The effects of videotape feedback on the standing broad jump performances of mildly and moderately
mentally retarded adults
by Laura Jean Sim
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
in Physical Education
Montana State University
© Copyright by Laura Jean Sim (1980)
Abstract:
This study was conducted to examine the effects of videotape feedback on mentally retarded adults'
performance of a selected movement task. Videotape recordings of subjects' performances of the
standing broad jump were replayed to the subjects to provide them with feedback information
regarding their jumping performances.
Reviewed research and literature revealed that feedback plays a critical role in learning and that visual
feedback is the most conducive mode of feedback in motor learning. It was found that the motor
proficiency of the mentally retarded is substandard to that of the non-retarded population. Some
researchers have speculated that the consistent motor deficiencies found in the retarded may be a result
of their difficulties with interpreting and processing abstract forms of feedback due to their subaverage
cognitive level. Implications were made in some of the sources reviewed that videotape may help
enhance motor skill acquisition and mastery by the mentally retarded by presenting concrete visual
feedback about movement performance.
An assessment tool designed to evaluate the development of jumping patterns in young children was
utilized to assess the mentally retarded subjects' jumping skills before and after the administration of
the experimental treatment. Three groups of subjects were involved in the investigation, with one group
receiving no feedback, a group receiving verbal cues about their jumping performances and one group
receiving verbal cues while viewing a videotape recording of their standing broad jump performances.
Descriptive statistics were computed for qualitative and quantitative aspects of the initial and final
performances of the subjects. No significant difference was found between the three groups'
performances following the completion of the experimental treatment. No significant differences were
found between the pretreatment and posttreatment performances in any of the three groups.
It was concluded that videotape feedback, as administered in this study, has no significant effect on the
learning or mastery of a motor task by mentally retarded adults. It was suggested that factors such as
distractibility and inattentiveness of the subjects may have affected the results of this investigation. It
was also surmised that because the subjects were at a beginning level in performances of the standing
broad jump they may have lacked an appreciation of relevant aspects of the replayed performances, and
hence may have not recognized many of the errors in performance. STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO COPY
In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e
re qui reme nts f o r an advanced degree a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
I a gr e e t h a t th e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r
inspection.
I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t pe rm is si on f o r e x t e n s i v e copying
o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by my major
p r o f e s s o r , o r , in h i s a b s e n c e , by t h e D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s .
It
i s und erstood t h a t any copying o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r
f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l n o t be allowed w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m is s i o n .
Date
O ' U CU i c j r - \
<5
\A .S fo
THE EFFECTS OF VIDEOTAPE FEEDBACK ON THE STANDING BROAD
JUMP PERFORMANCES OF MILDLY AND MODERATELY
MENTALLY RETARDED ADULTS
by
' LAURA JEAN SIM
A t h e s i s s u bm itt e d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f t h e req u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e degree
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Phys ic al Education
Approved:
C h ai rp er so n , tiraouate committee
Graduate Dean
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
August, 1980
■ -■ ■
TABLE. OF CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
VITA .
..................................................................................................... i i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................... .... . . i i i
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................
ABSTRACT............................................ ....
I
INTRODUCTION . , .
v
...........................vi
........................... ............................................... ...
St a te m e nt o f Problems
..........................
. . .
I
4
Hypotheses,
5
D e l i m i t a t i o n s ...................... , , ...................... .........................
5
Definitions
6
L i m i t a t i o n s . , . .......................................................
Basic A s s u m p t i o n s ............................... , , . ...........................
II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................... . . . . . . . . .
7
8
9
Motor Le arnin g.
III
IO
Motor Learning and t h e M en ta lly Ret arded,
14
Feedback and t h e M en ta lly R et ard ed .
19
Summ ary............................................ .... , . ...................... ....
23
METHODOLOGY.
........................... .................................. ....
S u b j e c t s ...........................
24
24
S c h e d u l e . .................................................... .... i . ...................... 25
I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ................................................
Assessment Pr ocedures
Treatment P r o ce d u re s.
. . . . . . .
. ..................................
................................................................
