i o n and performance i s l a r g e , they w il l
l i k e l y have lowered s e l f - e s t e e m .
11
Defenses
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d i v i d u a l s ' defense mechanisms and s e l f ­
esteem was a l s o ad dr e sse d by Coopersmith (1967).
I n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r in
t h e manner in which th e y i n t e r p r e t and handle d i s t r e s s i n g and ambiguous
situations.
The manner in which i n d i v i d u a l s deal with t h r e a t and
u n c e r t a i n t y r e p r e s e n t s t h e i r way o f defending themselves a g a i n s t
a n x i e t y o r , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , defending t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m a g a i n s t
devaluation.
Coopersmith sug ges te d t h a t t h e r e a r e a wide range of
d e fe n se s t h a t can be employed, ra nging from massive r e p r e s s i o n s to
r e d e f i n i t i o n s and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s .
He a l s o suggested t h a t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e fe n se s a r e le a r n e d in much t h e same way as o t h e r
b e h a v i o r s , and t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l use th e de fe nse s s i m i l a r to
t h o s e used by perso ns in t h e i r immediate environment t h a t a r e
e m o ti o n a ll y c l o s e t o them.
In o t h e r words,
Coopersmith f e l t i t i s t h e
models, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p a r e n t s o r c u l t u r a l he ro e s, who provid e the
e f f e c t i v e ways o f d e a l i n g with a n x i e t y .
He contended t h a t t h e s e models
c o n t r i b u t e i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e development o f s e l f - e s t e e m by e s t a b l i s h i n g
l i m i t s and a c t i o n s t h a t d e f i n e and i n t e r p r e t e v e n t s .
These models s e t
bounds upon u n c e r t a i n t y and reduce t h e i r personal t h r e a t o f f a i l u r e .
High s e l f - e s t e e m i t s e l f pro v id e s some form o f defen se a g a i n s t a n x i e t y ,
by i n c r e a s i n g t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l f e e l capable o f
d e a l i n g wit h a d v e r s i t y .
Thus, i n d i v i d u a l s with t h e e x p e c t a t i o n of
s u cc e ss a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o f e e l t h r e a t e n e d a t t h e o n s e t .
In summary, having for mu lat ed h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework,
Coopersmith (1967) conducted r e s e a r c h on p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and
12
be h av io r s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e formation o f s e l f - e s t e e m in
children.
Based on t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s , Coopersmit h , through f a c t o r
a n a l y s i s , i d e n t i f i e d t h e p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and be hav io rs t h a t appeared
t o be most r e l e v a n t t o t h e formation o f s e l f - e s t e e m .
These a t t i t u d e s
and be ha vi ors a r e p r e s e n t e d under f o u r major c a t e g o r i e s .
The f i r s t
dimension i s a c c e p ta n c e ; t h e second, pe rm is si ven e ss- punis hm e nt; the
t h i r d , de mocratic p r a c t i c e s ; and t h e f o u r t h , t r a i n i n g f o r independence.
A d i s c u s s i o n o f how each o f t h e s e major dimensions o f p a r e n t a l
a t t i t u d e s and beh av io r s r e l a t e s t o Coopersmith1s t h e o r e t i c a l framework
fo l l o w s .
Pa re n ta l A t t i t u d e s and Behaviors Ass oc ia te d
with t h e Formation o f Self-Estee m
Acceptance
Coopersmith (1967) found t h a t p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and behav iors
t h a t demonstrated acc e pt an c e were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o the. formation
o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m , whereas p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and be hav io rs t h a t
demonstrated r e j e c t i o n were n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e for mati on of low
self-esteem .
Mothers o f c h i l d r e n with high and medium s e l f - e s t e e m demonstrated
a c c e pt an c e by m a n i f e s t i n g g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t , concern, and a v a i l a b i l i t y
and e xp re ss ed t h e importance o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g in congenial j o i n t
activities.
Coopersmit h (1967) sug ges te d t h a t c h i l d r e n i n t e r p r e t t h i s
i n t e r e s t and concern as an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
c h i l d r e n come t o re g a rd themselves f a v o r a b l y .
In view o f h i s
Thus, t h e
13
t h e o r e t i c a l framework, Coopersmith i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s sense of
s i g n i f i c a n c e as a form o f s u c c e s s .
Pe rm is si ve nes s and Control
Permissiveness.
Pa re n ta l a t t i t u d e s and beh avi or s t h a t
demonstrated s t r i c t n e s s in t r a i n i n g , s e t t i n g high s t a n d a r d s o f conduct,
and c o n s i s t e n t enforcement o f r u l e s were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o the
for matio n o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
General p a r e n t a l
p e r m is s i v e n e s s was n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m
(Coopersmith, 1967).
Coopersmith (1967) atte m pt ed t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s in fo r m a t io n in view
o f h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework by r e l a t i n g i t t o h i s co ncep ts of
s u c c e s s e s and d e f e n s e s .
He sug ges te d t h a t " f i r m e r management would
r e s u l t in more e f f e c t i v e i n n e r c o n t r o l s and g r e a t e r co nfid e nce in a
p e r s o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f a s i t u a t i o n " (p. 187).
He sub mit te d t h a t when
p a r e n t s e s t a b l i s h r u l e s and e n fo rc e them, the y a re p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r
c h i l d with a d e f i n i t i o n o f r e a l i t y and a f ir m s e t o f b e l i e f s r e ga rd in g
t h e o r d e r o f t h e wo rld .
P a r e n ts a r e communicating t h a t t h e r e are
p r e f e r r e d methods o f e x p r e s s i n g r e s p e c t and a p p r e c i a t i o n , p r e f e r r e d
r e s o l u t i o n s f o r d e a l i n g with a g g r e s s i o n , and p r e f e r r e d answers f o r t h e
meaning, s o u r c e , and r e s o l u t i o n o f f a i l u r e .
He sug ges te d t h a t th e s e
p r e f e r r e d forms o f b e h a v io r a l l s er v e t o dimin is h doubt and a n x ie t y in
c h i l d r e n and help t h e s e c h i l d r e n i n t e r p r e t t h e world so as t o maximize
t h e i r s u c c e s s e s and minimize t h e i r a n x i e t i e s .
When t h e s e p r e f e r r e d
methods o f b e h a v io r a r e i n t e r n a l i z e d and a p p l i e d t o pro b le m a ti c
s i t u a t i o n s , th e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o as c o n t r o l s and d e f e n s e s .
Coopersmith
14
a l s o su gge st ed t h e r e may be in c r e a s e d i n t e r a c t i o n between mothers and
c h i l d r e n when r u l e s a r e imposed as well as c o n s i s t e n t l y en fo rc ed .
In c re a s e d i n t e r a c t i o n , o r sense o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , may be i n t e r p r e t e d by
c h i l d r e n as a n o t h e r form o f s u c c e s s .
Control.
Coopersmith (1967) found t h a t maternal a t t i t u d e s and
be h a v io r t h a t demonstrated (a) c a r e f u l enforcement of s t a n d a r d s and
rules,
(b) t h e use o f reward as t h e p r e f e r r e d method o f c o n t r o l l i n g
be h a v io r , (c) t h e use o f management te c h n i q u e s o t h e r than harsh
ph y s ic a l t r e a t m e n t o r t h e l o s s o f love when r u l e s were v i o l a t e d , and
(d) t h e importance o f f a t h e r s s h a r i n g t h e d i s c i p l i n e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
with mothers, were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e formation o f high s e l f ­
esteem in c h i l d r e n .
Lack o f r u l e enforcement and harsh methods of
ph y s ic a l punishment o r withdrawal o f love were a s s o c i a t e d with low
self-esteem .
In view o f h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework, Coopersmith (1967)
i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s e f i n d i n g s in t h e f o ll o w i n g manner.
The c h i l d
i n t e r p r e t s p a r e n t a l l i m i t s and demands as e x p r e s s i o n s o f concern
(significance).
The e x t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e formation
o f t h e c h i l d ' s i n n e r c o n t r o l s (power over s e l f ) .
Mild punishment was
i n t e r p r e t e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f o t h e r a t t e n t i v e and r e s p e c t f u l tr e a t m e n t
and did no t assume any p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e .
However,
l a c k o f r u l e enforcement and harsh methods o f c o n tr o l were i n t e r p r e t e d
by t h e c h i l d as i n d i c a t i n g a l a c k o f p a r e n t a l i n t e r e s t , concern, and
r e s p e c t , a l l o f which r e s u l t in lowered s e l f - e s t e e m .
15
Democratic P r a c t i c e s
P a re n ta l a t t i t u d e s and p r a c t i c e s t h a t demonstrated t h e following
democratic c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s were found to be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d
t o t h e for mati on o f high s e l f - e s t e e m :
(a) e x t e n s i v e and c l o s e l y
d e fi n e d l i s t s o f r u l e s t h a t a r e s t r i c t l y e n fo rc e d , (b) r e s p e c t f u l
p a r e n t a l t r e a t m e n t w i t h i n t h e s e e s t a b l i s h e d l i m i t s t h a t rec ogniz e s t h e
r i g h t s and t h e o p in io n s o f t h e c h i l d and i s nonco erciv e, and
(c) p a r e n t a l t r e a t m e n t t h a t allows a c e r t a i n degree o f l a t i t u d e w it h in
t h e e s t a b l i s h e d l i m i t s and pe rm it s t h e c h i l d t o e n t e r d i s c u s s i o n s as a
significant participant.
Conversely, few and poorly d e f i n e d l i m i t s ,
harsh a u t o c r a t i c methods o f c o n t r o l , and l a c k o f r e s p e c t were
a s s o c i a t e d with t h e for mation o f low s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n
(Coopersmith, 1967).
Coopersmith (1967) i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s in fo rm at io n in view o f his
t h e o r e t i c a l framework as f o l l o w s .
When p a r e n t s e s t a b l i s h t h e i r
a u t h o r i t y and t r e a t c h i l d r e n r e s p e c t f u l l y w it h in a c l e a r l y de fin ed
environment, c h i l d r e n a r e b e t t e r a b l e t o form i n n e r c o n t r o l s and to
develop s t a n d a r d s t h a t help them judge t h e i r competence and p r o g r e s s .
However, when p a r e n t s f a i l t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r a u t h o r i t y , t r e a t c h i l d r e n
d i s r e s p e c t f u l l y , and do no t c l e a r l y d e f i n e t h e i r environment, then
c h i l d r e n a r e l i k e l y t o f e e l u n c e r t a i n about t h e i r s u c c e s s e s and
competencies and f e e l i n s i g n i f i c a n t and pow erless .
T r a in i n g f o r Independence
P a re n ta l a t t i t u d e s and be ha vio rs t h a t i n d i c a t e t h e c h i l d does not
have r i g h t s t o ph y s ic a l o r p s yc holo gic a l p r iv a c y a r e n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d
16
t o t h e for mati on o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
These a t t i t u d e s and
b e h a v io r s r e p r e s e n t an in va si on o f t h e c h i l d ' s p r iv a c y and imply
p a r e n t a l r e f u s a l t o re c o g n iz e t h e c h i l d ' s d i s t i n c t n e s s as a person.
Being r e a r e d under such c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t s in dependency on o t h e r s ,
e s p e c i a l l y dependency on o t h e r s f o r s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n (Coopersmith,
1967).
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - e s t e e m and dependency cannot be
e a s i l y pl ace d w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e f o u r major t h e o r e t i c a l
concepts.
The c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - e s t e e m and
dependency s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e a s s o c i a t e d with t r a i n i n g f o r
dependency i s " c e r t a i n t y o f esteem" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 231).
Coopersmith d e fi n e d " c e r t a i n t y o f esteem" as meaning t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
conviction th a t t h e i r s e lf-a p p ra isa l is a r e lia b le estimate o f , t h e i r
w o r t h i n e s s , adequacy, and s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Coopersmith hypoth esi zed t h a t
dependent i n d i v i d u a l s a r e uns ure , not n e c e s s a r i l y demeaning o f t h e i r
wo rth.
These dependent i n d i v i d u a l s a r e o f t e n nagged by doubts o f t h e i r
t r u e worth in t h e b r o a d e r , l e s s e x p l o r e d , and p r o t e c t e d a r e a s of
achievement and s o c i a l performance.
Coopersmith a t t r i b u t e d t h i s to
being r e a r e d in an environment conducive t o dependency, which provides
no b a s i s f o r t e s t i n g perso nal adequacy and le av e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l
u n c e r t a i n o f h i s wo rth.
Coopersmith sug ges te d t h a t p a r e n t s who
r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s freedom and l i m i t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s
e x p l o r a t i o n s p r e ve nt ed them from d e te r m in in g t h e i r own sens e of
perso nal adequacy.
I n s t e a d , t h e s e c h i l d r e n developed an extreme
r e l i a n c e upon o t h e r p e r s o n s ' d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e i r s e l f - w o r t h , and
u s u a l l y la cked s f a b l e e x t e r n a l frames o f r e f e r e n c e .
17
Coopersmith (1967) a l s o ex p la i n ed t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
independence t r a i n i n g and s e l f - e s t e e m .
He hypothe sized t h a t t r a i n i n g
c h i l d r e n t o be independent r e s u l t s in a more c e r t a i n judgment of t h e i r
self-w orth.
Both high and low s e l f - e s t e e m i n d i v i d u a l s have been given
l a t i t u d e t o e x p l o r e , t o move o u t s i d e t h e family c i r c l e , t o develop
p r i v a t e worlds o f t h e i r own, and t o f r e e themselves from r e l i a n c e on
others.
I n d i v i d u a l s with high s e l f - e s t e e m had e xpe r ie n c e s o f success
and a c c e p t a n c e .
However, i n d i v i d u a l s with low s e l f - e s t e e m appear to
have had minimal s u c c e s s e s and s u p p o r t .
S u b j e c t i v e and Behavioral M a n i f e s t a t i o n s
o f Self -E st eem in Children
The f o ll o w i n g s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s t h e s u b j e c t i v e and be havioral
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and how t h e y r e l a t e back t o Coopersmit h ' s
conceptual framework.
Coopersmith (1967) sug ges te d t h a t s e l f - a t t i t u d e s may be conscious
o r un co nsc iou s.
These a t t i t u d e s c a r r y p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e a f f e c t i v e
c o n n o t a t i o n s and a r e i n t e r t w i n e d with i n t e l l e c t u a l and m o ti v a ti o n a l
processes.
I n d i v i d u a l s need not be aware o f t h e i r a t t i t u d e s towards
the m s el ve s , but t h e y w i l l n o n e t h e l e s s be expressed, in t h e i r v o ic es ,
p o s t u r e s , g e s t u r e s , and performances.
Based on h i s r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s , Coopersmit h (1967) o u t l i n e d th e
s u b j e c t i v e and b e hav io r al e x p r e s s i o n s common in high s e l f - e s t e e m
children.
In g e n e r a l , Coopersmith found t h a t c h i l d r e n with high s e l f ­
esteem d i s p l a y t h e f o ll o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
self-acceptance, s e lf -
r e s p e c t , s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , s e l f - t r u s t , courage t o e x p re ss independent
18
o p in io n s and c o n v i c t i o n s , c r e a t i v i t y , a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in groups
and new e x p e r i e n c e s , have l e s s a n x i e t y and s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s , and have
l e s s d i f f i c u l t y forming f r i e n d s h i p s .
L a t e r , Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s
(1982) developed t h e Behavioral Academic Self -E st eem (BASE) r a t i n g
s c a l e t o measure global s e l f - e s t e e m based on s p e c i f i c be hav ior al
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e s e d e s ig n a te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Coopersmith (1967) i n t e r p r e t e d how t h e s u b j e c t i v e and behav ioral
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s common t o c h i l d r e n with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m f i t
i n t o h i s conceptual framework in s e v e ra l ways.
F i r s t , he suggested
t h a t p o s i t i v e s e l f - a t t i t u d e s la y t h e fo und a tio n f o r a s t a b l e a n x i e t y f r e e performance by g e n e r a t i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t o n e ' s e f f o r t s w i l l
be followed by s u c c e s s , and t h a t o n e ' s judgment i s worthy o f s e l f ­
trust.
Th i s, in t u r n , i n c r e a s e s t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f e x p l o r a t o r y and
independent b e h a v i o r .
He concluded t h a t i t i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f ­
t r u s t t h a t pro v id e s an e f f e c t i v e de fe nse a g a i n s t t h e i n s i d i o u s ne g a ti v e
a p p r a i s a l s o f o t h e r s , and t h e r e b y immunizes t h e i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t
r a p i d and f r e q u e n t a l t e r a t i o n s in s e l f - e s t e e m .
Secondly, in r e l a t i o n
t o v a l u e s , Coopersmit h sug ges te d t h a t perso ns with high s e l f - e s t e e m
a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t t h e i r pe rsonal judgment as g u id e s, and a r e not as
concerned about t h e v a lu es d e c la r e d by o t h e r s w it h in t h e i r s o c i a l frame
of reference.
F i n a l l y , in r e l a t i o n t o a s p i r a t i o n s , Coopersmith
su gge st ed t h a t perso ns with high s e l f - e s t e e m have a g r e a t e r r a t i o of
s u c c e s s e s t o f a i l u r e s , and t h a t t h e s e s u c c e s s e s le a d t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n
o f more s u c c e s s e s , t h e r e b y f u r t h e r i n c r e a s i n g t h e high s e l f - e s t e e m
i n d i v i d u a l ' s chances o f su cc e ss and t h e sens e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
a s s o c i a t e d w ith s u c c e s s .
19
Nominal D e f i n i t i o n s
The v a r i o u s terms u t i l i z e d in t h i s stu dy a r e d e f i n e d in the
fo ll o w i n g manner:
(1)
Self-esteem :
"The e v a l u a t i o n which i n d i v i d u a l s make and
c u s t o m a r i l y m a in ta in with re g a rd t o t h e s e l f .
I t e x p r e s s e s an
a t t i t u d e o f approval o r d i s a p p r o v a l , and i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o
which i n d i v i d u a l s b e l i e v e themselves t o be c a p a b le , s i g n i f i c a n t ,
s u c c e s s f u l , and worthy.
I t i s a pe rsonal judgment o f w orth ine ss
t h a t i s ex pr e sse d in t h e a t t i t u d e s i n d i v i d u a l s hold toward
themselves" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 4 ) .
(2)
Self-concept:
The p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r domains
t h a t r e l a t e t o t h e s e l f (Hughes, 1984).
"Self-concept re fe rs to
t h e more globa l p e r c e p t i o n s an i n d i v i d u a l has about t h e s e l f "
(Bl anton, 1985, p. 5 ) .
(3)
Acce pta nce :
"The u n c on dit io na l love and approval o f t h e ch il d "
(Coopersmith, 1967, p. 166).
(4)
Permissiveness:
" C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y t h e demands and t h e firmness
o f management pro c e du res employed by p a r e n t s in r e g u l a t i n g and
s a t i s f y i n g t h e re qui re m e nts o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
I t r e f e r s t o how
t h e c h i l d ' s world i s s t r u c t u r e d with r u l e s and demands"
(Coopersmith, 1967, p. 183).
(5)
S trictness:
"A c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , s t r u c t u r e d , and e nfo rc ed s e t of
demands" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 184).