27
28
30
A na ly si s o f D a t a .....................................................................................34
Iv
Chapter
IV
. Page
D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s ......................
, . . ......................
35
Hypotheses T e s t i n g ...........................................
35
■ Hypothesis I . . ....................................
37
Hypothesis 2 . , . ..........................
V
36
RESULTS'............................................
. ...............................
39 .
41
DISCUSSION............................................
D i f f e r e n c e s Between th e Final Performances o f
t h e Three G r o u p s ............................................................. . .
4%
D i f f e r e n c e s Between t h e I n i t i a l Performance and
Final Performance o f Each Group, . , . ......................
45
Summary......................
VI
42
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONSAND RECOMMENDATIONS..................................
S u m m a r y , ................................... ........................................... .... . .
47
47
Purpose. . .........................................................
47
P r o c e d u r e s ............................................
43
Results.
. , . ......................
, ..................
Concl usi ons,
, ......................
Recommendations, . , . .............................
APPENDICES. ...................... .... . . ........................................
Appendix A.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
50
52
53
Sta nding Broad Jump Procedures and
McClenaghan and Gallahue^s Assessment Tool . . . .
Appendix C,
49
L e t t e r o f Correspondence and S u b j e c t
Consent F o r m ..................; ........................................................
Appendix B.
48
S t a n d a rd iz e d Verbal Feedback Cues . . .
55
60
61
V
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1
2
3
4
Page
Means and S ta nda rd D e via ti ons o f th e I n i t i a l and
Final P r o f i l e Scores o f Each Group, t '-Values and
P r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e I n t r a g r o u p Comparisons o f the
I n i t i a l and Final Performance,
26
Means and S ta nda rd D e v ia ti o n s o f t h e I n i t i a l and
Final D is ta nc e Measurements o f Each Group, t Values and P r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e I n t r a g r o u p Comparisons
o f t h e I n i t i a l and Final Performance.
. , . .
26
Degrees o f Freedom, Sum o f S q u a r e s , Mean S q u a re s ,
F-Ratiq and F - P r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e I n t e r g r o u p Comr
p a ri son. o f t h e Final Performance P r o f i l e Scores o f
Each G r o u p ...................................................................................... ......
38
Degrees o f Freedom, Sum o f Square's, Mean S q u a re s ,
F-Ratib and F - P r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e I n t e r g r o u p Com­
p a r i s o n o f th e Final Performance D is tan ce Measure­
ments o f Each G r o u p .........................................................................38
vi
ABSTRACT
This st udy was conducted to examine t h e e f f e c t s o f vid e o ta p e f e e d ­
back on m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s ' performance o f a s e l e c t e d movement
t a s k . Videotape r e c o r d i n g s o f s u b j e c t s ' performances o f t h e st a n d i n g
broad jump were re p l a y e d t o th e s u b j e c t s t o pro vid e them with feedback
in fo r m at io n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r jumping perfor ma nc es.
Reviewed r e s e a r c h and l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l e d t h a t feedback pla ys a
c r i t i c a l r o l e in l e a r n i n g and t h a t v i s u a l feedback i s t h e most con­
ducive mode o f feedback in motor l e a r n i n g . I t was found t h a t th e motor
p r o f i c i e n c y o f t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i s s u b s ta n d a rd t o t h a t o f t h e nonr e t a r d e d p o p u l a t i o n . Some r e s e a r c h e r s have s p e c u l a t e d t h a t th e con­
s i s t e n t motor d e f i c i e n c i e s found i n t h e r e t a r d e d may be a r e s u l t o f
t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s with i n t e r p r e t i n g and p r o c e s s i n g a b s t r a c t forms o f
feedback due to t h e i r subaverage c o g n i t i v e l e v e l . I m p l i c a t i o n s were
made in some o f t h e s o u rc e s reviewed t h a t v i d e o t a p e may he lp enhance
motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n and mast ery by t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d by p r e s e n t
ing c o n c r e t e v i s u a l feedback ab out movement performance.
An ass e ss m e nt to ol de sig ne d t o e v a l u a t e t h e development o f jumping
p a t t e r n s in young c h i l d r e n was u t i l i z e d t o a s s e s s t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d
s u b j e c t s ' jumping s k i l l s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of th e
experimental t r e a t m e n t . Three groups o f s u b j e c t s were involved in t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , with one group r e c e i v i n g no fe e dbac k, a group r e c e i v i n g
verbal cues about t h e i r jumping performances and one group r e c e i v i n g
verbal cues w hi le viewing a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r s ta n d i n g
broad jump performances.
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were computed f o r q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a ­
t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l performances o f t h e s u b j e c t s . No
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found between t h e t h r e e g ro u p s ' performances
fo ll ow in g t h e completion o f t h e ex per im en ta l t r e a t m e n t . No s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s were found between th e p r e t r e a t m e n t and p o s t t r e a t m e n t p e r ­
formances in any o f t h e t h r e e groups.
I t was concluded t h a t v id e o ta p e f e e d b a c k , as a d m i n i s t e r e d in t h i s
s tu d y , has no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e l e a r n i n g o r mast ery o f a motor
t a s k by m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s . I t was su gg est ed t h a t f a c t o r s such
as d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y and i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t s may have
a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
I t was a l s o surmised t h a t
because th e s u b j e c t s were a t a beginning l e v e l in performances o f the
s ta n d i n g broad jump th e y may have lacked an a p p r e c i a t i o n o f r e l e v a n t
a s p e c ts o f th e r e p la y e d pe rf o rm a n c e s , an d.hen ce may have not recognized
many o f th e e r r o r s in performance.
t
J
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Documented r e s u l t s from informal o b s e r v a t i o n and o b j e c t i v e a s s e s s ­
ment have r e v e a l e d a c o n s i s t e n t l y su bst an da rd le v e l o f motor pe rform­
ance and ph y s ic a l f i t n e s s in the m e nta lly r e t a r d e d ( R a r i c k , Widdop and
Broadhead, 1970; R a r i c k , 1973; Ross, 1969.)
Unfortunately, l i t t l e
r e s e a r c h has been done in a t t e m p t to determine th e rea son s why th e
r e t a r d e d have such d i f f i c u l t i e s a c q u i r i n g and m a st e ri n g motor s k i l l s '
( Crat t y , 1980; R a r ic k , 1973.)
This la ck o f e m piri c a l ev idence combined
with t h e incomplete und e rs ta n d in g of th e neuromuscular mechanisms
und erly in g th e motor l e a r n i n g process compound th e problem o f exp lan in g
the motor d e f i c i e n c i e s o f th e r e t a r d e d [ R a r i c k , 1973.)
In reviewing v a r i o u s viewpoints r e g a r d i n g motor performance and
the m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d , R arick (1973) r e v e a l e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l o pin io n
t h a t t h e r a t e of l e a r n i n g and the degree o f complexity o f motor s k i l l s
t h a t one could m a s t e r depended on an i n d i v i d u a l ' s le vel o f i n t e l l e gence.
Many e d u c a t o r s in t h e p a s t assumed t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d to be
in c a p a b le o f l e a r n i n g o r m a s t e ri n g motor s k i l l s , and thu s n e g l e c t e d to
provid e th e r e t a r d e d with phy s ic a l ed u ca ti o n or movement e x p e r i e n c e s .
The i n d i s p u t a b l e ev ide nc e o f b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s o f a c t i v i t y and general
f i t n e s s t o t h e mental and phy s ic a l h e a l t h o f normal i n d i v i d u a l s
( Astrand and Rodahl, 1977; Wi!more, 1976) a p p l i e s to th e e x c e p t i o n a l
p o p u la ti o n as well ( S h e r r i l l , 1977.)
The r e c e n t l e g i s l a t i v e t r e n d s
2
re g a rd in g the r i g h t s o f t h e handicapped have r e c ogniz e d th e im p o r ta n t
r o l e p hy s ic a l a c t i v i t y pla y s in the re m e d ia t io n o f handicapped
i n d i v i d u a l s , e v i d e n t by t h e f a c t t h a t P u b l i c Law.94-142, The Education
f o r All Handicapped C h i l d r e n ' s Act o f 1975, s p e c i f i c a l l y mandates
phys ical e d u c a t i o n .