20
(6)
Positive techniques:
"Those t e c h n i q u e s used t o r e g u l a t e
b e h a v io r , which i n c lu d e rewards, p r a i s e , and su p p o rt o f the
desired a c tiv ity "
(7)
(Coopersmith, 1967, p. 190).
Negative t e c h n i q u e s :
"Those te c h n i q u e s used t o r e g u l a t e
b e h a v io r , which i n c lu d e p hys ic a l punishment, i s o l a t i o n , and
withdrawal o f love" (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 190).
(8)
Democratic c h i l d r e a r i n g p o l i c i e s :
"Clearly e sta b lish e d p o lic ie s
t h a t permi t t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e l a t i t u d e in i n d i v i d u a l
b e h a v io r , w i t h i n which d i s c u s s i o n , dis agr eem en t, and d e v i a t i o n
a r e p e r m i t t e d w it h o u t punishment o r c o e r c i o n .
P o l i c i e s must be
j u s t i f i e d , and members must be given voic e and c hoice on i s s u e s
t h a t a f f e c t t h e i r w e l f a r e and p r i v i l e g e s .
Freedom w i t h i n th e
e s t a b l i s h e d l i m i t s and t h e r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e in ongoing
d ia lo g u e w i t h i n t h o s e l i m i t s and w it h o u t p e n a l t y i s t h e benchmark
o f t h e de mocratic family" (Coopersmith, 1967, pp. 202-203).
(9)
Independence:
"Freedom from i n f l u e n c e o r c o n t r o l o f o t h e r s f o r
judgments o f esteem.
This d e f i n i t i o n im plie s ps ycho log ic al
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n from o t h e r s , n o t l a c k o f awareness, concern, o r
i n t e r e s t in o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s " (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 217).
(10)
Preschool c h i l d r e n :
Child ren between t h e ages o f t h r e e and f i v e .
(11)
Behavior Academic S e l f - E s t e e m :
Defined as a globa l measure of
s e l f - e s t e e m t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d by t h o s e s u b j e c t i v e and behavioral
t r a i t s i d e n t i f i e d by Coopersmith (1967, 1982) as being d is p la y e d
by c h i l d r e n with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m .
B f o r a l i s t i n g of these t r a i t s . )
(Refer t o Appendix
21
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A l i t e r a t u r e review was conducted t o provid e i n s i g h t i n t o t h r e e
basic questions:
(1)
Is p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m im p o r ta n t t o t h e e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g of
the individual?
(2)
Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e and t h e for mati on o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m ?
(3)
Is t h e r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r e n t a l c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s
and b e h a v io r s and t h e for mation o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in
c h i l d r e n , and, in p a r t i c u l a r , preschool c h i l d r e n between t h r e e and
f i v e y e a r s o f age?
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between P o s i t i v e Self -E st eem
and E f f e c t i v e Functioning
A number o f t h e o r i s t s and c l i n i c i a n s have long r e ga rd ed th e
achievement o f a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e toward o n e s e l f as being
s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o pe rsonal s a t i s f a c t i o n and e f f e c t i v e
f u n c t i o n i n g (Adler, 1927; Coopersmit h , 1967; Er ik so n , 1963; Hartmann,
1958; Maslow, 1954; Rogers, 1954; S u l l i v a n , 1953).
The a t t i t u d e perso ns hold toward themselves i s c a l l e d s e l f - e s t e e m
(Coopersmith, 1967).
This a t t i t u d e i s a personal judgment o f
w o r t h i n e s s and i n d i c a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o which i n d i v i d u a l s b e l i e v e
22
the mselves t o be c a p a b le , s i g n i f i c a n t , and worthy.
Coopersmith assumed
t h a t s e l f a t t i t u d e s c a r r y a f f e c t i v e lo a d in g s and have m o ti v a ti o n a l
consequences in r e l a t i o n t o achievement.
Coopersmith a l s o found t h a t
pe rsons with high s e l f - e s t e e m appea r t o be p e r s o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e ,
p o i s e d , and competent.
These i n d i v i d u a l s a r e capab le o f c r e a t i v e
a c t i o n , e x p e r ie n c e l e s s a n x i e t y and demo nstrate a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to
deal with a n x i e t y , and a r e more a b l e t o move d i r e c t l y and r e a l i s t i c a l l y
toward pe rsonal g o a l s .
High s e l f - e s t e e m has a l s o been p o s i t i v e l y
c o r r e l a t e d with academic achievement (McCandles, 1967; Ozehasky, 1967;
Purkey, 1970).
In a d d i t i o n , c h i l d r e n with p o s i t i v e s e l f - i m a g e s show
more d i r e c t i o n , have a c l e a r e r i d e a o f t h e i r goals and how t o achieve
them, and can more e a s i l y modify methods o f a ch ie vin g t h e i r goals i f
s u cc e ss i s no t i n i t i a l l y achieved (Hawkes, 1968).
Perhaps Brandon (1969) b e s t summarized t h e importance o f p o s i t i v e
self-esteem to the e f f e c t iv e functioning of the in d iv id u al:
There i s no va lu e judgment more im port ant t o man, no
f a c t o r more d e c i s i v e t o h i s p s y ch olo gic a l development
and m o t i v a t i o n , th a n t h e e s t i m a t e he pass es on
h i m s e l f . The n a t u r e o f t h i s s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n has a
profound e f f e c t on man's t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s e s , d e s i r e s ,
v a lu e s and g o a l s . I t i s t h e s i n g l e most s i g n i f i c a n t
key t o h i s b e h a v i o r , (p. 104)
Conversely, t h e consequences o f Tow s e l f - e s t e e m a r e l e s s
desirable.
Persons with low s e l f - e s t e e m a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o r e s i s t
p r e s s u r e s t o conform, whereas perso ns with high s e l f - e s t e e m maint ai n a
f a i r l y c o n s t a n t image o f t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s and d i s t i n c t n e s s as a
person (J a m 's , 1954).
Child ren and a d u l t s with poor s e l f - e s t e e m are
more an x io u s, l e s s well a d j u s t e d , l e s s po p u la r, l e s s e f f e c t i v e in
groups, l e s s hone st with th em sel ve s, l e s s c u r io u s and more d e fe nsi ve
23
(McCandles, 1967).
F e e li n g s o f h e l p l e s s n e s s and powe rlessness to
improve t h e i r s i t u a t i o n ; i n a b i l i t y t o giv e and r e c e i v e love ; low
r e s i s t a n c e t o p r e s s u r e s t o conform; emotional s t a t e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
s e l f - d o u b t ; and ambivalences in moving toward personal go a ls a re a l l
a d d i t i o n a l consequences o f low s e l f - e s t e e m (Wylie, 1961, 1974).
Wylie
a l s o found t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f persons who seek ps ych olo gic a l help
acknowledge the y s u f f e r from f e e l i n g s o f inadequacy and unw orth ine ss.
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between t h e Early Years o f Li fe
and t h e Formation o f P o s i t i v e Se lf-Esteem
Many c h i l d development s p e c i a l i s t s agree t h a t t h e e a r l y childhood
y e a r s a r e a v i t a l l y im p o r ta n t p e r io d f o r t h e formation o f t h e c h i l d ' s
s e l f - c o n c e p t and t h e e v a l u a t i v e a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t , which i s s e l f ­
esteem (Bloom, 1964; McCandles, 1967; McNelly, 1972; Wylie, 1961;
Yamamoto, 1972).
In f a c t , Kohut (1972) has p o s t u l a t e d t h a t a s e n s i t i v e
p e r i o d e x i s t s f o r t h e development o f h e a l t h y s e l f - e s t e e m r e g u l a t i o n .
He s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r c ir c u m st an c es which surround the
e a r l y for mati on o f t h e s e l f may i n f l u e n c e h e a l t h y o r p a t h o l o g i c a l s e l f ­
esteem r e g u l a t i o n in l a t e r y e a r s .
He s t a t e d t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e
s e l f - e s t e e m r e g u l a t i o n system i s s e t down e a r l y during t h e i n i t i a l
p e r i o d o f i n t r a p s y c h i c development.
Ad di tio na l s u p p o rt f o r t h e importance o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s , more
s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e f i r s t f i v e t o seven y e a r s in a c h i l d ' s l i f e , t o th e
for matio n o f s e l f - e s t e e m has been found by s ev e ra l r e s e a r c h e r s .
Schwartz (1966) concluded t h a t i n d i v i d u a l b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y a t t r i b u t e s
and s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e e s t a b l i s h e d by age f i v e .
She a l s o sug ges te d t h a t
24
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n , with both p a r e n t and c h i l d
as c o n t r i b u t i n g p a r t n e r s , i s t h e key t o t h e development o f th e c h i l d ' s
self-concept.
B u t l e r (1969) hyp oth esi zed t h a t by t h r e e y e a r s of age
c h i l d r e n a r e beginning t o view themselves as s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t from
others.
He f e l t t h a t acc e pt an c e o f t h e c h i l d a t t h i s c r u c i a l s ta g e o f
development was v i t a l t o t h e development o f a p o s i t i v e image o f s e l f worth, and was t h e core p r e c i p i t a t o r o f f u t u r e b e h a v io r .
Burns e t a l .
(1987) concluded t h a t t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t appears to
oc cu r in t h e e a r l y school y e a r s between k i n d e r g a r t e n and second grade.
Monte (1987), a d d r e s s i n g t h e o r d e r i n g o f ev en ts in s e l f - c o n c e p t / s e l f ­
esteem development, sug ges te d t h a t between t h e ages o f f o u r and s i x ,
c h i l d r e n c o n s o l i d a t e and r e f i n e t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f b o d i l y s e l f and
self-identity.
Monte a l s o su ggested i t was during t h i s time t h a t
c h i l d r e n begin t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s e l f - v a l u a t i o n a n d / o r s e l f - e s t e e m .
T h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o rt a t t e s t i n g t o t h e importance o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s
as being h ig h l y i n f l u e n t i a l in t h e for mati on o f s e l f - e s t e e m has been
found by B la z e r (1981) in t h e w r i t i n g s o f Adler (1927), Erickson
(1950), and Rogers (1959).
B la ze r (1981) c i t e d t h e s e a u t h o r s as being
in agreement with t h e premise t h a t p a r e n t - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n s during
i n fa n c y and e a r l y childhoo d a r e o f c r u c i a l importance t o t h e c h i l d ' s
de veloping view o f s e l f ,
Coopersmith (1967) a l s o concluded t h a t
sometime p r e c ed in g middle c hild hoo d, i n d i v i d u a l s a r r i v e a t a p p r a i s a l s
o f t h e i r s e l f - w o r t h and t h i s a p p r a i s a l remains f a i r l y s t a b l e and
enduring o ve r s e v e r a l y e a r s .
The s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t from e a r l y childho od t o
adultho od has a l s o been s t u d i e d .
Samuels (1977) found moderate
s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t from e a r l y childhood t o young ad ulthood.
Gordon (1968) su ggested t h a t t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t for mulated duri ng the
e a r l y y e a r s in a c h i l d ' s l i f e i s not s t a t i c , but does have c o n s i d e r a b l e
r e s i s t a n c e t o change.
Rubin (1978), usin g a sample of 380 c h i l d r e n 9
through 15 y e a r s o f age, found t h a t s e l f - e s t e e m measures became more
s t a b l e as t h e c h i l d r e n grew o l d e r .
He concluded t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f ­
p e r c e p t i o n s appea r l e s s f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d and may be more r e s po nsi ve
t o i n t e r v e n t i o n a t e a r l i e r ages in development.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n c e p t , s e l f - e s t e e m and academic
r e a d i n e s s and achievement has a l s o r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s tu d y .
A
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m and academic
achievement was found by McCandles (1967), Ozehasky (1967), and Purkey
(1970).
A p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n c e p t measures and
measures o f k i n d e r g a r t e n r e a d i n e s s was a l s o found by M i l l s (1984).
Based on h i s f i n d i n g s , he concluded t h a t :
(a) t h e t a s k o f developing
p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s duri ng t h e e a r l i e r fo rm ati ve y e a r s should not be
l e f t t o chance and i n c i d e n t a l t e a c h i n g , (b) s e l f - c o n c e p t s a r e formed
du rin g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f c h i l d r e n ' s l i v e s and a r e determined t o a
Targe e x t e n t by t h e i r p a r e n t s , (c) p a r e n t s should be made aware of
t h e i r im p o r ta n t r o l e in t h e development o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f
c o n c e p t s , (d) programs f o r young c h i l d r e n should in c lu d e t h e
development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s as a major g o a l , and (e) t h e r e
should be a harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p between home and school in o r d e r t o
pr ovi de c o n s i s t e n t r e in f o r c e m e n t o f t h e methods and proc ed ures which
help young c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s .
Gordon (1968)
26
sug ges te d t h a t what c h i l d r e n l e a r n about themselves and t h e i r world
p r i o r t o f i r s t grade w i l l l a r g e l y deter mine t h e i r s u cc e ss in s cho ol.
Thus, i t appea rs t h a t (a) t h e fo u n d a ti o n s f o r t h e development of
s e l f - e s t e e m a r e being l a i d duri ng t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f a c h i l d ' s l i f e ,
(b) t h e e x p e r ie n c e s t h a t oc cur d uri ng t h i s pe rio d may have a
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e for mation o f s e l f - e s t e e m , (c) e f f o r t s to
f a c i l i t a t e t h e development of p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m may have a g r e a t e r
impact d ur in g t h e e a r l i e r y e a r s in a c h i l d ' s l i f e , and (d) e f f o r t s t o
f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m should not be l e f t
t o chance and i n c i d e n t a l t e a c h i n g .
The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between P a re nta l A t t i t u d e s
Toward C h i l d r e a r i n g and t h e Formation o f
P o s i t i v e S e lf- Es te e m in Children
Many e x p e r t s agree t h a t p a r e n t s p la y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in th e
for matio n o f a c h i l d ' s s e l f - e s t e e m ( C la r k e - S te w a r t, 1977; Samuels,
1977).
Some c h i l d development a u t h o r i t i e s have g e n e r a l l y acce pted t h e
premise t h a t p a r e n t s e x e r t t h e o r i g i n a l and perhaps most s i g n i f i c a n t
i n f l u e n c e on t h e c h i l d ' s p r e s e n t and f u t u r e emotional h e a l t h (Champion,
1973).
Gordon (1968) concluded t h a t t h e family i s t h e primary
i n f l u e n c e f o r m a in ta in in g o r changing c h i l d r e n ' s beh av io r s and
a t t i t u d e s toward themselves and t h e i r environment.
He f e l t t h e family
a f f e c t s c h i l d r e n ' s f e e l i n g s o f pe rs ona l adequacy and p r o v id e s t h e f i r s t
models f o r b e h a v i o r .
Hansen and Maynard (1973) hy poth e si ze d t h a t
p a r e n t s a r e t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s in t h e c h i l d ' s environment and,
because o f t h i s , t h e c h i l d sees t h e p a r e n t s as being c a p a b le of
promoting o r d im in is h in g s e l f - w o r t h .
C la rk e - S te w a r t (1977) conducted a
27
thorough review o f l o n g i t u d i n a l and c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l r e s e a r c h on the
i n f l u e n c e o f t h e fa m ily on c h i l d r e n ' s development from b i r t h through
ni ne y e a r s o f age.
She concluded t h a t p a r e n t s a re v i t a l in la yi ng th e
fo un d a ti o n f o r c h i l d r e n ' s f e e l i n g s o f competence and s e l f - w o r t h .
S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s were drawn by Purkey (1970) and Thomas (1973) in
t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y p a r e n t a l and home f a c t o r s which enhanced
c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t and p o s i t i v e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r school
achievement.
P i e r s and H a r r i s (1964) su ggested t h a t p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s
may be t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e in t h e development o f th e c h i l d ' s
self-concept.
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s ,
p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju s t m e n t, s e l f - c o n c e p t and s e l f - e s t e e m o f c h i l d r e n has
been s t u d i e d by s e v e ra l r e s e a r c h e r s .
Quadri and Kaleem (1973) found
t h a t t h o s e p a r e n t s who s cor ed h i g h e r on measures o f a c c e pta nc e had
c h i l d r e n who e x h i b i t e d b e t t e r a d ju st m en t and g r e a t e r s e l f - e s t e e m in
comparison t o r e j e c t i n g and o v e r p r o t e c t i v e p a r e n t s .
Sew el l, Mussen and
H a r r i s (1955) and Zemlich and Watson (1953) a l l found p o s i t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p a r e n t a l a cc e pt an c e and s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
A t l a s (1972) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g
p r a c t i c e s and s e l f - c o n c e p t in 96 s i x t h grade c h i l d r e n .
He u t i l i z e d
both a q u e s t i o n n a i r e and i n t e r v i e w format t o determine maternal and
p a t e r n a l c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s and a q u e s t i o n n a i r e format t o determine
s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s in t h e c h i l d r e n .
Based on t h e a n a l y s i s o f h i s
d a t a . A t l a s found t h a t high s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s in t h e s i x t h grade
p o p u la ti o n were p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e fo ll ow in g p a r e n t a l
childrearing practices:
(a) p a r e n t a l warmth; (b) c l e a r l y de fi n e d
28
l i m i t s o f a c c e p t a b l e and u na cc e pta ble b e hav io r; (c) a p o s i t i v e approach
t o d i s c i p l i n e , which u t i l i z e d p r a i s e and reward; and (d) c o n s i s t e n c y in
t h e i r be h av io r s and c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s .
Schwartz (1966) compared
mot he rs ' a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d r e a r i n g , usi ng th e In te r v ie w Schedule
de vis ed by S e a r s , Maccoby and Levin (1957) and he r own s e l f - c o n c e p t
measure, t h e Behavioral Rating S c a l e .
S u b je c ts in cl uded 40 preschool
and k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n and t h e i r moth ers.
She found t h e follo wing
maternal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s had p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s with high s e l f ­
esteem in preschool aged c h i l d r e n :
individual,
(a) p e r c e i v i n g t h e c h i l d as an
(b) high s e l f - e s t e e m , (c) a cce pta nc e toward t h e c h i l d ,
(d) a f f e c t i o n and warmth, (e) s a t i s f a c t i o n with her c u r r e n t r o l e ,
(f ) an a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e n s i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e c h i l d , and (g) an
ad equate fami ly emotional c l i m a t e .
Schwartz concluded t h a t t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n was t h e key t o s e l f - c o n c e p t and the
development o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
Wylie (1961), fo ll o w i n g a
thorough review o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t l i t e r a t u r e , i d e n t i f i e d sev e ra l
p a r e n t a l b e h a v io r s t h a t were r e l a t e d t o t h e for mation o f a p o s i t i v e
s e l f - c o n c e p t in c h i l d r e n .
Parents:
(a) provided r e in f o r c e m e n t of
a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o r s , (b) provided s t a n d a r d s o f conduct, (c) provided
r e a l i s t i c views o f t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s , and
(d) pro vided feedback r e g a r d i n g b e h a v i o r s .
Olowu (1983) a l s o found a
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between p a r e n t i n g a t t i t u d e s and c h i l d r e a r i n g
p r a c t i c e s and s e l f - c o n c e p t in a d o l e s c e n t s .