Recent r e s e a r c h ' h a s a l s o shed l i g h t on th e r e l e ­
vance, o f a c t i v i t y f o r t h e handicapped by p ro v id i n g some ev ide nc e o f th e
b e n e f i t s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in v a r io u s ty p e s of.movement a c t i v i t i e s .
Levy
(1974) contended t h a t t h e development o f motor s k i l l s c o n t r i b u t e d in a
p o s i t i v e way to v o c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l a d ju s t m e n t o f handicapped p e r s o n s .
Rarick (1973) c i t e d numerous s t u d i e s which r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t
improvements in motor performance o f r e t a r d e d c h i l d r e n as a r e s u l t o f
s t r u c t u r e d ph y s ic a l e d u c a t i o n programs. C r a t t y (.1980) b e l i e v e d t h a t
with an improvement in motor performance came a r e s u l t a n t i n c r e a s e in
s e l f co nfi de nc e and a w i l l i n g n e s s to p a r t i c i p a t e . i n movement a c t i v i t i e s ,
allow ing more o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r th e handicapped to develop t h e i r motor
s k i l l s to a degree comparable to t h e i r n o n - d i s a b l e d p e e r s .
In l i g h t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s movement e x p e r i e n c e s may
make to an e x c e p t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l ' s well b e i n g , r e s e a r c h e r s involved
in th e a re a o f motor l e a r n i n g and th e r e t a r d e d have e xpre ss ed a need
for fu rth er in v estig atio n s.
One a re a t h a t was s u g g es te d by some
r e s e a r c h e r s to be an im p o r ta n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n in f u r t h e r work was
t e ac hi ng methods which may a i d and enhance motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n by
the dev elop me nta lIy d i s a b l e d (Levy, 1974; C r a t t y , 1980,)
3
During th e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s , r e s e a r c h concerned with the
psychomotor domain has r e v e a l e d th e v i t a l r o l e feedback pla y s in
learning.
S t u d i e s have shown t h a t knowledge o f r e s u l t s or in fo r m at io n
re g a rd in g performance i s e s s e n t i a l t o s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n and, in f a c t ,
a re c o n s id e r e d t h e most c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s in t h e l e a r n i n g pro c e ss
(Oxendine, 1972; DelRey, 1971; S i n g e r , 1968.)
In a d d i t i o n t o sub­
s t a n t i a t i n g t h e s e f i n d i n g s , o t h e r s t u d i e s have i n v e s t i g a t e d th e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f d i f f e r e n t modes o f fe e dback in p ro v id i n g in f or m at io n
c r u c i a l t o l e a r n i n g , and have found v i s u a l feedback t o be t h e most
v a l u a b l e in th e a r e a o f motor l e a r n i n g (Adams, 1977; Knowles, 1973.)
Motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n i s a th o u g h t f u l p ro c e ss t h a t r e q u i r e s
comprehension and c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f a t a s k based on i n f o r m a t io n
provided by fee dba ck .
D e fi c ie n c y in s k i l l development may r e s u l t from
d i f f i c u l t i e s in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e feedback and forming a mental image
o f t h e movement (Oxendine, 1972.)
I t has been s p e c u l a t e d t h a t one
e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e l e a r n i n g and performance d e f i c i e n c i e s o f the r e t a r d s
ed may be t h a t th e y a r e unable to p e r c e i v e and p r o c e s s ' in fo r m a t io n to a
degree n e c e s s a r y to develop an i n t e r n a l image o f a c o r r e c t movement
and thus have no s t a n d a r d on which t o base performance c o r r e c t i o n s
(Ba umeister, 1966.)
The low c o g n i t i v e and p e r c e p tu a l l e v e l s of the
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d may be such t h a t movement e r r o r s obvious to nonr e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s go unnoti ce d by t h e r e t a r d e d .