Olowu (1983) had over 686
a d o l e s c e n t s complete a t o o l designed t o r a t e t h e i r p a r e n t s '
c h i l d r e a r i n g t e c h n i q u e s and a t t i t u d e towards them.
In a d d i t i o n , he had
t h e a d o l e s c e n t s complete a c u l t u r e - f a i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s c a l e .
Olowu
29
found t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t r a t i n g s c o r r e l a t e d a t th e .001 le v el with
c h i l d r e a r i n g te c h n i q u e r a t i n g s .
Olowu concluded t h a t c h i l d r e a r i n g
p r a c t i c e s a r e very h ig h ly r e l a t e d and c r u c i a l t o t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f c o nce pt .
He f e l t t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t i s le a r n e d and most of
what i s I e a r n e d 1comes from t h e p a r e n t s .
Because a c h i l d has such a
p h y s i c a l , e m otio na l, and s o c i a l dependence on t h e p a r e n t s , t h e p a r e n t s
a r e extremely i n f l u e n t i a l in t h e c h i l d ' s l e a r n i n g about s e l f .
Following an e x t e n s i v e review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on s e l f - e s t e e m .
B la z e r (1981) and Blanton (1985) found Coo per smi th's (1967) study
r e g a r d i n g t h e a n t e c e d e n t s o f s e l f - e s t e e m t o be one o f t h e most
definitive.
Coopersmith atte m pt ed t o a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t e d
p a r e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s p e c i f i c p a r e n t a l c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s
and b e h a v io r s on t h e for matio n o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
He
atte m pt ed t o deter mine t h e a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e for mati on o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
His f i n d i n g s were based on a s e r i e s o f assess me nts and i n t e r v i e w s o f 85
w h it e , m i d d l e - c l a s s , 10 t o 12 y e a r old boys and t h e i r moth ers.
He
u t i l i z e d t h e f o ll o w i n g t o o l s t o o b t a i n in f or m at io n on m o t h e r - c h i l d
i n t e r a c t i o n s and p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s :
(a) Pa re nt A t t i t u d e Research
In st rum en t ( S c h a e fe r & B e l l , 1957), (b) Mo the r' s Q u e s ti o n n a ir e
(Coopersmith, 1967), (c) S el f- Es tee m In ve nto ry (Coopersmith, 1967),
(d) Behavior Rating Form (Coopersmith, 1967), and (e) S u b j e c t ' s
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Coopersmith, 1967).
Table I summarizes Coopersmith's
f i n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g s p e c i f i c p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r s and o t h e r
a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t he found t o be a s s o c i a t e d with t h e formation
o f hi g h , medium, and low s e l f - e s t e e m in p r e a d o l e s c e n t boys.
Even
30
though t h e r e were c e r t a i n a n t e c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t were i d e n t i f i e d as
being s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e formation o f high s e l f - e s t e e m ,
Coopersmith (1967) was quick t o p o i n t out t h a t " t h e r e a r e v i r t u a l l y no
p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r o r a t t i t u d e s t h a t a r e common t o a l l c h i l d r e n with
high s e l f - e s t e e m " (p. 237).
Coopersmith suggested t h a t perhaps a
combination o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s l i s t e d a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e development
o f high s e l f - e s t e e m .
In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e two p o s s i b l e combinations t h a t
should r e s u l t in t h e h i g h e s t and most s t a b l e l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m a r e :
(a) a high s e l f - e s t e e m model, and (b) r e s p e c t f u l and a c c e p t i n g p a t t e r n
of tre a tm e n t.
C orr o b o r at io n f o r Coopersmith1s (1967) f i n d i n g s , re g a r d in g the
val ue o f p a r e n t a l warmth and a c c e p ta n c e , e s p e c i a l l y d urin g e a r l y and
middle ch il d h o o d , was found by Sea rs (1970).
Sears found both p a r e n t a l
warmth and acc e pt an c e t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e formation
o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m f o r both boys and g i r l s .
Other f a c t o r s t h a t
Sea rs i d e n t i f i e d as being s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with high s e l f ­
esteem f o r both sexes i n c l u d e :
(a) small family s i z e ,
(b) e a r l y
o r d i n a l p o s i t i o n in t h e f a m il y , and (c) high rea din g and math
achievement.
For boys only , high s e l f - c o n c e p t was a s s o c i a t e d with low
f a t h e r dominance in husband-wife r e l a t i o n s .
was a s s o c i a t e d w ith poor s e l f - c o n c e p t .
In both s e x e s , f e m i n i n i t y
Sea rs u t i l i z e d inf orm at io n
o b ta in e d from both p a r e n t s through i n t e r v i e w s , which were coded and
gave measures o f p a r e n t s ' c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s and p r a c t i c e s ,
o b ta in e d when t h e c h i l d r e n s t u d i e d were age f i v e (S ea rs , Maccoby &
Levin, 1957).
In 1970, Se a rs agai n s t u d i e d t h e s e same c h i l d r e n , now
Table I .
Summary o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and be hav ior s and o t h e r a n te c e d e n t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a re
s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with t h e formation o f high, medium, and low s e l f - e s t e e m in
p r e a d o l e s c e n t boys.
High S elf-E steem Group
Medium Self-E steem Group
Low Self-E steem Group
P arental Attitudes a n d Behaviors:
I) A ccep ta n ce
I) A ccep tan ce
I) Rejection
2) Strictness in training
2) P erm issiveness
3) High standards for conduct
3) Lack of stan d ard s for conduct
4) C onsistent enforcem ent of rules
4) Lack of and inconsistent
enforcem ent of rules
5) U se of reward vs. punishm ent a s
th e preferred m ethod of controlling behavior
5) More frequent u se of punishment
a s a m ethod of controlling
behavior
6) U se of m an agem en t tech niq ues
su ch a s isolation, denial, and
restraint vs. harsh physical
punishm ent or withdrawal of love
a s a m ea n s of enforcing rule
infractions
6) U se of harsh physical punishment
and withdrawal of love a s a
m ean s of enforcing rule
infractions
Table ! —Continued
High Self-E steem Group
Medium Self-E steem Group
7) Dem ocratic childrearing
p ractices which include:
a) C losely defined rules that
are strictly enforced
b) Parental resp ect and treat­
m ent that reco g n izes the
rights and opinions of th e
chad and is noncoercive
c) Allowing child a certain
d e g r e e of behavioral latitude
within th e established limits
8) Training to b e independent,
recognizing rights to physical
and psych ological privacy and
s e p a r a te n e ss a s a person
O th e rA n te c e d e n t Conditions:
1) Parents have high self-esteem
2) Parents had sta b le marital
relationships w /clear lines of
authority and responsibility
3) Fathers had a high d e g r e e of
involvement w/their s o n s
4) First and only child
5) Higher s c o r e s in m easu res of
aca d em ic achievem ent
Low Self-Esteem Group
7) Harsh autocratic childrearing
practices which include:
a) Poorly defined limits
b) Lack of respectful treatment,
lack of recognition for
rights and opinions of child
c) D o e s not allow child to b e
part of decision making
8) T endency to foster d ep en d en cy
by not recognizing rights to
physical and psychological
privacy and se p a ra ten ess a s a
person
8) Training for independence,
recognizing rights to physical
and psychological privacy and
se p a ra ten ess a s a person
33
age 12, and based h i s f i n d i n g s on t h e a n a ly s e s o f t h e s e d a t a .
He
sug ges te d t h a t t h e mechanism r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c h i l d ' s p o s i t i v e
e v a l u a t i v e a t t i t u d e s i s s o c i a l r e in f o r c e m e n t from loved ones who s erve
no t only as r e i n f o r c e r s , but as models.
Thus, c h i l d r e n adopt the same
a t t i t u d e s toward themselves t h a t th e y have had demonstrated t o them.
The work done by Kawash, Kerr, and. Clewes (1984) and Flynn (1979)
o f f e r s f u r t h e r su p p o rt t o Coopersmith1s (1967) f i n d i n g s .
(1984) s t u d i e d f i f t h and s i x t h grade boys and g i r l s .
Kawash e t a l .
They found t h a t
(a) boys who p e rc e iv e d t h e i r p a r e n t s as a c c e p t i n g had s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s , and (b) g i r l s who p e rc ei v e d t h e i r p a r e n t s as
g r a n t i n g p s ych ol og ic a l autonomy had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m
scores.
Flynn (1979) found t h a t mothers who advocate more co n tr o l had
sons with p o s i t i v e s e l f - c o n c e p t s .
F l y n n ' s sample c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e
and o n e - h a l f y e a r o l d s through f i v e y e a r old s and t h e i r mothers.
G r a y b i I T s (1978) f i n d i n g s lend s u p p o rt t o both Coopersmit h ' s
(1967) and S e a r s '
(1970) f i n d i n g s .
y e a r ol d boys and g i r l s .
He found:
G r a y b i l l ' s sample in c lu d e d 7-15
(a) t h e r e was a p o s i t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g be hav ior s and t h e c h i l d ' s
s e l f - e s t e e m ; (b) c h i l d r e n with high s e l f - e s t e e m viewed t h e i r mothers as
a c c e p t i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and l i k i n g them; and (c) c h i l d r e n whose
mothers used more d r a s t i c forms o f punishment, f o r example, withdrawal
o f love o r g u i l t , had lower s e l f - e s t e e m .
S t i l l o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s who have s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and be ha vi or s and t h e s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l o f c h i l d r e n
have i d e n t i f i e d some c o n f l i c t i n g and confounding r e s u l t s .
Elrod and
Crase (1980), in t h e i r s tu dy r e g a r d i n g t h e c o r r e l a t e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m
34
between f o u r and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n and p a r e n t a l b e h a v i o r s , found
that:
(a) boys had h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s than g i r l s ,
(b) mothers'
be h av io r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ' s e l f - e s t e e m
and not t o t h e i r s o n s' s e l f - e s t e e m , and (c) f a t h e r s ' be hav io rs were not
r e l a t e d t o e i t h e r t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ' o r t h e i r so ns' s e l f - e s t e e m .
They
a l s o found t h a t t h e beh av io r s o f t h e mother t h a t were r e l a t e d to high
s e l f - e s t e e m in dau g h te r s in c lu d e d :
(a) a c t i v e involvement with the
child,
(b) g iv in g immediate a s s i s t a n c e when needed, and (c) imposing
lim its.
These a u t h o r s concluded t h a t t h e sex o f t h e c h i l d must be
tak en i n t o account when looking a t s p e c i f i c maternal and p a t e r n a l
b e h a v io r s t h a t r e l a t e t o p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
Growe
(1980) found t h a t maternal c o n t r o l was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s e l f ­
esteem in f i f t h and s i x t h grade g i r l s and not boys.
Protective
b e h a v io r by both p a r e n t s was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s e l f - e s t e e m of boys
and not t o g i r l s .
G r e a t e r su ppo rt and m i l d e r punishment from mothers
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e s e l f - e s t e e m o f both s e x e s .
In g e n e r a l ,
Growe (1980) found fewer p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s between p a r e n t a l
be h av io r s and g i r l s ' s e l f - e s t e e m tha n f o r boys' s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s .
He
concluded t h a t e xce pt f o r s u p p o r t i v e p a r e n t a l be h a v io r , t h e r e appears
t o be a v a r i a b i l i t y among samples r e g a r d i n g t h e ty p e s o f p a r e n t a l
be h av io r s which engender p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
Blanton (1985), usi ng t h e Maryland P a re n t A t t i t u d e Survey (MPAS),
found only a few s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e v a r i a b l e s of
s e l f - e s t e e m and p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s in h i s f o u r through s i x y e a r old
preschool p o p u l a t i o n .
R e j e c t i n g p a r e n t i n g a t t i t u d e s were n e g a t i v e l y
c o r r e l a t e d with boys' s e l f - e s t e e m .
P r o t e c t i v e p a r e n t i n g a t t i t u d e s were
35
p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o boys' and g i r l s ' s e l f - e s t e e m , but were q u a l i f i e d
due t o t h e low r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e MPAS P r o t e c t i v e s u b s c a l e .
Engel
(1987) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s o f 8 t o 11 y e a r old c h i l d r e n ' s
s e l f - e s t e e m , p a r e n t a l c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s (warmth and c o n t r o l ) , and
the c h i l d r e n 's perception of parental support.
Both p a r e n t s and 30
c h i l d r e n , 14 boys arid 16 g i r l s , p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e s tu d y .
Some
i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s emerged r e g a r d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e f a m i l i e s
o f boys and g i r l s .
There were no d i f f e r e n c e s in p a r e n t a l warmth and
two a s p e c t s o f p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l ( a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and r a t i o n a l
guidance) between mothers and f a t h e r s o f e i t h e r sex.
The c h i l d r e a r i n g
p r a c t i c e s o f g i r l s ' mothers and g i r l s ' f a t h e r s were very s i m i l a r .
However, boys' mothers scor ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r in warmth than boys'
fathers.
Boys' mothers a l s o scor ed h i g h e r than boys' f a t h e r s in use of
r a t i o n a l guidance ( r e a s o n i n g ) .
Engel found an unusual r e s u l t in t h a t
g i r l s ' s e l f - e s t e e m was n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with maternal warmth and
maternal a u t h o r i t a r i a n c o n t r o l .
There were no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
between boys' s e l f - e s t e e m and maternal warmth and a u t h o r i t a r i a n
control.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between f a t h e r s ' use o f r a t i o n a l guidance
was n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with boys' s e l f - e s t e e m , but p o s i t i v e l y
c o r r e l a t e d with g i r l s ' s e l f - e s t e e m .
Engel su ggested t h e need f o r
f u r t h e r st ud y t o gain i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between maternal
and p a t e r n a l r o l e s and sex o f t h e c h i l d .
Thus i t appea rs s ev eral
r e s e a r c h e r s have found some v a r i a b i l i t y among samples r e g a r d i n g th e
ty p e s o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r s which engender t h e
development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between p a r e n t a l b e l i e f s and b e h a v io r s and
c h i l d r e n ' s academic achievement and s e l f - e s t e e m has a l s o been s t u d i e d .
36
Kinney (1988) found s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p a r e n t a l b e l i e f s
and b e h a v i o r s , and academic achievement and s e l f - e s t e e m among f i f t h
grade s t u d e n t s and t h e i r mothers.
The h i g h e r t h e degree o f democracy
in maternal b e h a v io r , t h e g r e a t e r l i k e l i h o o d o f h i g h e r achievement,
academic s e l f - e s t e e m , and general s e l f - e s t e e m in t h e c h i l d r e n ; and t h e
h i g h e r t h e degree o f a u to c r a c y o r anarchy in maternal beh avi or s
p e rc e iv e d by t h e c h i l d r e n , t h e g r e a t e r t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h e c h i l d r e n
would s co r e low in achievement, academic s e l f - e s t e e m , and general s e l f ­
esteem.
Kinney determined t h a t demographic v a r i a b l e s were found to
i n f l u e n c e academic achievement, but were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o
c h ild re n 's self-esteem.
The f u n c t i o n s o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s [us ing t h e Revised Parent
A t t i t u d e Research In st ru me nt (Schludermann & Schludermann, 1977)] and
be h a v io r a n t e c e d e n t s in t h e development o f c h i l d p e r s o n a l i t y were
s t u d i e d by Stevens (1982).
freshmen.
His sample c o n s i s t e d o f 44 c o l l e g e
He found t h a t t h e maternal a n t e c e d e n t s o f t r u s t , a cc ep tan ce ,
f ir m c o n t r o l , f a m ily harmony, and moderate a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m were
s i g n i f i c a n t l y re la te d to a ll of the p o s itiv e child p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s
e xc e pt s e l f - c o n t r o l .
The p a t e r n a l a n t e c e d e n t s he found most
s ig n if ic a n tly re la te d to a ll of the p o s itiv e child p e rso n ality t r a i t s
were t r u s t , a c c e p ta n c e , and democratic a t t i t u d e s .
Based on t h e s t u d i e s reviewed t h a t c i t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
p a r e n t a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n , only a few
s t u d i e s (Bl anton, 1985; Elrod & C ra se , 1980; Flynn, 1979; Schwartz,
1966; S e a r s , 1970) inv olv ed c h i l d r e n under s i x y e a r s o f age.
Thus,
t h e r e a pp ear s t o be a p a u c i t y o f r e s e a r c h t h a t d e a l s with p a r e n t a l
37
c o r r e l a t e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n .
This i s unusual in
view o f t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t s u p p o rt s t h e importance o f t h i s time period
in t h e for mation o f s e l f - e s t e e m .
A r a t i o n a l e t o e x p l a i n t h e p a u c i t y o f r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g pa re n ta l
c o r r e l a t e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool aged c h i l d r e n has been o f f e r e d
by both Blanton (1987) and Hughes (1984).
rea so ns f o r la c k o f r e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a :
Both a u th o r s c i t e d s i m i l a r
(a) p r i m a r i l y , t h e la ck o f
p s y c h o m e t r i c a l l y sound r e s e a r c h i n s t r u m e n t s , and (b) con fus ion and la ck
o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among r e s e a r c h e r s r e g a r d i n g th e co ncep ts and
c o n s t r u c t s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and s e l f - c o n c e p t .
Hughes reviewed 19
measures o f s e l f - c o n c e p t and s e l f - e s t e e m f o r t h e i r psychometric
adequacy and t h e i r age a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s f o r use with c h i l d r e n 3 t o 12
y e a r s o f age.
Based on h e r review, she did not recommend t h a t s e l f -
r e p o r t measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n ages t h r e e to s i x
be used.
In g e n e r a l , she f e l t t h e s e l f - r e p o r t s c a l e s may a c t u a l l y be
measuring p r e s c h o o l e r s ' c o g n i t i v e s k i l l s , such as a t t e n t i v e n e s s , t e s t ­
t a k i n g s k i l l s , and r e c e p t i v e v oc ab ula ry , not measures o f s e l f - c o n c e p t
or self-esteem .
Hughes concluded t h a t a d u l t ( p a re n t o r t e a c h e r ) r e p o r t
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool aged c h i l d r e n may, a t t h i s p o in t
in t h e development o f s e l f - e s t e e m asse ssm en t s c a l e s , be t h e most
a d eq ua te .
Of t h e i n s t r u m e n t s based on t e a c h e r o b s e r v a t i o n , she found
t h e Behavioral Academic S el f- Es tee m S c a le (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s ,
1982) t o be t h e measure o f c hoice f o r c h i l d r e n preschool through s i x t h
g ra d e .
She contends t h a t i t i s t h e most adequate i n s tr u m e n t a v a i l a b l e
a t t h e p r e s e n t ti m e .
38
Cohen's (1984) r e s e a r c h a l s o le nds s uppor t t o Hughes' (1984)
findings.
In Cohen's s tu dy, which c o r r e l a t e d el em entary s t u d e n t s e l f -
r a t i n g s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and t e a c h e r - r a t i n g s o f s e l f - e s t e e m , using
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t ' s (1982) Behavioral Academic Self -E st eem Rating
S c a l e , he found t h a t measures completed by t e a c h e r s more a c c u r a t e l y
assessed the c h i l d r e n 's level of self-esteem .
\
Summary
L
In summary, evidence has been p r e s e n t e d t o su pp ort t h e foll owing
ass umptions:
(1)
P o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m i s an im por ta nt d e te rm in a nt t o t h e e f f e c t i v e
f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l in our s o c i e t y .
(2)
The f o u n d a ti o n s f o r t h e c h i l d ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t and s e l f - e s t e e m
appea r t o be e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f a c h i l d ' s l i f e .
(3)
The e x p e r ie n c e s c h i l d r e n e n c o u n te r duri ng t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e i r
l i f e ap pea r t o have a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on t h e formation of
t h e i r self-esteem.
(4)
P a r e n ts p la y a c r i t i c a l r o l e in t h e formation o f a c h i l d ' s s e l f ­
esteem.
(5)
E f f o r t s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m
may have a g r e a t e r impact d urin g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f a c h i l d ' s
life.
(6)
E f f o r t s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e development o f a p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m
should no t be l e f t t o chance.
(7)
P a r e n ts and t e a c h e r s need t o be aware o f f a c t o r s , methods, and
pro c e du res t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m .
39
(8)
S p e c i f i c p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s have been found t o be p o s i t i v e l y
c o r r e l a t e d with t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in school
aged c h i l d r e n , 6 t o 15.
(9)
There appea rs t o be a p a u c i t y o f r e s e a r c h in v o lv in g p a r e n ta l
a t t i t u d e s as c o r r e l a t e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool aged
children.
(10)
There ap pe a r t o be some c o n f l i c t i n g d a t a re g a rd in g t h e maternal
and p a t e r n a l c o r r e l a t e s o f high s e l f - e s t e e m in male and female
children.
O b je c ti v e s
Based on t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d , t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s
stu dy were as fo l l o w s :
(1)
A s c e r t a i n and d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g maternal a t t i t u d e s toward
c h i l d r e a r i n g with a d e fi n e d p o p u la ti o n o f mothers o f preschool
c h i l d r e n f o u r t o f i v e y e a r s o f age, u t i l i z i n g t h o s e q u e st i o n s
ta ken from t h e P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research Ins trument (S cha efer &
B e l l , 1958) t h a t Coopersmith (1967) found t o be p o s i t i v e l y
r e l a t e d t o high s e l f - e s t e e m in 10-12 y e a r old c h i l d r e n .
(2)
A s c e r t a i n and d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m w ith in
t h i s same d e f i n e d preschool p o p u l a t i o n o f f o u r and f i v e y e a r old
c h i l d r e n , u t i l i z i n g t e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f s e l f - e s t e e m based on t o t a l
s c o r e s o b ta in e d from t h e Behavioral Academic S e lf- Es te e m r a t i n g
s c a l e (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982).
(3)
A s c e r t a i n what c o r r e l a t i o n s may e x i s t between maternal a t t i t u d e
measures and t h e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n t h i s p o p u la tio n
40
o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool aged c h i l d r e n and t h e i r
mothers; in a d d i t i o n , compare and c o n t r a s t mother-son and motherda u g h te r outcomes.
Research Hypotheses
Based on t h e pre c ed in g review o f l i t e r a t u r e , t h e foll owing
hypotheses were i n v e s t i g a t e d in t h i s st ud y:
(1)
Mothers who s co r e high on maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s ubsc a le
measures o f a c c e p ta n c e , s t r i c t n e s s v e rs us p e r m i s s i v e n e s s ,
de mocratic p r a c t i c e s , and t r a i n i n g f o r independence w i l l have
.
sons and dau g h te r s with h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s as measured by
t h e t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
(2)
Mothers who ag re e t h a t rewarding c h i l d r e n f o r doing well i s more
e f f e c t i v e than pun is hin g c h i l d r e n f o r not doing well w i l l have
sons and dau g h te r s with h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s as measured by
t h e t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
(3)
Mothers who use methods o f c o n t r o l ( i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s ,
ph ys ic a l r e s t r a i n t and de nia l o f p r i v i l e g e s v e rs us physical
punishment and withdrawal o f love) w i l l have sons and daughters
with h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s as measured by t h e t e a c h e r
completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
41
CHAPTER 3
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Sample P opula tio n
The p o p u l a t i o n in t h i s stu dy was comprised of 65 mothers and t h e i r
f o u r and f i v e y e a r old male and female c h i l d r e n .
All o f t h e c h i l d r e n
a t t e n d e d e i t h e r Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development Center or
t h e A ss o c ia te d S tu d e n ts o f Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (ASMSU) Day Care
C en te r, du rin g both f a l l and w i n t e r q u a r t e r s o f t h e 1989-1990 academic
year.
The s e l f - s e l e c t e d sample c o n s i s t e d o f 51 re s pon den ts who
completed both t h e General Info rmatio n Q u e s ti o n n a ir e and t h e Mother's
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (N=Sl), and t h e 51 f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n of
t h e s e re s po nden ts (N=Sl).
Maternal ages ranged from 22 t o 43 y e a r s o f age.
Married
re s po nd en ts comprised 86.3% o f t h e sample (N=44), div orced respondents
comprised 9.8% o f t h e sample (N=5), widowed respon den ts comprised 2% of
t h e sample (N=I), and s e p a r a t e d re s pon den ts comprised 2% o f t h e sample
(N=I).
Maternal e d u c a ti o n a l a t t a i n m e n t ranged from high school degree to
doctoral level of education.
High school educated re s pon den ts
comprised 7.8% o f t h e sample (N=4), c o l l e g e educated res po nden ts
comprised 68.6% o f t h e sample (N=35), c o l l e g e plus one t o f o u r y e a r s of
42
g r a d u a te school comprised 21.6% o f t h e sample (N=Il), and o t h e r
resp on de nt s in c lu de d one d o c to r a l l e v e l o f e d u c a ti o n .
Reported maternal oc cu pa tio ns were v a r i e d .
Reported maternal
oc cu p a ti o n s were grouped acc ord ing t o H o l l i n g s h e a d ' s (1975) index of
social s ta t u s .
Full time mothers/homemakers comprised 29.4% o f the
sample (N=15); p r o f e s s i o n a l s , b u s i n e s s owners, and managerial
oc cu pa tio ns comprised 19.6% o f t h e sample (N=IO); t e c h n i c i a n s , semi­
p r o f e s s i o n a l s , small b u s i n e s s owners, and c l e r i c a l workers comprised
17.6% o f t h e sample (N=9); s k i l l e d workers, s e m i - s k i l l e d workers, and
manual l a b o r e r s comprised 4% of t h e sample (N=2); f u l l - t i m e u n i v e r s i t y
s t u d e n t s comprised 19.6% o f t h e sample (N=IO); and u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s
t h a t were a l s o employed p a r t - t i m e comprised 9.8% o f t h e sample (N=5).
Combined fami ly income ranged from l e s s than $20,000 p e r y e a r to
over $40,000 p e r y e a r .
Respondents with annual incomes l e s s than
$20,000 comprised 30.4% o f t h e sample (N=14), resp onden ts with combined
annual incomes ra nging from $20,000 t o $30,000 comprised 26.1% of the
sample (N=12), re s po nd en ts with combined annual incomes ranging from
$31,000 t o $40,000 comprised 26.1% o f t h e sample (N=12), and
res p o n d en ts with combined annual incomes ove r $40,000 comprised 17.8%
o f t h e sample (N=8).
Ages o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' 51 c h i l d r e n ranged from f o u r t o f i v e
y e a r s o f age (N=Sl).
Four y e a r old c h i l d r e n comprised 52.9% o f th e
sample (N=27) and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n comprised 47.1% o f t h e sample
(N=24).
Female c h i l d r e n comprised 56.9% o f t h e sample (N=29) and male
c h i l d r e n comprised 43.1% o f t h e sample (N=22).
Children a t t e n d i n g
Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development Center comprised 62.7% of
43
t h e sample (N=32), and c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g t h e ASMSU Day Care Center
comprised 37.3% o f t h e sample (N=19).
For th e purposes o f t h i s st udy ,
c h i l d r e n from both Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development Center
and ASMSU Day Care Cent er w i l l be viewed as one group, making a t o t a l
sample s i z e o f 51.
Only mothers were used in t h i s s tu dy f o r s ev e ra l r e a s o n s .
The
f i r s t reason i s t h a t s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e re d t h a t
mothers e x e r t e d t h e primary i n f l u e n c e on t h e c h i l d under t h e age o f s i x
(S ch a e fe r & B e l l , 1958; S e a r s , 1970).
Second, Coopersmith (1967), in
h i s o r i g i n a l stu dy r e g a r d i n g t h e p a r e n t a l c o r r e l a t e s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in
c h i l d r e n , only surveyed maternal a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d r e a r i n g .
Since
t h i s stu dy a t t e m p t s t o c o r r e l a t e only th o s e maternal a t t i t u d e s t h a t
Coopersmith found p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d with s e l f - e s t e e m , only mothers
were used.
Measures
Tool:
Pa re nt A t t i t u d e Research Instrument
The P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research In s tru m e nt (PARI) was o r i g i n a l l y
developed by S c h a e f e r and Bell (1958) and c o n s i s t e d o f 115 it e m s .
It
c o n ta i n e d 23 f i v e - i t e m s c a l e s and was designed t o measure a t t i t u d e s
t h a t were t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e l e v a n t t o p e r s o n a l i t y development in
children.
I t was designed t o be a supplement t o i n t e r v i e w and
o b s e r v a t i o n as methods f o r st ud y in g maternal be h a v io r .
Sc h a e f e r and
B e l l ' s d e c i s i o n t o measure maternal a t t i t u d e s was based on t h e i r b e l i e f
t h a t t h e most e x t e n s i v e and i n t e n s i v e s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e c h i l d
oc cu rr ed w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e f a m ily and e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e
44
mother.
S c h a e f e r and Bell c i t e d both Be tt el he im (1952) and
Bronfenbrenner (1953) as s u p p o r ti n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
Subsequent s t u d i e s on t h e PARI as a re s e a r c h i n s tr u m e n t rev e al e d a
number o f drawbacks (Schludermann & Schludermann1 1974).
The most
s e r i o u s o f t h e s e were a cq uie sce nc e resp ons e s e t b i a s e s noted by Becker
and Krug (1965) and Zuckerman1 Norton and Sprague (1958).
Becker and
Krug a l s o sug ges te d t h a t PARI measures o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e s were
s t r o n g l y in f l u e n c e d by t h e e d u c a ti o n a l le vel o f t h e re s p o n d e n t, and
sug ges te d t h e PARI be used with only homogeneous upper-middle c l a s s
f a m i l i e s , o r a t l e a s t c o n t r o l f o r t h e e d u c a ti o n a l le v el o r occupation
and income o f t h e f a t h e r .
However, Y a te r , O l i v i e r and Barclay (1968)
found t h a t t h e f a c t o r i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e PARI over a r e l a t i v e l y
homogeneous group o f mothers from c u l t u r a l l y impoverished neighborhoods
appeared t o be s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same as o t h e r s t u d i e s using d i f f e r e n t
p o p u l a t i o n s o f moth ers.
Y at er e t a l .
(1968) acknowledged problems with
acq ui e s ce nc e resp on se s e t s , y e t sug ges te d t h a t t h e PARI may have
c o n s i d e r a b l e h e u r i s t i c valu e in terms o f f o r m u la t in g v a r i o u s hypotheses
r e l a t i n g t o c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s among d i f f e r e n t groups o f p a r e n t s .
C o n s tr u c t V a l i d i t y
In 1965, Becker and Krug conducted a r e s e a r c h review o f t h e Parent
A t t i t u d e Research In st ru me nt developed by S c h a e f e r and Bell (1958).
Becker and Krug (1965) found evidence o f some c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y based
on t h e work o f Zuckerman and Oltean (1959).
Zuckerman and Oltean
c o r r e l a t e d t h e PARI s c a l e s with t h e Edwards Personal Pr e f e re n c e
Schedule (EPPS), t h e Minnesota M u lt ip h a s ic P e r s o n a l i t y In ve nto ry
45
(MMPI), t h e "F" S c a l e , and a t e s t o f s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e based on
d is c r e p a n c y between s e l f and id e al c o n c e p t s .
When t h e PARI was c o r r e l a t e d with t h e EPPS, a number of EPPS
v a r i a b l e s showed s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n t o t h e h o s t i l i t y - r e j e c t i o n
f a c t o r from t h e PARI f o r mothers o f s t u d e n t s but no t f o r s tu d e n t
nurses.
When t h e PARI was c o r r e l a t e d with t h e MMPI, t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n
c o n t r o l f a c t o r was found t o r e l a t e t o t h e MMPI M a s c u li n it y - F e m i n in it y
Sc a le ( r = . 5 6 ) .
The h o s t i l i t y - r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r was found, t o high ly
c o r r e l a t e t o p a t h o l o g i c a l t e n d e n c i e s on t h e MMPI.
The "F" Sc a le was found t o c o r r e l a t e .51 with t h e PARI
a u t h o r i t a r i a n c o n t r o l f a c t o r in a p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t group, and .61 in
a s t u d e n t nurs e group.
However, i t was found t h a t t h i s c o r r e l a t i o n
reduced t o .44 when t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e a cq uie sce nc e re sp onse s e t s were
p a r t i a l le d out (Zuckerman e t a l . , 1958).
The t e s t o f s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e was found t o have a - . 3 7 c o r r e l a t i o n
with t h e PARI h o s t i l i t y - r e j e c t i o n f a c t o r , but did no t r e l a t e t o
authoritarian control.
Becker and Krug (1965) found f u r t h e r evidence t h a t sug ges te d some
c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y f o r t h e PARI by c o r r e l a t i n g two main f a c t o r s de rived
from S e a r s - t y p e i n t e r v i e w s with p a r e n t s and t h e h o s t i l i t y - r e j e c t i o n and
a u t h o r i t a r i a n - c o n t r o l f a c t o r s o f t h e PARI.
The r e s e a r c h e r s s t r o n g l y
sug ges te d f u r t h e r stu dy be d i r e c t e d toward c o r r e l a t i n g t h e PARI with
o t h e r p a r e n t ass essment t o o l s .
To t h i s a u t h o r ' s knowledge,
c o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s comparing t h e PARI t o o t h e r p a r e n t assessment
t o o l s have not been performed.
46
In summary, Becker and Krug (1965) contended t h a t t h e r e i s some
su p p o rt f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f t h e PARI, but c a u ti o n e d f u t u r e
u s e r s t o be aware o f t h e c ont am ina ti ng i n f l u e n c e s o f a c q u i e s c e n t
resp onse s e t s .
\
Predictive V alidity
According t o Becker and Krug (1965), t h e PARI has l i t t l e
predictive a b ility .
Becker and Krug found t h a t in a l l t h e s t u d i e s
which t r i e d t o c o r r e l a t e PARI s c o r e s with c h i l d b e h a v i o r s , t h e r e were
e i t h e r n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s o r equivocal r e s u l t s because o f a f a i l u r e to
c o n t r o l f o r p a r e n t e d u c a ti o n a l l e v e l .
Becker and Krug did fe e l s t u d i e s
t h a t c o n t r o l l e d f o r ed u ca ti o n and oc cu p a ti o n a l l e v e l s had produced th e
most i n t e r p r e t a b l e f i n d i n g s .
R eliability
S c h a e f e r and Bell (1958), using t h e Kuder-Richardson formula 20 on
60 m u l t i p a r a e and 60 p r i m i p a r a e , found i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y r e l i a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t s exceeded .50 in a l l bu t one o f t h e o r i g i n a l 23 f i v e - i t e m
scales (rapport s c a le ).
Becker and Krug (1965) found t e s t - r e t e s t
r e l i a b i l i t i e s t h a t were c a l c u l a t e d a f t e r t h r e e months on 60 s u b j e c t s t o
be g e n e r a l l y good.
However, t h e a c t u a l r e l i a b i l i t y o f c o e f f i c i e n t s was
not reported.
C r i t i q u e Summary
Becker and Krug (1965), acknowledging problems with a c q u i e s c e n t
re sp ons e s e t b i a s , s ugges te d t h a t t h e PARI could be used as an
economical f i r s t approach t o t h e ass essment o f p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s .
47
However, th e y c a u ti o n e d t h a t i t should not be used f o r making c l i n i c a l
d e c i s i o n s nor f o r p r e d i c t i n g a c t u a l p a r e n t a l b e hav io r .
Coopersmith (1967) acknowledged Becker and Krug's (1965) c r i t i q u e ,
bu t defended t h e usage o f t h e PARI ( S c h a e fe r & B e l l , 1958) in his
s tu d y , s i n c e i t was one o f s ev e ra l i n s t r u m e n t s used t o s tu dy maternal
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and m a t e r n a l - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n .
He claimed t h a t the
maternal a t t i t u d e s being s c r u t i n i z e d in t h e PARI q u e s t i o n n a i r e were
a l s o being s c r u t i n i z e d by more i n t e n s i v e i n t e r v i e w s and c h i l d r e p o r t s
o f p a s t and p r e s e n t maternal b e h a v i o r s .
In t h i s way, he f e l t the
res po nse s t o t h e PARI could be a p p r a i s e d in a bro a de r, more v a ri e d
context.
Schludermann and Schludermann (1974) at tempted t o minimize the
acq ui e sc e nc e and o p p o s i t i o n s e t resp ons e b i a s e s r e p o r t e d in th e
o r i g i n a l PARI (S ch a e fe r & B e l l , 1958).
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e PARI was changed.
However, t h e f a c t o r i a l
While acknowledging t h e importance
o f minimizing a c q u ie s c e n c e , o p p o s i t i o n , and extreme s e t b i a s e s , th e s e
a u t h o r s su gg est ed t h a t f u t u r e u s e r s may wish t o combine s c a l e s from
S c h a e f e r and B e l l ' s (1958) o r i g i n a l PARI o r from Zuckerman' s (1959)
r e v e r s e d s c a l e (designed t o c o n t r o l a cq uie s ce nc e response s e t s ) in ways
t h a t best s u i t t h e i r research o b jectiv es.
Coopersmith (1967), in h i s study r e g a r d i n g t h e a n t e c e d e n t s of
s e l f - e s t e e m , modified S c h a e f e r and B e l l ' s (1958) o r i g i n a l s c a l e by
s e l e c t i n g 80 o f t h e o r i g i n a l 115 items t h a t b e s t r e f l e c t e d t h e pa re n ta l
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s t h a t appeared t o be most r e l e v a n t t o t h e
fo rm ati on o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
Coopersmit h ' s modified
q u e s t i o n n a i r e was designed t o measure maternal a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s .
48
C e r t a i n s t y l e s o f p a r e n t - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n were assumed based on
maternal res po ns e s t o t h e s e v a r io u s q u e s t i o n n a i r e it e m s .
Coopersmith
chose t o focus on p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s even though he acknowledged t h a t
children influence parental a ctio n .
However, Coopersmith f e l t t h a t
p a r e n t s e x e r t a much g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e on t h e p a r e n t - c h i l d r e l a t i o n s h i p
when t h e c h i l d i s so young and v u l n e r a b l e and dependent on t h e p a r e n t s .
In h i s o r i g i n a l s tu d y , Coopersmith (1967) used h i s modified
q u e s t i o n n a i r e (PARI) only on mothers.