A more t a n g i b l e
way of p ro v id i n g e r r o r i n fo r m a t io n could p o t e n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e the
4
th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e d e vel opm en ta lIy d i s a b l e d to r e c o g n iz e m i s t a k e s ,
while a t th e same time r e l a y comprehensive i n f o r m a t io n re g a r d in g
c o r r e c t performance.
Videotape r e c o r d i n g s may be a v a l u a b l e tool in
accomplishing t h i s by p ro v id i n g c o n c r e t e feedback t h a t allo w s an
in d i v i d u a l t o view a performance and become aware o f e r r o r s i f po in te d
o u t ( C a n t r e l l , 1977; S i n g e r , 1968.)
Videotape r e p l a y could c once iva bly
a i d in t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f a p r e s c r i b e d movement, a p ro c e ss which
may be l i m i t e d t o a c e r t a i n degree by t h e c o g n i t i v e l e v e l o f th e
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d .
Con siderin g th e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s o f p hys ic a l a c t i v i t y on th e
well being o f t h e r e t a r d e d , t h e r e e x i s t s a need f o r t h e development of
te c h n i q u e s t h a t w i l l enhance motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n and m ast ery by
the retard ed .
Because feedback pla ys a v i t a l r o l e in any l e a r n i n g
p r o c e s s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f f e a s i b l e modes o f feedback w i l l a i d in th e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e methods o f t e a c h i n g motor s k i l l s t o the
developmental!;/ d i s a b l e d .
This i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n s id e r e d t h e use of
vi d e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s as a feedback mode in th e development o f jumping
s k i l l by a group o f m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s .
Sta te me nt of the Problems
The problems o f t h i s st udy were t o :
( I ) Examine th e e f f e c t s o f
v i d e o / v e r b a l feedback on th e performance o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump by
m il d ly and m ode ratel y m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s ; ( 2 ) compare th e st a n d i n g
5
broad jump performances o f a group r e c e i v i n g v i d e o / v e r b a l fe e dbac k, a
group r e c e i v i n g only ve rbal feedback and a- group r e c e i v i n g no f e e d b a c k ;
and (3) determine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v i d e o / v e r b a l and verbal
feedback and performance.
Hypotheses
The f o ll o w i n g n u ll hypotheses were f o r m u la t e d :
( I ) There w i l l be
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < .05) in t h e performance o f t h e st a n d i n g
broad jump between t h e Control Group, t h e Verbal Feedback Group and the
Vid e o/ ve rb a I Feedback Group fo ll o w i n g t h e exper imen ta l t r e a t m e n t ; and
(2) t h e r e w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < .05) between th e i n i ­
t i a l and f i n a l performance o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump in any of th e
groups.
Delimitations
This s tu d y was d e l i m i t e d to s i x t e e n m i l d l y and m od erat el y m e n t a l l y
r e t a r d e d male and female a d u l t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in a weekly handicapped
r e c r e a t i o n program a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in Bozeman, Montana,
It
was f u r t h e r d e l i m i t e d t o s i x t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s , conducted once weekly
beginning on April 17, 1980 and c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l May 19, 1980, in which
s t a n d a r d i z e d verbal cues were given a l o n e and in c o n j u n c t i o n with
vi d e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s in i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f v id e o ta p e feedback
on the s u b j e c t s ' performance o f th e s t a n d i n g broad jump.
Each s u b j e c t ' s
6
performance o f th e s t a n d i n g broad jump p r i o r t o r e c e i v i n g any
experimental t r e a t m e n t was e v a lu a te d on A pril 10, 1980, and a f i n a l
a ss ess me nt was made on June 5, 1980 f o l l o w i n g t h e completion o f the
ex perimental t r e a t m e n t .
D efinitions
Developmentally D i s a b l e d - - Developmentally d i s a b l e d in t h i s stu dy r e f e r s
s p e c i f i c a l l y to t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d , d e f i n e d by th e American
A s s o c i a t i o n on Mental Defic ienc y as i n d i v i d u a l s having s i g n i f i . c a n t l y subaverage I n t e l legence e x i s t i n g c o n c u r r e n t l y with
m al a d ap ti v e b e h a v i o r s .