He did not d i r e c t l y in cl ude
f a t h e r s , c i t i n g problems with l o g i s t i c s , tim e, and money.
For t h e purposes o f t h i s s tu d y , only t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e items
[take n from Coopersmit h ' s (1967) modified P a re n t A t t i t u d e Research
Ins trument] t h a t Coopersmith found t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
t h e maternal a t t i t u d e s p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d with high s e l f - e s t e e m in
10-12 y e a r old boys were used.
(Refer t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s
s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e maternal responses
t h a t Coopersmith found r e l a t e d t o high s e l f - e s t e e m in 10-12 y e a r old
bo ys .)
Tool: Behavioral Academic
S e lf- Es tee m Rating Sca le
The Behavioral Academic S el f- Es tee m (BASE) r a t i n g s c a l e was chosen
as t h e to o l t o measure t h e s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l o f t h e preschool c h i l d r e n
in t h i s st udy (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982).
The BASE was t h e r e s u l t
o f r e v i s i o n s and f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f Coopersmit h ' s (1967) Behavior
Rating Form (BRF).
The BRF was o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d t o measure
globa l s e l f - e s t e e m and was designed t o be r a t e d by c l i n i c a l
psychologists.
The beh av io r s l i s t e d on t h e BRF were assumed t o be
49
e x t e r n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r e v a i l i n g s e l f - a p p r a i s a l .
The be h av io r s were s e l e c t e d based on o b s e r v a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n ' s
be h av io r s and i n t e r v i e w s with t e a c h e r s , p r i n c i p a l s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , and
t h e r e s e a r c h committee members.
Since t h e r e was a need f o r a tool t h a t
could be u t i l i z e d by t e a c h e r s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s o t h e r than c l i n i c a l
p s y c h o l o g i s t s , new items were added t o d e s c r i b e t h e beh av io r s s p e c i f i c
t o t h e academic environment and t o e f f e c t i v e school performance.
The
be h av io r s l i s t e d on t h e BRF were f a c t o r a naly ze d, and th o s e achie vin g
t h e h i g h e s t w e ig ht in gs on t h e f i v e r e s u l t i n g f a c t o r s were inc luded in
t h e BASE.
The primary f u n c t i o n o f t h e BASE s c o r e s i s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between
c h i l d r e n a t high and low l e v e l s o f academic s e l f - e s t e e m (Coopersmith &
G i l b e r t s , 1982).
The p r i n c i p l e s co r e in making t h i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s
t h e BASE t o t a l s c o r e ; however, Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s (1982)
sug ges te d t h a t both t o t a l and f a c t o r s c o r e s may be used in va ri ou s
ways.
For example, i t may help determine i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s t r e n g t h s
and weaknesses in r e l a t i o n t o academic s e l f - e s t e e m , and a l s o help
determine i n t e r v e n t i o n s designed t o i n c r e a s e a s t u d e n t ' s academic
self-esteem .
In g e n e r a l , Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s s ugges te d th e
f o ll o w i n g uses as being a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e BASE r e s u l t s :
(a) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f high and low s e l f - e s t e e m s t u d e n t s usin g t h e t o t a l
BASE s c o r e ; (b) pla nn in g i n s t r u c t i o n based on f a c t o r s c o r e s , which
s u g g e s t s t r e n g t h s and needs; (c) f a c i l i t a t i o n o f d i s c u s s i o n and j o i n t
e f f o r t s between p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s t o enhance t h e s t u d e n t ' s s e l f
esteem; (d) r e s e a r c h , s i n c e t h e BASE i s a usef ul a f f e c t i v e measure f o r
o l d e r and younger c h i l d r e n ;
(e) t e s t i n g preschool age c h i l d r e n , s in c e
50
academic s e l f - e s t e e m can be more e f f e c t i v e l y measured with th e BASE
than with s e l f - r e p o r t measures; and (f ) d i a g n o s t i c and p r e s c r i p t i v e
programs may be founded on t h e BASE and i t s c o u n t e r p a r t , Building S e l f Esteem by Reasoner (1982).
F a c to r S t r u c t u r e
The f a c t o r s emerging from t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e items
r e f l e c t e d Coopersmit h ' s (1967) th e o r y o f s e l f - e s t e e m and emphasized
t r a i t s p e r t i n e n t t o c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f - e s t e e m as re v e a le d in t h e i r
academic performance.
este em ."
This i s t h e so urc e o f t h e term "academic s e l f ­
The s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s measured in th e BASE a r e d e s c r i b e d in
Appendix A.
The s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s , de signed t o r e f l e c t t h e behav ioral
e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e s e f a c t o r s , can be found in th e BASE manual
(Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982).
A d m in is tr a ti o n
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s (1982) su gg est ed t h a t t h e o b s e r v e r be
f a m i l i a r with t h e c h i l d in a v a r i e t y o f s i t u a t i o n s in o r d e r t o
re c o g n iz e and r e l i a b l y r e p o r t t h e c h i l d ' s t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e s .
They
s ug ges te d t h e person who i s t o r a t e t h e c h i l d have a minimum o f f i v e t o
s i x weeks' e x p e r ie n c e with t h e c h i l d on a d a i l y b a s i s in a s e t t i n g
a s s o c i a t e d with l e a r n i n g .
knowing t h e c h i l d w e l l .
They emphasized t h e importance o f t h e r a t e r
P r e f e r a b l y t h e r a t e r should be t h e c h i l d ' s
e d u c a t o r v e rs u s t h e p a r e n t .
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s found weak
i n t e r r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y when p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s were compared.
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s (1982), based on th e work o f Anastasi
(1976), i d e n t i f i e d some o f t h e general problems a s s o c i a t e d with t h e use
51
of rating scales:
(a) t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f beh avi or s t o be r a t e d may be
ambiguous; (b) problems with accura cy ( r a t e r s must observe t h e c h i l d t o
be r a t e d on s e v e r a l oc ca s io n s over a p e ri o d o f ti m e ) ; (c) problems with
t h e halo e f f e c t , in which a few beh av io r s i n f l u e n c e t h e r a t e r ' s r a t i n g
o f o t h e r b e h a v i o r s ; (d) problems with l e n i e n c y e r r o r , in which the
r a t e r i s h e s i t a n t t o a s s i g n low r a t i n g s t o persons observed; and
(e) problems with t h e e r r o r of c e n t r a l te ndency, in which r a t e r s tend
to assign m iddle-of-the-road ra t i n g s .
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s made
s y s t e m a t i c a t t e m p t s t o minimize t h e i n f l u e n c e o f such so ur c es of e r r o r ,
bu t sug ges te d t h a t u s e r s be forewarned o f t h e s e e r r o r s , which may help
e l i m i n a t e t h e i r o c c u r re n c e .
BASE items a r e r a t e d acc or din g t o t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f behaviors
(Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982).
An item t h a t d e s c r i b e t h e way a c h i l d
"never" a c t s i s r a t e d I ; i f t h e c h i l d "seldom" a c t s in t h e way
d e s c r i b e d , t h e item i s r a t e d 2; "sometimes" i s r a t e d 3, " u s u a ll y " i s
r a t e d 4; and "always" i s r a t e d 5.
I f t h e o b s e r v e r i s u n c e r t a i n about a
r a t i n g , i t i s sug ges te d t h a t a r a t i n g o f 3 be give n, f o r "sometimes."
(Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s prov ide s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n s on r a t i n g each
BASE item on page IV-2.)
Scoring
The BASE i s s cor ed simply by adding t h e item r a t i n g s f o r each
factor.
score.
The f a c t o r s c o r e s a r e then summed t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l BASE
For each t o t a l BASE s cor e t h e r e i s an a p p r o p r i a t e
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , such as high s e l f - e s t e e m , moderate s e l f - e s t e e m , and low
s e l f - e s t e e m (see Table 2 ) .
52
Table 2.
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f academic s e l f - e s t e e m and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
ranges f o r male and female f o u r y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n
___________ ( l i m i t e d sample N=ISO).*
L ev els o f
A cadem ic S e l f - E s t e e m
S tu d en t
In itia tiv e
S o cial
A tte n tio n
S uccess/
F a ilu re
S o cial
A ttra c tio n
S e lfC onfidence
BASE
T o tal
High s e l f - e s t e e m
23-30
12 -1 5
8-10
1 2 -1 5
9-10
62-80
M o d e r a te s e l f - e s t e e m
15 -2 2
8-11
4-7
8-11
5-8
4 2 -6 1
Low s e l f - e s t e e m
6-14
3-7
2-3
3-7
2-4
16-41
♦Coopersmith & Gilberts, © 1982, Behavioral Academic Self-Esteem (manual).
Reproduced with special permission of the publisher. Consulting Psychologists Press,
Inc., Palo Alto, California 94306. Further permission is prohibited without the
publisher's consent.
BASE C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
The BASE c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , which d e s c r i b e t h e l e v e l s (high,
moderate, low) o f academic s e l f - e s t e e m , were based on a s t a t i s t i c a l
procedure t h a t d i v i d e s th e s c o r e s in t h e norm sample i n t o t h r e e groups.
For each f a c t o r and t o t a l s c o r e , t h e t h r e e groups a r e composed of a s e t
o f p e rc e n ta g e s o f t h e t o t a l sample.
The moderate c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s 68
p e r c e n t of t h e s c o r e s , and high and low c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s each have 16
p e r c e n t o f th e s c o r e s .
The range o f s c o r e s in each group depends on
how c l o s e l y t h e s c o r e s a r e c l u s t e r e d .
These c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s were based
on s t a t i s t i c s d e ri v e d from t h e o r i g i n a l BASE norming sample of 4,000
cases.
Normative Data
The o r i g i n a l norming sample c o n s i s t e d o f over 4,000 c h i l d r e n with
f a m i l i e s ranging from t h e lower-middle t o upper-middle socioeconomic
classes.
The o r i g i n a l d a t a were c o l l e c t e d between 1974 and 1978, with
a d d i t i o n a l d a t a being c o l l e c t e d from 1974 and 1979.
The o r i g i n a l d a ta
53
in c lu d e d c h i l d r e n in t h e grade range o f k i n d e r g a r t e n through e ig h th
g ra d e .
The m a j o r i t y o f t h e c h i l d r e n were r e g u l a r - e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s ,
but e d u c a t i o n a l l y handicapped and m e n ta ll y g i f t e d s t u d e n t s were a l s o
in c lu d e d .
L a t e r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n inc lu de d preschool f o u r y e a r old
children.
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s (1982) observed t h r e e important
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a :
(a) female s t u d e n t s g e n e r a l l y
r a t e d h i g h e r than males, (b) p r e s c h o o l e r s were r a t e d h i g h e r than
k i n d e r g a r t e n and primary school s t u d e n t s , and (c) g i f t e d s t u d e n t s were
r a t e d h i g h e r than r e g u l a r classroom s t u d e n t s .
R eliability
Es tim at es o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y were based on c o r r e l a t i o n s of
i n d i v i d u a l items with t h e t o t a l s c o r e .
All c o r r e l a t i o n s o f s i n g l e
items with t h e t o t a l s co r e were s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e .001 le v e l and
ranged from a low o f .37 t o a high o f .76 with a mean z tr a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s o f .61.
This le vel o f r e l a t i o n s h i p
sug ges te d t h a t t h e items and t o t a l s c o r e were measuring common
e le m en ts .
The s i z e o f t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d a degree of
redundancy t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y in f a c t o r c l u s t e r i n g (Coopersmith &
G i l b e r t s , 1982).
Another e s t i m a t e o f i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y was based on
i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f f a c t o r s c o r e s with t h e t o t a l BASE s c o r e s .
The
i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s do not show s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s in th e
l e v e l o f i n t e r - f a c t o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a c r o s s se xe s .
With F i s h e r ' s z
c o e f f i c i e n t s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s were co nver te d t o average i n t e r n a l
54
c o n s i s t e n c y r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e BASE
r a t i n g s were .83 f o r boys and .84 f o r g i r l s .
I n t e r r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t i e s among d i f f e r e n t t e a c h e r s f o r t h e same
c h i l d r e n showed a s t r o n g p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n o f .71.
However, when
r a t i n g s o f t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s were c o r r e l a t e d , a weak c o r r e l a t i o n of
.36 was found.
Based on t h e s e f i n d i n g s , Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s
(1982) su ggested c a u t i o n in using p a r e n t s o r n o n - te a c h e r s t o r a t e BASE
i terns.
Vali d i t v
The v a l i d i t y o f t h e BASE was judged on i t s p r e d i c t i v e n e s s , t h a t
i s , i t s re la tio n s h ip to a s ig n if ic a n t social c r i t e r i o n .
One c r i t e r i o n
used f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e BASE was t h e s t u d e n t ' s le vel o f achievement on
t h e Comprehensive Te s t o f Basic S k i l l s (CTBS), Form S, a comprehensive
norm -r eferenc ed academic achievement t e s t .
Total CTBS s c o r e s
c o r r e l a t e d with t o t a l BASE s c o r e s a t t h e .50 le vel among s i x t h grade
students.
At t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n l e v e l , t h e BASE had a weaker c o r r e l a t i o n
with school achievement s c o r e s a t t h e r = .36 l e v e l .
The a uth ors
(Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982) su gg est ed more d a ta a r e needed f o r more
a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s o f t h e BASE'S p r e d i c t i v e v a l i d i t y w ith k i n d e rg a rt e n
children.
The BASE was a l s o c o r r e l a t e d with t h e CTBS f o r second through
f i f t h grade s t u d e n t s .
The mean z - t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t was .55 f o r t o t a l BASE-CTBS s c o r e c o r r e l a t i o n s .
C o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y was examined usi ng t h e approach by Cronbach and
Meehl (1955).
These a u t h o r s ' h y p o th e s i s p r e d i c t e d t h a t a f t e r t h e
55
f i r s t major r e v i s i o n o f a s c a l e , f i v e major f a c t o r s were l i k e l y to
emerge as being s i g n i f i c a n t .
Following f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , th e BASE
items f a c t o r e d i n t o f i v e components in t h e fo ll ow in g o r d e r of
descending power:
(a) S tud en t I n i t i a t i v e ,
(b) Social A t t e n t i o n ,
(c) S u c c e s s / F a i l u r e , (d) Social A t t r a c t i o n , and (e) Se lf - C o n f id e n c e .
Thus, t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f t h e BASE i s su pported by t h e general
c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e s e r e s u l t s (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s , 1982).
S tu de nt Sex Comparisons
In t h e sample o f school age c h i l d r e n , t e a c h e r r a t i n g s f o r g i r l s
were s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than boys.
Variances f o r boys and g i r l s were
v i r t u a l l y even, with a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r s ta n d a r d e r r o r o f measurement
o c c u r r i n g on boys' r a t i n g s .
In t h e r a t i n g s o f preschool c h i l d r e n ,
d i f f e r e n c e s between sexes were minimal.
Grade Level D i f f e r e n c e s
C o r r e l a t i o n s were computed between grade le v el and BASE s c o r e s .
On one c o r r e l a t i o n sample, t h r e e BASE f a c t o r s c o r e s and t h e t o t a l BASE
s c o r e s had a s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n with grade l e v e l .
On
a n o t h e r sample, n e a r - z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n s were found between grade le vel
and BASE f a c t o r s c o r e and t o t a l s c o r e s .
O pe rat ion al D e f i n i t i o n s
(I )
Self-esteem :
For t h e purposes o f t h i s st udy , s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s
in preschool c h i l d r e n w i l l be measured by t e a c h e r resp ons e t o t h e
16 items c o n ta i n e d on t h e Behavioral Academic S e lf- Es te e m r a t i n g
scale.
56
High s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s w i l l be measured by t o t a l BASE s co r es
t h a t f a l l w i t h i n t h e 62-80 p o i n t range; medium s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s
w i l l be measured by t o t a l BASE s c o r e s t h a t f a l l w i t h i n t h e 42-61
p o i n t range; and low s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s w il l be measured by t o t a l
BASE s c o r e s t h a t f a l l w i t h i n t h e 16-41 p o i n t range.
(2)
Maternal a t t i t u d e s :
For t h e purposes o f t h i s s tu d y , t h e maternal
a t t i t u d e s designed t o r e f l e c t high a cce pta nc e o f c h i l d r e n w il l be
measured by s t r o n g l y agree o r m il d ly agre e respon ses t o m o th e r' s
q u e s t i o n n a i r e item numbers I and 4, and by s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e or
mildly, agree t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e item numbers 2 and 3.
Maternal a t t i t u d e s designed t o r e f l e c t s t r i c t n e s s versus
p e r m is s i v e n e s s w i l l be measured by s t r o n g l y agre e o r m il d ly agree
res po nse s t o m o t h e r ' s q u e s t i o n n a i r e item numbers 5, 6 and 7.
Maternal a t t i t u d e s designed t o r e f l e c t a t t i t u d e s towards
p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l w i l l be measured by s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
o r m i l d l y d i s a g r e e res pon se s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 8.
They
w i l l a l s o be measured by t h e f o ll o w i n g respo nse s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e
item number 9:
i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , de nia l o f p r i v i l e g e s ,
ph y s ic a l r e s t r a i n t v e rs us p hys ic a l punishment o r withdrawal of
lo v e .
Maternal a t t i t u d e s designed t o r e f l e c t democratic
c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s w i l l be measured by s t r o n g l y agree or
m il d ly a gre e re s p o n se s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e item numbers 11, 12 and
13; and s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e o r m il d ly d i s a g r e e re s p o n se s to
q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 10.
57
Maternal a t t i t u d e s designed t o r e f l e c t t r a i n i n g f o r
independence w i l l be measured by s t r o n g l y agree o r m il dly agree
res po nse s t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 15, and s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
o r m il d ly d i s a g r e e re sp onses t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e item numbers 14, 16
and 17.
Procedures
Permission t o conduct t h i s r e s e a r c h stu dy through Montana S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development C en te r and ASMSU Day Care Center was
fo r m a ll y o b ta in e d in w r i t i n g from each o f c e n t e r s ' d i r e c t o r s (see
Appendix B ).
The head t e a c h e r s o f t h e f o u r and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n
a t t e n d i n g each c e n t e r were a l s o c o n t a c t e d in p e rs on.
The purpose of
t h e s tu d y , t h e t e a c h e r r a t i n g to o l t o be used, and t h e e s t i m a t e d time
r e q u i r e m e n t s , were d e s c r i b e d and e x p l a i n e d .
The head t e a c h e r s who
agreed t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e stu dy r e c e i v e d a d e t a i l e d i n s e r v i c e
fo ll o w i n g t h e Behavior Academic S e lf- Es te e m (Coopersmith & G i l b e r t s ,
1982) manual g u i d e l i n e s .
The head t e a c h e r s were then asked t o r a t e
each o f t h e f o u r and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c l a s s e s
usin g t h e s c o r i n g system d e s c r i b e d in t h e r a t i n g to o l manual.
Total
BASE s c o r e s were t a b u l a t e d by t h i s r e s e a r c h e r , and each f o u r - f i v e y e a r
old c h i l d was a s s ig n e d t o a high, medium, o r low s e l f - e s t e e m level
category.
Mothers o f t h e f o u r and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n who a tt e n d e d
Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ' s Child Development Center and ASMSU Day Care
C en te r were c o n t a c t e d in w r i t i n g r e g a r d i n g t h e purpose o f t h e re s e a r c h
s tu d y , and were r e q u e s t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s study (see Appendix
58
C).
One week a f t e r t h e cov er l e t t e r was s e n t , a second co ver l e t t e r
and t h e general in fo r m a t io n m o t h e r ' s q u e s t i o n n a i r e (see Appendix d)
were d i s t r i b u t e d t o each mother.
The mothers were asked t o r e t u r n
t h e i r c o n f i d e n t i a l res pon se s to t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e items by th e date
r e q u e s t e d on t h e form.
A foll ow-up l e t t e r was d i s t r i b u t e d t o each of
t h e mothers one week a f t e r t h e r e q u e s t e d d e a d l i n e f o r r e t u r n i n g
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ; t h i s l e t t e r thanked t h o s e mothers who p a r t i c i p a t e d in
t h e r e s e a r c h stu dy and urged a l l mothers who had not y e t r e t u r n e d t h e i r
forms t o do so (see Appendix E ) .
Data Reduction and Transformation
Following r e c e i p t o f t h e completed m o t h e r ' s q u e s t i o n n a i r e items
and t h e completed t e a c h e r r a t i n g s c a l e s , t h e d a t a were t a b u l a t e d and
v a r i o u s s c o r e s were de ter mi ne d.
The s c o r e s on th e m o t h e r ' s
q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e t o t a l BASE r a t i n g s c a l e s c o r e s were coded and
r e l a t e d usin g a v a r i e t y o f s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n i q u e s de signed f o r use with
t h e S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly si s System (SAS I n s t i t u t e , I n c . , 1985) computer
s o ft w a re program.
Data A na ly si s
The d a t a o b ta in e d from t h i s stu dy were s u b j e c t e d t o t h r e e main
methods o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s .
Pearson produ ct moment c o r r e l a t i o n a l
a n a l y s e s were used t o determine whether a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between:
(a) Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e items (designed t o measure v a r i o u s maternal
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s ) and t o t a l BASE s c o r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in
t h e t o t a l sample o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n , and (b)
59
t o t a l BASE s c o r e s and c h i l d r e n ' s a g es .
A minimum s i g n i f i c a n c e le vel o f
|) < .05 was used t o determine s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s in t h e s e a n a l y s e s .
The c h i - s q u a r e t e s t f o r homogeneity was u t i l i z e d t o determine whether
t o t a l BASE s c o r e s (measures o f preschool s e l f - e s t e e m ) were homogeneous
with r e s p e c t t o :
(a) maternal res pons e s t o Mother's Q ue st io n n a ir e
ite m s , and (b) t h e sex d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e preschool sample.
A one-way
ANOVA was used t o determine i f t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e maternal resp onse p a t t e r n s o f d i s a g r e e and s t r o n g l y
d i s a g r e e t o Mo the r's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e item number 8 ( " I t i s more e f f e c t i v e
t o punish a c h i l d f o r not doing well than t o reward him f o r
succeeding").
60
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
A v a r i e t y o f independent v a r i a b l e s and how they r e l a t e d t o s e l f ­
esteem l e v e l s in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n were examined
in t h i s st u d y :
(1)
Maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measures o f a cce pta nc e,
s t r i c t n e s s , de mocratic p r a c t i c e s , and t r a i n i n g f o r independence.
(2)
Maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measure o f p o s i t i v e
methods o f c o n t r o l (use of rewards v e rs us punishment).
(3)
Maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measure o f methods of
c o n t r o l ( i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , ph y s ic a l r e s t r a i n t , de n ia l of
p r i v i l e g e s , ph y s ic a l punishment, and withdrawal o f l o v e ) .
(4)
Weighted maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measures of
methods o f c o n t r o l ( i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , phys ica l r e s t r a i n t s ,
de n ia l o f p r i v i l e g e s , phy s ic a l punishment, and withdrawal of
love).
(5)
Sex o f c h i l d .
Teacher completed t o t a l BASE r a t i n g s c a l e s c o r e s o f t h e f o u r t o
f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n formed t h e dependent v a r i a b l e in t h e
a n a l y s e s t h a t f o ll o w .
61
Main Anal ysi s
Hypothesis I
The f i r s t h y p o th e s i s s t a t e d t h a t mothers who s cor e high on
maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measures of a c c e pta nc e ,
s t r i c t n e s s , democratic p r a c t i c e s , and t r a i n i n g f o r independence will
have sons o r dau g h te r s with h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s co r es as measured by
th e t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
C o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s using th e Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e a le d t h a t only th e maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d i n a l
s u b s c a l e measure o f a cce pta nc e was found t o be p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d
with t h e BASE measure of s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r to f i v e y e a r old preschool
c h i l d r e n ( r = .29, g < . 0 5 ) .
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d i n a l
s u b s c a l e measures of s t r i c t n e s s , democratic p r a c t i c e s , and t r a i n i n g f o r
independence did not show a c o r r e l a t i o n with th e BASE measure of s e l f ­
esteem in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n ( r e f e r t o Table 3 ) .
Table 3.
C o r r e l a t i o n s between maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s ubsc al e
measures and t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e
Subs cale Measures
Correlation
C oefficient
(r )
p-Value
(B)
(I ) Acceptance
.290
(2) S t r i c t n e s s
-.16 0
.119
.060
.317
-. 089
.266
(3) Democratic p r a c t i c e s
(4) T r a in i n g f o r independence
♦ S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 le vel
.017*
62
Since t h e r e was only a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e o f a cce pta nc e and th e t o t a l
BASE s co r e measure o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
c h i l d r e n , only t h i s p o r t i o n of Hypothesis I was r e t a i n e d .
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 s t a t e d t h a t mothers who agre e t h a t rewarding c h i l d r e n
f o r doing well i s more e f f e c t i v e than punis hin g c h i l d r e n f o r not doing
well w i l l have sons o r da ug hte rs with h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s as
measured, by t h e t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
C o r r e l a t i o n s t u d i e s usi ng t h e Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e a l e d t h a t both t h e maternal d i s a g r e e and s t r o n g l y
d i s a g r e e res po ns e s t o q u e s t i o n 8 on t h e M other's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e were
p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with high s e l f - e s t e e m s co r es as measured by th e
t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e ( r = .26, & < . 0 5 ) .
A one-way
ANOVA o f d i f f e r e n c e s between mother res ponse s o f d i s a g r e e and s t r o n g l y
d i s a g r e e r e v e a l e d t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between preschool
c h i l d r e n s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s (F = 3 .6 5 , jd = .0619).
Since t h e r e was a
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between mothers who agree t h a t rewarding a c h i l d
f o r doing well i s more e f f e c t i v e than punis hin g a c h i l d f o r not doing
w e l l , and high s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s in preschool c h i l d r e n . Hypothesis 2
was r e t a i n e d .
63
Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 s t a t e d t h a t mothers who use c e r t a i n methods of
c o n t r o l ( i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , physi cal r e s t r a i n t , and de nia l of
p r i v i l e g e s v e rs us phys ica l punishment and withdrawal of love) w ill have
sons o r da u g h te r s with h ig h e r s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s as measured by the
t e a c h e r completed BASE r a t i n g s c a l e .
C o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s using t h e Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t r e v e a l e d t h e r e was no c o r r e l a t i o n between any o f the
s e p a r a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d methods of p a r e n t a l c o n tr o l ( i s o l a t i o n
t e c h n i q u e s , phys ica l r e s t r a i n t , de nia l o f p r i v i l e g e s , physi cal
punishment, and withdrawal of love) and t o t a l BASE s co r e measures of
preschool s e l f - e s t e e m (see Table 4 ) .
Table 4. C o r r e l a t i o n s between maternal a t t i t u d e s toward s p e c i f i c
__________ methods o f c o n t r o l and t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e .
Correlation
C oefficient
(D
p-Value
(B)
(I ) Withdrawal o f love
-.2 10
.207
(2) Physical r e s t r a i n t
.030
.425
(3) Denial of p r i v i l e g e s
.018
.445
(4) I s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
.180
.107
(5) Physical punishment
.135
.202
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e
Subscale Measures
^ S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 le v el
Each o f t h e s e p a r a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d p a r e n t a l respon ses was weighted
and tr an sf orm ed i n t o a new v a r i a b l e e n t i t l e d th e c o n t r o l t o t a l .
Withdrawal o f love res pon se s were a s s ig n e d a weight of 5; corpora l
64
punishment re sp ons es were a s s ig n e d a weight of 3; i s o l a t i o n te c h n i q u e s ,
ph ys ic a l r e s t r a i n t , and d e nia l o f p r i v i l e g e s respo nse s were each
as s ig n e d a weight of I .
This new v a r i a b l e ta k e s i n t o account:
(a) t h e p a r e n t a l o r d e r o f p r e f e r e n c e re g a rd in g methods o f c o n t r o l , and
(b) Co opersm it h's (1967) t h e o r e t i c a l b e s t p r a c t i c e o r d e r of p r e fe re n c e
re g a r d in g methods of p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l .
C o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s using t h e
Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t r e ve al e d t h e r e was no
c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e newly i d e n t i f i e d v a r i a b l e ( c o n t r o l t o t a l ) and
t o t a l BASE s co r e measures of s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old
preschool c h i l d r e n (see Table 5 ) .
Table 5.
C o r r e l a t i o n s between c o n t r o l t o t a l and t o t a l
Weighted Methods of
Pa re n ta l Control
(Control T ot al )
Weight
Value
(BASE) s c o r e .
Correlation
C oefficient
(D
p-Value
(Jl)
(I ) Withdrawal of love
5
O
(2) Physical r e s t r a i n t
I
-.226
.385
(3) Denial o f p r i v i l e g e s
I
-.007
.487
(4) I s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
I
.119
.342
(5) Physical punishment
3
-. 1 7 4
.265
0
Since t h e r e was no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e i d e n t i f i e d methods of
p a r e n t a l c o n t r o l and t o t a l BASE s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in fo u r
t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n . Hypothesis 3 was r e j e c t e d .
65
F u r t h e r A na ly si s
O b je c ti v e I
O b je c ti v e I , o u t l i n e d a t t h e o n s e t o f t h i s s tu dy, was t o a s c e r t a i n
and d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g maternal a t t i t u d e s toward c h i l d r e a r i n g with a
d e fi n e d p o p u la ti o n o f mothers o f preschool c h i l d r e n f o u r t o f i v e y e a r s
o f age, u t i l i z i n g th o s e q u e s t i o n s ta ken from t h e Pa re nt A t t i t u d e
Research In st rum en t (S ch a e fe r & B e l l , 1958) t h a t Coopersmith (1967)
found t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o high s e l f - e s t e e m in 10 t o 12 y e a r old
children.
A fr equency d i s t r i b u t i o n o f each m o t h e r ' s resp ons e t o each
Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item was t a b u l a t e d (see Tables 6 and 7 ) .
Table 6.
Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r M other's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e item numbers 1-8 and 10-17.
Maternal R e sp o n se Pattern and
Child’s Level of Self-E steem
Strongly A gree
Mother’s Q uestionnaire Item
I) Children would b e happier and better b eh aved
if parents would sh ow an interest in their
affairs.
A gree
Med.
High
Med.
High
Med.
High
Med.
(N )
(N )
(N )
(N )
(N )
(N )
(N )
High
(N)
13
24
8
6
7
5
14
24
8
11
12
19
2) Children should not annoy their parents with
unimportant problems.
_
3) The trouble with giving attention to
children’s problem s is they usually just m ake
up a lot of stories to k eep you interested.
4) W hen y o u d o things together, children feel
c lo s e to y o u and can talk m ore easily.
Strongly
D isagree
D isagree
17
28
4
2
5) Children are actually happier under strict
training.
I
3
10
8
6
15
4
3
6) N o child should ever s e t his will against his
parents.
2
I
5
12
14
6
10
7) Discipline is very important in raising young
children.
14
7
10
8) It is m ore effective to punish a child for
not d oin g well than for doing well.
-
7
7
14
23
NOTE: Refer to Table 7 for r e s p o n se s to item number 9.
20
—
—
—
Table 6—Continued.
Maternal R e sp o n se Pattern and
Child’s Level of Self-E steem
Strongly A gree
Mother’s Q uestionnaire Item
Med.
(N)
High
(N)
10) The child should not question th e thinking of
th e parents.
11) A child h a s a right to his ow n point of view
and should b e allowed to e x p r e ss it.
Agree
Strongly
D isagree
D isagree
Med.
(N)
High
(N)
Med.
(N)
High
(N)
Med.
(N)
High
(N)
2
I
10
18
9
11
11
18
10
12
_
12) There is no reason parents should h ave their
ow n w ay all of th e time, anym ore than th e
child should have his way all of th e time.
3
3
11
16
5
13) Children should have a sa y in th e making of
family plans.
9
10
12
20
_
14) A child should b e protected from job s which
might b e to o tiring or hard for him.
1
8
10
9
19
3
1
15) S o m e children don't realize how lucky they
are to have parents setting high g o a ls for
them .
1
4
8
12
16
3
3
16) A child should have little or no rights to
privacy in his room.
1
1
2
11
10
9
17
17) An alert parent should try and learn all of
her child’s thoughts.
1
1
9
12
14
3
5
5
6
1
Table 7.
Frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r M other's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e item number 9
M aternal M e th o d s of C ontrol O rd e r of P re fe re n c e
a n d C h ild 's S elf-E steem Level
1st
M o th e r's Q u estio n n aire Item
2nd
3 rd
4th
5th
M edium
High
M edium
H igh
M edium
High
M edium
High
M edium
High
►w ithdraw al of love
-
-
-
-
-
3
I
2
4
7
► p h y sic a l restraint
-
I
I
2
10
7
10
7
—
—
» d en ia l of privilege
9
17
10
10
2
-
-
-
—
1
► iso latio n te c h n iq u e s
11
10
9
14
-
3
-
2
-
—
► p h y sic a l p u n ish m en t
-
I
I
2
9
5
-
4
9) P le a s e list, in y o u r o rd e r of
p re fe re n c e , w hich m e th o d (s)
of c o n tro l y o u u s e w h en ru les
a r e violated:
8
10
69
O b je c ti v e 2
O b je c ti v e 2 was t o a s c e r t a i n and d e s c r i b e p r e v a i l i n g l e v e l s of
s e l f - e s t e e m w i t h i n t h e same de fin e d preschool po p u la ti o n o f fo u r to
f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n , u t i l i z i n g t e a c h e r r a t i n g s of s e l f - e s t e e m based
on t o t a l s c o r e s o b ta in e d from th e Behavioral Academic Self-Estee m
(BASE) s c a l e .
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were computed on a l l t o t a l BASE
s c o r e s acc ord in g t o age and sex .
Tables 8 and 9 summarize t h e s e
results.
Table 8.
Summary o f f o u r y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n t o t a l
scores.
High
Sel f Esteem
(BASE)
Medium
Sel f Esteem
Low
Sel f Esteem
N
%
N
%
N
Sex
N
Mean
Std.
Dev.
Femal e
18
64.94
7.68
44
77
48.15
13
18.52
5
0
0
9
67.44
8.90
56
80
22.22
6
11.11
3
0
0
Male
Table 9.
Minimum Maximum
Value
Value
%
Summary o f f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n t o t a l
scores.
High
Sel f Esteem
(BASE)
Medium
Sel f Esteem
Low
S elfEsteem
N
%
N
%
N
Sex
N
Mean
Std.
Dev.
Femal e
11
59.72
8.21
46
70
20.83
5
25.06
6
0
0
Male
13
61.84
8.90
48
78
25.00
6
29.17
7
0
0
Minimum Maximum
Value
Value
%
70
O b je c ti v e 3
O b je c ti v e 3 was t o a s c e r t a i n what c o r r e l a t i o n s might e x i s t between
maternal a t t i t u d e measures and th e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m w it h in t h i s
p o p u la ti o n o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n and t h e i r mothers, and to
compare and c o n t r a s t mother-son and m ot he r-d au ghte r outcomes.
Each Mo the r's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e item was r e l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y to t o t a l
BASE s co r e measures o f preschool s e l f - e s t e e m .
Correlational studies
using t h e Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t rev e al e d
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s between agree and s t r o n g l y agree respo nse s to
Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number I and d i s a g r e e and s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
re sp ons es t o Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 8 and t h e preschool
t o t a l s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s (see Table 10).
Table 10.
C o r r e l a t i o n s between each Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item and
t o t a l (BASE) s c o r e .
Mother's Questionnaire Item
Correlation
Coefficient Probability
(r)
(B)
(I) Children would be happier and better behaved i f
parents would show an interest in their affa irs.
.24
.04*
(8) It is more e ff ect iv e to punish a child for not
doing well than to reward him for succeeding.
.26
.03*
*Significant at the .05 level
Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e items were a l s o grouped by maternal
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d i n a l s u b s c a le measures o f a c c e pta nc e , s t r i c t n e s s ,
democratic p r a c t i c e s , and t r a i n i n g f o r independence, and r e l a t e d to
71
t o t a l BASE s c o r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in t h i s f o u r t o f i v e y e a r
old preschool sample.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a l s t u d i e s
d e s c r i b i n g t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p were o u t l i n e d in t h e r e s u l t s c i t e d under
Hypothesis I .
The t o t a l BASE s c o r e measures o f preschool s e l f - e s t e e m were t e s t e d
f o r homogeneity with r e s p e c t t o Mo the r' s Q u e s ti o n n a ir e item numbers 1-8
and 10-17.
The c h i - s q u a r e t e s t o f homogeneity re v e a le d preschool s e l f ­
esteem s c o r e s were homogeneous with r e s p e c t t o M other's Q ue st io n n a ir e
item numbers 1-8 and 10-17.
M oth er 's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e items were t e s t e d f o r homogeneity with
r e s p e c t t o sex d i f f e r e n c e s .
The c h i - s q u a r e t e s t o f homogeneity by sex
r e v e a l e d t h a t only Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 4 showed a nonhomogeneous p a t t e r n (X2 = 5.476, jd = .0193) a t t h e .05 l e v e l of
significance.
Male and female t o t a l BASE s c o r e measures o f preschool s e l f - e s t e e m
were a l s o r e l a t e d f o r homogeneity o f re s p o n s e s .
The c h i - s q u a r e t e s t o f
homogeneity r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between male and female
self-esteem scores. .
Since t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t s o f homogeneity r e v e a l e d only one nonhomogeneous p a t t e r n o f response t o M ot her 's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e items based
on t h e sex o f t h e c h i l d , t h e r e appea rs t o be only one major d i f f e r e n c e
between moth er-s on, m oth e r- da ug hte r re s p o n se s t o t h e M ot her 's
Questionnaire.
This d i f f e r e n c e o c cu r re d in response t o Mother's
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 4 ("When you do t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , c h i l d r e n
f e e l c l o s e t o you and can t a l k more e a s i l y " ) .