This c o n d i t i o n m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f between
b i r t h and twenty^one y e a r s o f age (Chinn, Drew and Logan, 1975.)
Mildly Mentally R e t a r d e d - - A m i l d l y m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l i s one
whose IQ i s between 52 and 67 on t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t s c a l e who may
become s e l f s u p p o r t i v e w i t h pro pe r t r a i n i n g and who f u n c t i o n s
a c a d e m ic a ll y a t a pp ro xi m a te ly a f o u r t h grade l e v e l ( C r a t t y , 1974,)
Moderately Mentally R e t a r d e d - - A m ode ra te ly m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l
i s d e fi n e d as a person with an IQ between 36 and 51 on t h e St a n fo r d
B i n e t s c a l e who i s u s u a l l y a b le to m a s t e r b a s i c s o c i a l and s e l f
c a r e s k i l l s and a c a d e m ic a ll y f u n c t i o n s a t a l e v e l comparable to a
f i r s t grade c h i l d ( C r a t t y , 1974.)
Verbal Feedback— Verbal feedback in t h i s st ud y r e f e r s to spoken i n ­
for mati on in t h e form o f s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rbal cues r e g a r d i n g ways
I
7
t o improve performance o f t h e s ta n d i n g broad jump.
(See Appendix
C f o r th e s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rbal cues used in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . )
Video/yerbal Feedback— ■Vide o /v er b al feedback in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
r e f e r s t o . t h e use o f v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s o f a s u b j e c t ' s st a n d i n g
broad jump performance in combination with th e s t a n d a r d i z e d verbal
cues to p ro vid e in f o r m a t io n about t h a t s u b j e c t ' s performance.
Limitations
Because o f t h e l i m i t e d number o f m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s
l i v i n g in Bozeman, Montana, th e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s stud y was very small
and a random s e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s was no t f e a s i b l e .
This stu dy was
a l s o l i m i t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t th e s u b j e c t s were a v a i l a b l e f o r t r e a t m e n t
only one day per week.
Another l i m i t a t i o n in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was
th e i n c o n s i s t e n t a t t e n d a n c e by one s u b j e c t in th e V ide o/verbal Feedback
Group due to a d i s c i p l i n a r y s a n c t i o n p r e s c r i b e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s
group home c o u n s e l o r s .
An a d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n was t h e wide v a r ia n c e
o f a t t i t u d e s o f t h e s u b j e c t s r e g a r d i n g t h e jumping t a s k , as some e njo y­
ed t h e t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s w hi le o t h e r s were d i s d a i n f u l o f having to
Repeatedly perform t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump.
These a t t i t u d e s may well
have a f f e c t e d th e s u b j e c t s ' r e c e p t i v e n e s s toward th e t r e a t m e n t they
were r e c e i v i n g as well as t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n in performing the stan din g
broad jump.
F i n a l l y , d e s p i t e the p r e c a u t i o n s taken in t h e grouping pro ­
ce du re , a p u r e ly homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n was im p o s si b le .
8
Basic Assumptions
For th e purpose o f t h i s stu dy i t was assumed t h a t the s u b j e c t s
would no t perform or p r a c t i c e th e s ta n d i n g broad jump any time o t h e r
than du rin g th e t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s .
I t was a l s o assumed t h a t th e
s u b j e c t s would not d i s c u s s t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r ex perimental t r e a t m e n t with
other subjects.
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Learning has- been d e f i n e d as a s t a b l e change in performance as a
r e s u l t o f p r a c t i c e ( C r a t t y , 1968) and has been a major c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f
e d u c a to r s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s th ro ugh out t h i s c e n t u r y .
In th e e a r l y
y e a r s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , e x t e n s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n with l a b o r a t o r y animals
led r e s e a r c h e r s and t h e o r i s t s to conclude t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g proc ess was
a s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e - r e i n f o r c e m e n t paradigm (Adams, 1971.)