72
Summary o f Findings
Analyses o f t h e v a r i a b l e s :
(a) maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e
s u b s c a l e measures o f a c c e p ta n c e , s t r i c t n e s s , democratic p r a c t i c e s ,
t r a i n i n g f o r independence, p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l , and s p e c i f i c
methods o f c o n t r o l ;
(b) c h i l d ' s age; (c) c h i l d ' s sex; and (d) mother-
son and m ot he r- d a u g h te r resp onse p a t t e r n s , in c onju n c t io n with th e
dependent v a r i a b l e o f t o t a l BASE s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r
t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n , r e v e a l e d t h e f o ll o w i n g f i n d i n g s :
(1)
Maternal a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measures o f accep tanc e and p o s i t i v e
methods o f c o n t r o l were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE score
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
(2)
There were no sex based d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e t o t a l BASE score
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in t h i s f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
sample.
(3)
Mother-son, m oth e r- d a u g h te r resp ons e p a t t e r n s t o each o f th e
Mo the r' s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e items d i f f e r e d in r e l a t i o n s h i p t o only one
q u e s t i o n n a i r e item (Mother's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 4, "When
you do t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , c h i l d r e n f e e l c l o s e t o you and can t a l k
more e a s i l y " ) .
This q u e s t i o n n a i r e item was designed t o r e f l e c t
maternal a t t i t u d e s towards a c c e p t a n c e .
73
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s study i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e su b sc a le
measures o f a c c e p ta n c e , p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l , and t o t a l BASE
s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu dy a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was no
d i f f e r e n c e in t h e s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s o f male and female f o u r t o f i v e
y e a r ol d c h i l d r e n .
In a d d i t i o n , mother-son and m ot he r-d au ght er
resp on se p a t t e r n s t o each o f t h e M oth er 's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e items d i f f e r e d
only in r e l a t i o n s h i p t o one q u e s t i o n n a i r e item (Mother's Q ue st io n n a ir e
item number 4, "When you do t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , c h i l d r e n f e e l c l o s e t o you
and can t a l k more e a s i l y " ) .
Findings
This s tu dy examined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s as
th e y r e l a t e d t o measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old
preschool c h i l d r e n .
Preschool s e l f - e s t e e m was determined by th e
t e a c h e r completed Behavioral Academic S el f- Es tee m (BASE) r a t i n g s c a l e
to ta l score.
A d i s c u s s i o n o f how each i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r r e l a t e d t o t h e
t o t a l BASE s co r e measure o f s e l f - e s t e e m fo l l o w s .
74
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f Acceptance and Preschool
S el f- Es tee m
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measure o f acceptance
was found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE s co r e measures of
s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g
s u g g e s ts t h a t when s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e convey
t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e , s u p p o r t , i n t e r e s t and a f f e c t i o n t o t h e c h i l d , i t may
pr ovi de t h e b a s i s f o r a f a v o r a b l e s e l f - a t t i t u d e .
This f i n d i n g
sup por te d pre v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s of
acc e pt an c e with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n
(Blanton, 1985) and school aged c h i l d r e n (Coopersmith, 1967; Graybi 11,
1970; Kawash, Kerr & Cl ewes, 1984; Quadri & Kaleem, 1973; Schwartz,
1966; S e a r s , 1970; Sew el l, Mussen & H a r r i s , 1955; Zemlich & Watson,
1953).
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f S t r i c t n e s s and Preschool
S el f- Es tee m
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measure o f s t r i c t n e s s
was no t found t o be r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m
in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g does not
s u p p o rt p re v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g
a t t i t u d e s o f s t r i c t n e s s with high s e l f - e s t e e m in school age c h i l d r e n
(Coopersmith, 1967) and preschool c h i l d r e n (Flynn, 1979).
This f i n d i n g
s u g g e s t s t h a t perhaps t h e s u b s c a l e measure o f s t r i c t n e s s used in t h i s
stu dy does no t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s o f s t r i c t n e s s
75
toward preschool c h i l d r e n ; o r , perhaps a t t i t u d e s o f s t r i c t n e s s a re not
r e l a t e d t o t h e s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s o f t h i s s p e c i f i c sample o f f o u r to
f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e SUbscale
Measure o f Democratic P r a c t i c e s and
Preschool Self -E st eem
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measure o f democratic
p r a c t i c e s was not found t o be r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE s c o r e measures o f
s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g
does not su p p o rt pre v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d maternal
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e towards de mocratic p r a c t i c e s with high s e l f ­
esteem l e v e l s in sc ho ols age c h i l d r e n ( A t l a s , 1972; Coopersmit h , 1967;
Kinney, 1988).
This f i n d i n g s u g g e s ts t h a t perhaps t h e s u b s c a l e measure
o f dem ocr atic p r a c t i c e s used in t h i s s tu dy does not a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t
p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s toward democratic p r a c t i c e s toward preschool
c h i l d r e n ; o r , perhaps a t t i t u d e s toward democratic p r a c t i c e s a r e not
r e l a t e d t o preschool c h i l d r e n in gener al o r t o t h i s preschool sample
specifically.
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f T r a in i n g f o r Independence
and Preschool Self -E st eem
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measure o f t r a i n i n g
f o r independence was no t found t o be r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE scor e
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g does not su p p o rt p re v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d
maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s toward independence with high
76
s e l f - e s t e e m l e v e l s in 10 t o 12 y e a r old boys (Coopersmith, 1967).
However, t h i s f i n d i n g does su pp ort pre v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d
p r o t e c t i v e p a r e n t i n g a t t i t u d e s with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r
t o s i x y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n (Blanton, 1985).
e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h i s f i n d i n g might i n c l u d e :
Three p o s s i b l e
(a) t h a t t h e maternal
a t t i t u d e measure toward t r a i n i n g f o r independence t h a t was used in t h i s
stu dy does not a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s towards
independence t r a i n i n g in preschool c h i l d r e n , (b) t h a t p a r e n t a l
a t t i t u d e s toward t r a i n i n g f o r independence a r e not r e l a t e d t o measures
o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n , and (c) t h a t
p r o t e c t i v e p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s may be more a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e
development o f high s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n .
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measure o f P o s i t i v e Methods o f Control
and Preschool Self -E st eem
The maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measure o f p o s i t i v e
methods o f c o n t r o l was found t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE
s co r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
This f i n d i n g does su pport p re v io u s r e s e a r c h which a s s o c i a t e d
p o s i t i v e approaches t o d i s c i p l i n e (which emphasized p r a i s e and reward
v e rs u s punishment) with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in school aged
c h i l d r e n ( A t l a s , 1972; Coopersmith, 1967).
This f i n d i n g may suggest
t h a t by conveying a t t e n t i v e and r e s p e c t f u l t r e a t m e n t t o t h e c h i l d ,
s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e c h i l d ' s l i f e provide t h e b a s i s f o r a
favorable s e l f - a t t i t u d e .
77
Maternal C h i l d r e a r i n g A t t i t u d e Subscale
Measures Towards S p e c i f i c Methods o f
Control and Preschool Self-Estee m
None o f t h e m at ernal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a le measures
towards s p e c i f i c methods o f c o n t r o l ( i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , physical
r e s t r a i n t , de ni al o f p r i v i l e g e s , ph y s ic a l punishment, and withdrawal of
love) were found t o be r e l a t e d t o t o t a l BASE s cor e measures o f s e l f ­
esteem in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g does
not su p p o rt pre v io u s r e s e a r c h t h a t a s s o c i a t e d i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s ,
ph ys ic a l r e s t r a i n t , de n ia l o f p r i v i l e g e s versu s phys ic a l punishment,
and withdrawal o f love with high l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in school age
c h i l d r e n (Coopersmith, 1967).
Nor does i t sup port pre v io u s re s ea rc h
which a s s o c i a t e d withdrawal o f love with low l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in
school aged c h i l d r e n (Graybi11, 1978).
finding include:
Possible explanations fo r t h i s
(a) t h a t t h e maternal a t t i t u d e measures o f methods of
c o n t r o l used in t h i s stu dy do no t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t t h e a c t u a l methods
o f c o n t r o l mothers u t i l i z e , and .(b) t h a t t h e maternal a t t i t u d e measures
o f methods o f c o n t r o l u t i l i z e d in t h i s stu dy a r e not r e l a t e d t o
measures o f preschool s e l f - e s t e e m in g e n e r a l , o r perhaps a r e not
r e l a t e d t o t h i s s p e c i f i c sample o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
C h i l d ' s Sex and Preschool Self-Estee m
The sex o f t h e c h i l d was no t found t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l BASE
s c o r e measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in t h i s sample o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old
preschool c h i l d r e n .
This f i n d i n g does su p p o rt pre vio us r e s e a r c h done
78
by Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s (1985)..
Coopersmith and G i l b e r t s did not
f i n d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in preschool s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s based on
t h e sex o f t h e c h i l d .
However, t h i s f i n d i n g does not su p p o rt the
r e s e a r c h o f Elrod and Crase (1980), who found t h a t males had hig he r
s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s than females in t h e i r f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old
preschool sample.
These f i n d i n g s su g g es t t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
t h e sex o f t h e c h i l d and measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n
i s not c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , o r t h a t t h e r e i s a wide v a r i a b i l i t y among
samples.
Comparison o f Mother-Son and Mother-Daughter
Responses t o t h e M oth er 's Q u e s ti o n n a ir e
Only one maternal resp onse p a t t e r n was found t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e
sex d i f f e r e n c e in t h i s sample o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
This d i f f e r e n c e occu rr ed in response t o Mo the r's
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e item number 4 ("When you do t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , c h i l d r e n
fe e l c l o s e t o you and can t a l k more e a s i l y " ) .
Item 4 was designed to
r e f l e c t maternal a t t i t u d e s toward a c c e p ta n c e .
This f i n d i n g supp ort s
pr e v io u s r e s e a r c h which sug ges te d t h a t sex o f t h e c h i l d must be
c o n si d e re d when lookin g a t s p e c i f i c maternal o r p a t e r n a l response
p a t t e r n s t h a t r e l a t e t o s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n (Elrod & Crase, 1980).
This f i n d i n g s u g g e s ts t h a t perhaps female c h i l d r e n respond d i f f e r e n t l y
than male c h i l d r e n t o t h e same p a t t e r n s o f maternal b e h a v io r ; o r ,
perhaps mothers ( p a r e n t s ) a c t u a l l y respond t o t h e i r female c h i l d r e n
d i f f e r e n t l y than t o t h e i r male c h i l d r e n .
79
Limitations
This sample i s not n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l p o p u la ti o n s
o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool c h i l d r e n and t h e i r mothers, and
t h e r e f o r e cannot be g e n e r a l i z e d f o r f i v e b a s i c re a s o n s :
(1)
This sample was a s e l f - s e l e c t e d sample, not a randomly ass ign ed
sample.
(2)
This sample was comprised o f 15 mothers (29.4%) who were s t u d e n t s ,
and 28.6% o f t h e s e mothers r e p o r t e d t h e c h i l d r e n ' s f a t h e r s (N=14)
were a l s o s t u d e n t s , a l l o f whom a t t e n d e d Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
In a d d i t i o n , i n c l u s i o n o f many o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s as members o f th e
low income p o p u la ti o n was perhaps due t o temporary family
circumstances.
(3)
All o f t h e c h i l d r e n sampled had e i t h e r medium (58.8%, N=21) or
high (41.2%, N=30) s e l f - e s t e e m s c o r e s .
This la c k o f low s e l f ­
esteem s c o r e s i s not r e f l e c t i v e o f a normative sample.
(4)
This st udy was r e s t r i c t e d t o female p a r e n t s .
Inf orm at ion from t h e
male p a r e n t would have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e t o t a l p a r e n t a l response
p a t t e r n as i t r e l a t e s t o s e l f - e s t e e m in preschool c h i l d r e n .
(5)
Due t o p o s s i b l e problems with maternal a c q u i e s c e n t response
p a t t e r n s , mother res pon den ts may have chosen t h e more s o c i a l l y
d e s i r a b l e re s p o n se s v e rs us t h e re s p o n se s t h a t a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t e d
t h e i r a t t i t u d e s towards c h i l d r e a r i n g .
In a d d i t i o n , a major weakness in t h i s stu dy was t h e use o f only
s e l e c t p o r t i o n s o f t h e modified PARI t h a t Coopersmith (1967) found t o
be r e l a t e d t o s e l f - e s t e e m in 10 t o 12 y e a r old boys.
The modified PARI
80
was a b l e only t o sample maternal a t t i t u d e s with one t o f o u r q u e s t i o n s .
Perhaps a l a r g e r sample s i z e and a to o l t h a t u t i l i z e d f o u r t o f i v e
q u e s t i o n s t o sample each maternal a t t i t u d e would have provided a more
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sampling o f maternal a t t i t u d e s , and more meaningful
results.
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r Research
Several p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r r e s e a r c h a r e su ggested by t h i s st udy .
F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s would be o f i n t e r e s t t o preschool and primary
school e d u c a t o r s , p a r e n t s , school p s y c h o l o g i s t s and c o u n s e l o r s , and
u n i v e r s i t y departments o f c h i l d development, family r e l a t i o n s , and
c h i l d psychology.
A dd iti ona l a n a l y s e s o f Coopersmith1s (1967) modified Parent
A t t i t u d e Research In st rum en t ( S c h a e f f e r & B e l l , 1958) in r e l a t i o n to
o t h e r p a r e n t a l c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e measures should be performed.
There i s a need t o develop p a r e n t a t t i t u d e r e s e a r c h in s tr u m e n ts t h a t
have improved v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y in general as well as in
r e l a t i o n t o s p e c i f i c age l e v e l s o f c h i l d r e n .
There i s a l s o a need t o
develop a p a r e n t a t t i t u d e r e s e a r c h i n s tr u m e n t t h a t b e t t e r r e f l e c t s
Co opersm it h's t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e formation o f
self-esteem.
F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s needed t o improve t h e v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y
o f t h e BASE r a t i n g to o l with preschool age p o p u l a t i o n s .
Longitudinal
s t u d i e s a r e a l s o needed t o determine i f preschool measures o f s e l f ­
esteem change with age o r remain c o n s i s t e n t over ti m e .
81
F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s needed t o c l a r i f y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p a r e n ta l
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e measures t o measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n
a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s and ages o f development.
There i s a need to
un de rs tan d how p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s may d i f f e r a t each s t a g e in a c h i l d ' s
development and how t h e s e a t t i t u d e s may i n f l u e n c e t h e for mation of
self-esteem.
F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s a l s o needed t o c l a r i f y th e d i f f e r e n c e s between
maternal and p a t e r n a l c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s and how each r e l a t e s to
measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in male and female c h i l d r e n a t each age l e v e l .
There i s a need t o un de rs ta nd how s e x - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s between
p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n i n f l u e n c e and i n t e r a c t with one a n o t h e r .
More
s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e i s a need t o a d d re s s t h e more global i s s u e of t h e
f a t h e r ' s r o l e in r e l a t i o n t o a l l a s p e c t s o f c h i l d r e n ' s development.
Perhaps i t i s time t o r e t h i n k a l l o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l models regardin g
how c h i l d r e n dev elo p, and more c l e a r l y d e l i n e a t e t h e f a t h e r ' s r o l e in
t h i s development.
R e p l i c a t i o n s o f Coopersmit h ' s (1967) o r i g i n a l s tu dy a r e a l s o
needed t o v a l i d a t e o r r e f u t e h i s t h e o r e t i c a l framework.
Finally,
r e p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s s tu dy a r e needed in o t h e r p r e s c h o o l / d a y c a r e
s e t t i n g s l o c a t e d in both urban and r u r a l a r e a s in o r d e r t o c o n t r a s t
findings.
Without f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t i o n , a tt e m p ts t o g e n e r a l i z e any
f i n d i n g s would no t be recommended.
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r P a r e n ts and Educators
Since t h e maternal c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s o f a c c e pta nc e and
p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l appeared t o be r e l a t e d t o p o s i t i v e s e l f
82
esteem in preschool c h i l d r e n , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p a r e n t s and
e d u c a t o r s a r e extre mely p e r t i n e n t .
P a r e n ts need t o be informed and educated re g a r d in g th e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i r r o l e t o t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m
in t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
P a r e n ts need t o be made aware o f t h e importance of
conveying a t t i t u d e s o f concern, i n t e r e s t , and accep tanc e t o t h e i r
children.
In a d d i t i o n , p a r e n t s need t o be made aware o f t h e importance
o f u t i l i z i n g p o s i t i v e methods o f c o n t r o l which emphasize reward and
p r a i s e v e rs us punishment.
F i n a l l y , p a r e n t s need t o be educated
r e g a r d i n g p r a c t i c a l methods o f implementing and a pply ing t h i s
i n fo r m a t io n in a f u n c t i o n a l manner d u ri n g day -t o -d a y en co u n te rs with
th e ir children.
Info rm at ion and c o u rs e s d e a l i n g with s e l f - e s t e e m , and f a c t o r s t h a t
i n f l u e n c e i t s development, should be an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f r e q u i r e d o r
c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a ti o n cu rr ic u lu m s f o r a l l t e a c h e r s , preschool through
secondary l e v e l .
Teachers need t o be provided w ith :
(a) t h e o r e t i c a l
i n fo r m a t io n r e g a r d i n g t h e development o f p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m ,
(b) p r a c t i c a l i n fo r m a t io n on how t o a s s e s s l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m and
f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e i t s development, and (c) t r a i n i n g in how to
i n t e r p r e t t h i s i n fo r m a t io n f o r p a r e n t s .
Since preschool t e a c h e r s a r e a l o g i c a l source o f in fo r m at io n and
s u p p o r t t o p a r e n t s o f preschool c h i l d r e n , i t i s im por ta nt f o r preschool
t e a c h e r s t o be a b l e t o :
(a) e duc at e and inform p a r e n t s re g a rd in g
p r a c t i c a l methods o f promoting p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n ;
(b) a s c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n ' s l e v e l s o f s e l f - e s t e e m ; (c) e v a l u a t e f a c t o r s
t h a t may be i n f l u e n c i n g s e l f - e s t e e m ; (d) develop an a p p r o p r i a t e
83
c u rr ic u lu m o r i n t e r v e n t i o n plan t h a t promotes t h e development o f
p o s i t i v e s e l f - e s t e e m ; and (e) encourage d i s c u s s i o n s re g a r d in g s e l f ­
esteem and t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e i t s development, duri ng p a r e n t t e a c h e r c o n f e r e n c e s , in school n e w s l e t t e r s , through p a r e n t i n g c l a s s e s ,
etc.
Summary
This st udy pro vided evidence o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p between maternal
c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s u b s c a l e measures o f a cce pta nc e and p o s i t i v e
methods o f c o n t r o l , and measures o f s e l f - e s t e e m in f o u r t o f i v e y e a r
ol d preschool c h i l d r e n .
I t a l s o provided evidence t h a t mothers of
d a u g h te r s did respond d i f f e r e n t l y than mothers o f sons t o I out o f 17
items on a M oth er 's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o o l .
In a d d i t i o n , t h i s study
pro vided ev idence t h a t t h e r e were no sex -b ased d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e s e l f
esteem s c o r e s o f t h i s sample o f f o u r t o f i v e y e a r old preschool
children.
84
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\
91
APPENDICES
92
APPENDIX A:
FACTORS MEASURED BY THE
BEHAVIORAL ACADEMIC SELF-ESTEEM RATING SCALE
93
FACTORS MEASURED BY THE
BEHAVIORAL ACADEMIC SELF-ESTEEM RATING SCALE
(1)
S tud en t I n i t i a t i v e
(2)
Social A t t e n t i o n
(3)
Success/Failure
(4)
Socia l A t t r a c t i o n
(5)
Se lf - C o n f id e n c e
94
APPENDIX B:
LETTERS TO DIRECTORS OF PRESCHOOL
AND DAY CARE CENTER
3)
95
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v elo p m en t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development,
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
Jan ua ry 8, 1990
Jeanne Egge rt, D i r e c t o r
ASMSUDay Care Center
Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Bozeman, Montana 59715
Dear Jeanne:
The purpose o f t h i s l e t t e r i s t o fo r m al l y r e q u e s t
th e ASMSU Day Care Cent er and s t a f f in a m a s t e r ' s
With your a pp ro v a l, I w i l l be c o n t a c t i n g t h e head
and f i v e y e a r old groups and t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e s e
t h a t th e y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s s tu d y .
Thank you f o r your time and c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Sincerely,
Ruth C. McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
permi ssi on t o u t i l i z e
research p ro je c t,
teachers of the four
ch ildren, requesting
96
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v e lo p m e n t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
. Telephone (406) 994-3240
January 8, 1990
Dede Baker, Acting D i r e c t o r
Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Child
Development Center
Bozeman, Montana 59715
Dear Dede:
The purpose o f t h i s l e t t e r i s t o fo r m a ll y r e q u e s t permi ssi on t o u t i l i z e
t h e Child Development C en te r and s t a f f in a m a s t e r ' s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t .
With yo ur a p p ro v a l, I w i l l be c o n t a c t i n g t h e head t e a c h e r s o f th e f o u r
and f i v e y e a r old groups and t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e s e c h i l d r e n , r e q u e s t i n g
t h a t th e y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s s tu d y .
Thank you f o r your time and c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Sincerely,
Ruth C. McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
97
APPENDIX C:
FIRST COVER LETTER TO MOTHERS
98
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v elo p m en t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
Janu ary 15, 1990
Dear Child Development Cent er Mother:
I am w r i t i n g t o r e q u e s t t h a t you p a r t i c i p a t e in a stud y t h a t w il l be
conducted in t h e MSU Child Development C en t er . The purpose o f t h i s
s tu dy i s t o i d e n t i f y mo thers' a t t i t u d e s toward v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of
childrearing.
This stu dy w i l l in v o lv e two p r o c e d u r e s . The f i r s t p a r t w i l l c o n s i s t o f
a p a r e n t a t t i t u d e survey a ski ng you t o i n d i c a t e your opini on rega rd in g
s p e c i f i c c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s . The survey w i l l be given out th e
f o u r t h week in Janu ary 1990. Your res pons e s w i l l remain a b s o l u t e l y
c o n f i d e n t i a l and used f o r r e s e a r c h purposes only . The second p a r t o f
t h e stu dy w i l l in v o lv e t e a c h e r based r a t i n g s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in
children.
Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s stud y i s very im p o r ta n t. My goal i s t o have
100 p e r c e n t o f t h e mothers with f o u r and f i v e y e a r old c h i l d r e n
a t t e n d i n g t h e Child Development C en te r p a r t i c i p a t e .
I t should t a k e about 10 minutes t o complete t h e r e q u e s t e d survey.
Ple a se note you w i l l not be asked t o put your name on t h e sur ve y.
and o t h e r measures have been designed t o en sur e c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y .
This
I f you a r e w i l l i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s s tu d y , p l e a s e complete th e
forms t h a t w i l l be pla ced in yo ur c h i l d ' s l o c k e r nex t week. Please
r e t u r n them t o me in t h e stamped, s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelope t h a t w il l be
pr ov id e d, by F r id a y , February 2, 1990.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e stu dy w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o any p a r e n t who has
an e xp re ss ed i n t e r e s t .
Thank you so much f o r yo ur a s s i s t a n c e in t h i s r e s e a r c h s t u d y .
have any q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e give me a c a l l a t 586-6608.
Sincerely,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
I f you
99
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f Hum an D e v elo p m en t and C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
January 29, 1990
Dear ASMSU Day Care Center Mother:
I am w r i t i n g to request t h a t you and your c h i l d p a r t i c i p a t e in a study
t h a t w ill be conducted in the ASMSU Day Care Center. The purpose of t h i s
study i s to i d e n t i f y mothers' a t t i t u d e s toward various aspe ct s of
childrearing.
This study w ill involve two procedures. The f i r s t p a r t w ill c o n s i s t of a
pa rent a t t i t u d e survey asking you to i n d i c a t e your opinion regarding
s p e c i f i c c h i l d r e a r i n g a t t i t u d e s . The survey will be given out the fourth
week in January 1990. Your responses w ill remain a b s o lu t e ly c on fi d e n ti a l
and used f o r research purposes only. The second p a r t of the study will
involve t e a c h e r based r a t i n g s of s e lf - e s te e m in c h i l d r e n .
Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s study i s very important. My goal i s to have
100 percent of the mothers with fo ur and f i v e ye ar old ch il d re n at te nding
the ASMSU Day Care Center p a r t i c i p a t e . I r e g r e t t h a t only mothers'
responses can be used, but the research tool was designed only to e l i c i t ,
mothers' responses.
I t should take about 10 minutes to complete the requested survey. Please
note you w ill not be asked to put your name on the survey. This and o th e r
measures have been designed to ensure c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y .
I f you are w i l l i n g to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s study, ple ase complete the forms
t h a t will be placed on the s ig n - i n desk next week. Please r e tu rn them to
me in the stamped, s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelope t h a t will be provided, by
Friday, February 16,'1990.
The r e s u l t s of the study w il l be made a v a i l a b l e to any paren t who has an
expressed i n t e r e s t .
Thank you so much f o r your a s s i s t a n c e in t h i s research st udy .
any q u e s ti o n s , ple ase give me a c a l l a t 586-6608.
S in c e re ly ,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
I f you have
100
APPENDIX D:
SECOND COVER LETTER TO MOTHERS,
GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE,
AND MOTHER'S QUESTIONNAIRE
101
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v elo p m en t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
Janu ary 22, 1990
Dear Child Development Cent er Mother:
Enclosed i s a general in fo r m a t io n s h e e t and a M other's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
As d i s c u s s e d in t h e co ve r l e t t e r s e n t t o you l a s t week, t h e purpose o f
t h i s stud y i s t o i d e n t i f y mo thers' a t t i t u d e s towards v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f
c h i l d r e a r i n g and t o compare them with t e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f c h i l d r e n ' s
s e l f - e s t e e m . Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s stu dy i s very im p o r ta n t.
I am r e q u e s t i n g t h a t you p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s s tu dy, complete t h e
a t t a c h e d forms, and r e t u r n them t o me in t h e stamped, s e l f - a d d r e s s e d
envelope provide d by February 2, 1990. Ple a se do not put your name on
t h e form. This and o t h e r measures have been designed t o ensure
confidentiality.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu dy w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o any p a r e n t who has
an e xp re ss ed i n t e r e s t . Ple a se f e e l f r e e t o c a l l me a t 586-6608 i f you
have any q u e s t i o n s o r comments.
Thank you so much f o r you r a s s i s t a n c e in t h i s r e s e a r c h s tu d y .
Sincerely,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
102
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v elo p m en t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
Janu ary 29, 1990
Dear ASMSU Day Care C en te r Mother:
Enclosed i s a general in fo r m a t io n s h e e t and a M other's Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
As d i s c u s s e d in t h e co ve r l e t t e r s e n t t o you l a s t week, t h e purpose o f
t h i s stud y i s t o i d e n t i f y mothers' a t t i t u d e s towards v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f
c h i l d r e a r i n g and t o compare them with t e a c h e r r a t i n g s o f c h i l d r e n ' s
s e l f - e s t e e m . Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s stu dy i s very im p o r ta n t.
I am r e q u e s t i n g t h a t you p a r t i c i p a t e in t h i s st udy , complete th e
a t t a c h e d forms, and r e t u r n them t o me in t h e stamped, s e l f - a d d r e s s e d
envelope provided by February 16, 1990. Ple a se do not put your name on
t h e form. This and o t h e r measures have been designed t o ensure
confidentiality.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu dy w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e t o any p a r e n t who has
an ex pr e sse d i n t e r e s t . P le a se f e e l f r e e t o c a l l me a t 586-6608 i f you
have any q u e s t i o n s o r comments.
Thank you so much f o r y o u r a s s i s t a n c e in t h i s r e s e a r c h s tu d y .
Sincerely,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
103
No.
GENERAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
In str u c tio n s : Please do NOT give your name, but answer the following questions
as accurately as possible.
(I)
Please indicate your age:
(2)
What is your current marital status?
[ I never married
[ I married
[ J divorced
[ ] widowed
(3)
Please indicate the highest educational level attained by yourself and
your child's father by circling the number of years of education
completed.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Mother's Education
High school
College:
I, 2, 3, 4+ years
Graduate school:
I, 2, 3, 4+ years
Other (please l i s t ) :
Father's Education
(a) High school
(b) College:
I, 2, 3, 4+ years
(c) Graduate school:
I, 2, 3, 4+ years
(d)
Other (please l i s t ) :
(4)
Please describe your occupation:
(5)
Please describe your child's father's occupation ( i f applicable):
(6)
Please l i s t the current ages and sex of all your children ( i f applicable):
Bovs
Ages: __________________________
(7)
Girls
Ages: ________________________
(O ptional) Please check the approximate level of your combined annual
family income:
[ ] Less than $20,000
[ ] $31,000 - $40,000
[ ] $20,000 - $30,000
[ ] Over $40,000
104
N o.
M O T H E R ’S Q U E S T IO N N A IR E
I n s tr u c tio n s : Ple a se i n d i c a t e your opinio n by drawing a c i r c l e around the
number " I" i f you s t r o n g l y a g r e e , "2" i f you m il dly a g re e , "3" i f you
m il d ly d i s a g r e e , o r "4" i f you s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e .
I f you fee l you have
any id e a s which should be in c lu d e d , p l e a s e w r i t e them down next t o t h e
q u e s t i o n . Ple a se give your f i r s t r e a c t i o n to t h e q u e s t i o n . I f you read
and r e r e a d s t a t e m e n t s , i t te nds t o be con fus ing and time-consuming.
There a r e no r i g h t o r wrong answers, so answer acc ord in g t o your own
o p in io n .
I t i s very im por tan t t o t h e study t h a t a l l q u e s ti o n s be
answered. Many s t a t e m e n t s w il l seem a l i k e , but a l l a r e n e ce s sa ry to show
s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s in op in io n .
A few q u e s t i o n s w i l l ask you t o make s h o r t d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s .
a g a i n , p l e a s e answer acc or din g t o your own o p in io n.
4
Once
\ %
(I )
Child ren would be h a p p ie r and b e t t e r behaved
i f p a r e n t s would show an i n t e r e s t in t h e i r
affairs.
i
2
3
4
(2)
Child ren should not annoy t h e i r p a r e n t s with
t h e i r unimportant problems.
i
2
3
4
(3)
The t r o u b l e with g iv in g a t t e n t i o n t o c h i l d ­
r e n ' s problems i s th e y u s u a l l y j u s t make up
a l o t o f s t o r i e s t o keep you i n t e r e s t e d .
i
2
3
4
(4)
When you do t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , c h i l d r e n fe e l
c l o s e t o you and can t a l k more e a s i l y .
i
2
3
4
(5)
Ch ild ren a r e a c t u a l l y h a p p i e r under s t r i c t
training.
i
2
3
4
(6)
No c h i l d should e v e r s e t h i s w i l l a g a i n s t
his parents.
i
2
3
4
(7)
D i s c i p l i n e i s very im po r ta nt in r a i s i n g
young c h i l d r e n .
i
2
3
4
105
%
sM
<3-
(8)
I t i s more e f f e c t i v e to punish a c h i l d f o r
not doing well than t o reward him f o r
su cce edi ng.
(9)
P le a se l i s t , in your o r d e r of p r e f e r e n c e , which method(s) of c o n tr o l
you use when r u l e s a r e v i o l a t e d .
►withdrawal o f love
I) ________________________________
► phy s ic a l r e s t r a i n t
2) ________________________________
► de ni al o f p r i v i l e g e s
3) ________________________________
►i s o l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s
4) ________________________________
► phys ica l punishment
5) ________________________________
I
2
3
4
& \ XXX
(10)
The c h i l d should not q u e s ti o n t h e th i n k i n g
of the parents.
I
2
3
4
(H )
A c h i l d has a r i g h t t o h i s own p o i n t of
view and should be allowed t o e x p re s s i t .
I
2
3
4
(12)
There i s no reason p a r e n t s should have t h e i r
own way a l l o f t h e tim e, any more than th e
c h i l d should have h i s way a l l o f t h e time.
I
2
3
4
(13)
Child ren should have a say in t h e making of
fami ly p l a n s .
I
2
3
4
(14)
A c h i l d should be p r o t e c t e d from j o b s which
might be too t i r i n g o r hard f o r him.
I
2
3
4
(15)
Some c h i l d r e n d o n ' t r e a l i z e how lucky they
a r e t o have p a r e n t s s e t t i n g high go a ls f o r
them.
I
2
3
4
(16)
A c h i l d should have l i t t l e o r no r i g h t s to
p r i v a c y in h i s own room.
I
2
3
4
(17)
An a l e r t p a r e n t should t r y t o l e a r n a l l of
her c h i l d ' s thoughts.
I
2
3
4
Reproduced by special permission of the publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press, I n c .,
Palo A lto, California 94306, from The Antecedents of Self-Esteem by Stanley Coopersmith ,
© 1981. Items were adapted from: E.S. Schaefer and R.Q. B e ll, 1958, Development of a
parental attitu d e research instrument. Child Development. 19: 339-361.
106
APPENDIX E:
FOLLOW-UP LETTERS TO MOTHERS
107
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v e lo p m e n t and C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Telephone (406) 994-3240
Herrick Hall
?
February 5, 1990
Dear Child Development Cent er Mother:
The purpose o f t h i s l e t t e r i s t o thank a l l o f you who have
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e r e s e a r c h st ud y comparing maternal
a t t i t u d e s t o v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
For t h o s e o f you who may no t have r e t u r n e d your
q u e s t i o n n a i r e forms, p l e a s e do so by February 24, 1990. I t
i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t I g e t as many o f your res pons e s as
possible.
I would a l s o l i k e t o thank a l l t h e f a t h e r s who have
ex pre sse d an i n t e r e s t in t h i s s t u d y . I r e g r e t t h a t
f a t h e r s ' re s p o n se s could no t be in c lu de d due t o t h e
n a t u r e of t h e s tu d y .
Thank you once ag ain f o r your time and c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Sincerely,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
108
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana 59717
Unit o f H um an D e v elo p m en t an d C o u n se lin g
Department of Health and Human Development
Herrick Hall
Telephone (406) 994-3240
February 19, 1990
Dear ASMSU Day Care Cent er Mother:
The purpose o f t h i s l e t t e r i s t o thank a l l o f you who have
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e r e s e a r c h stu dy comparing maternal
a t t i t u d e s t o v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f s e l f - e s t e e m in c h i l d r e n .
For t h o s e o f you who may not have r e t u r n e d your
q u e s t i o n n a i r e forms, p l e a s e do so by February 24, 1990. I t
i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t I g e t as many o f your re sp onses as
possible.
I would a l s o l i k e t o thank a l l t h e f a t h e r s who have
ex pr e sse d an i n t e r e s t in t h i s s t u d y . I r e g r e t t h a t
f a t h e r s ' re s p o n se s could not be in c lu d e d due t o t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e s tu d y .
Thank you once ag ain f o r yo ur time and c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Sincerely,
Ruth McGann
Graduate Student in Child Development
109
APPENDIX F:
PERMISSION LETTERS FROM
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no
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577 C o lle g e A v e n u e (P.O . B ox 60070), P a lo A lto , C A 94306 (415) 85 7 -1 4 4 4
r
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408 N orth 17th
Bozeman, Montana
I
Customer #
141935
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In response to your request of
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..ron page 1 .1 , - a b le 13.1 :""on th e book A ntecedent s o f S e lf-e s te e m , in "o u r
th e s is e n t i t l e d "M aternal C h ild -R ea rin g A ttitu d e s and B e h a v jtra l Academic
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40 c o p ie s o f th e s e item s f o r use in your r e s e a r c h . A coo-' o f th e se item s
may app ear in your t h e s i s .
for 0 research ONLY
D commercial use
Dclinical use
subject to-the following restrictions:
(a) Any material used must contain the following credit lines:
"Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.,
Palo Alto, CA 94306,
fro m .
The A ntecedents o f S e lf-e ste e m
by
S ta n le y Coopersm ith
1991
©
Item s were ad ap ted from: 5 .5 . S ch ae fer and 3.Q . S e ll "Development oi a p a r e n ta l
Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher's consent:" " t t i t u o e rese arc n in stru m e n •
C hild 'Jeveio - . , 29:339- 361
(b) None of the materials may be sold or used for purposes other than those mentioned above.
' -9 5 3 1.
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One copy of any material reproduced will be sent to the Publisher to indicate that the appropriate credit
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Mc - Ruth McGann______________ agreefs) to assign all right, title, and interest in translations,
versions, and/or modifications of this instrument to CPP or as directed by CPP.
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC.
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C O N S U L T IN G P SY C H O L O G IS T S PR E SS, I N C
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r
Ms. Ruth McGann
403 N orth 1 7 th
Bozeman, M ontana
I
Customer
#
141935______________
Purchase order # ______________________
59715
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Quantity _____________________________
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In response to your request of
Decem ber 13,
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_____ permission is hereby granted to you to
(Date)
in c lu d e T ab le 3 (page v- 2 ) from th e B e h a v io ra l Academic C e if-E s teem M anual,
in y o u r T h e s is e n t i t l e d "M atern al C h ild -R e a rin g A ttitu d e s and B e h a v io ra l
Academic S e lf-E s te e m in P re s c h o o l C h ild r e n . Tnis M b le may a p p e a r in your
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subject to the following restrictions:
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by
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Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher's consent."
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(c) One copy of any material reproduced will be sent to the Publisher to indicate that the appropriate credit
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(d) Payment of a reproduction fee o f _____ Fee w a iv e d f o r -A1S p u r p o s e ._______________________
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Mq Rii M Mr-rjnn_________________ agreefs) to assign all right, title, and interest in translations,
versions, a n d /o r modifications of this instrument to CPP or as directed by CPP.
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC.
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In response to your request of F e b ru a ry 20, 1990______
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oeemission is hcrebv granted to vou to
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6 9 ,7 3 , and 75, from pages 270-273 from "A n tecedants o f S e lf-E ste e m ; and th e
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for B research ONLY
D commercial use
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subject to the following restrictions:
(a) Any material used must contain the following credit lines:
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Palo Alto, CA 94306,
from
The A n te c e d e n ts o f S e l-E ste e m
bv S ta n le y C o p p e rsm ith ___________________________@ 1981________________
Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher's consent."
(b) None of the materials may be sold or used for purposes other than those mentioned above.
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