Despite t h e
many d i v e r s e l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s t h a t soon emerged, t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
t h a t l e a r n i n g was an open-loop pro c e ss where re i n f o r c e m e n t ser ved to
s t r e n g t h e n th e c o n ne c tio n between a given s ti m u lu s and th e d e s i r e d
resp on se formed t h e b a s i c fo u n d a ti o n f o r a l l th e t h e o r i e s .
In th e l a s t
twenty y e a r s , however, a t t e n t i o n has been c o n c e n t r a t e d on human
l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s and c o nse que ntly more complex t h e o r i e s re g a r d in g
l e a r n i n g have emerged (Adams, 1971; Smith, 1 9 68.) .
These newer t h e o r i e s r e f u t e t h e n o t i o n t h a t l e a r n i n g occurs as a
r e s u l t o f p a s s i v e r e s p o n se s to s t i m u l i and view the l e a r n e r as a dynamic
a c t o r in t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
Smith (.1968) was an ad vocate o f a
th e o r y known as be h av io r al c y b e r n e t i c s which regarded l e a r n i n g as a
c l o s e d - l o o p pro c e ss t h a t depended on s e n s o r y feedback g e n e r a te d by an
i n d i v i d u a l ' s performance t h a t ser ved to induce and d i r e c t subsequent
performances.
Adams (1971) su pported t h i s c l o s e d - l o o p t h e o r y ,
s t r e s s i n g t h a t e r r o r d e t e c t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n were keynote components
10
of human l e a r n i n g .
He contended t h a t t h e c l a s s i c s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g emphasized an a u t o m a t i c , n o n - c o n g i t i v e
essence o f l e a r n i n g which f a i l e d to ac c ount f o r t h e f a c t t h a t human
beings do not merely respond t o . s t i m u l i and r e i n f o r c e m e n t , but a c t u a l l y
improve performance by d e t e c t i n g and c o r r e c t i n g e r r o r s made in move­
ment.
Adams e x p la i n e d t h e shortcomings o f c l a s s i c l e a r n i n g t h e o r i e s ,
s t a t i n g "The c o g n i t i v e domain i s t h e s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e between man
and lower a n im a ls , and i t i s hard to see t h e laws of human l e a r n i n g
w it h o u t i t . "
(Adams, 1971: 115.)
Thus, newer i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the
l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , such as t h e c l o s e d - l o o p th e o r y su pported by Smith
(1968) and Adams (1971) seem to be more a p p l i c a b l e t o ex plan ih g human
l e a r n i n g , and help p ro v id e groundwork on which to base i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
o f human motor l e a r n i n g and performance.
Motor Learning
Like t h e s u b j e c t o f l e a r n i n g , t h e t o p i c o f motor l e a r n i n g lends
i t s e l f to a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
Lockhart (1964) d i s c u s s e d th e
confusion o f t e n g e n e r a t e d by th e use o f d i f f e r e n t taxonomies to
r e f e r to the. same phenomenon.
'Motor l e a r n i n g 1, 'psycho^motor l e a r n i n g ,1
' pe rc e pt uo -m oto r l e a r n i n g ' a n d 'n e u r o - m u s c u la r l e a r n i n g ' a l l r e f e r to th e
same t h i n g , Lockhart r e v e a l e d , namely t h e process by which p a t t e r n e d
motion i s accomplished.
S in g e r (1972: I ) helped c l a r i f y t h e concept o f
motor l e a r n i n g by d e f i n i n g i t as " . . . l e a r n i n g t h a t i s p r i m a r i l y
11
demonstrated through movement o r i e n t e d b e h a v i o r . . , 11
A lle y (1968) proposed t h a t motor l e a r n i n g depended on t h r e e i n t e r ­
r e l a t e d and i n t e r d e p e n d e n t developmental s t a g e s . The e x i s t e n c e o f b a s i c
motor p a t t e r n s and s k i l l s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e f i r s t l e v e l and ser ved as the
fo un d a ti o n on which th e o t h e r two s t a g e s were b u i l t .
The subsequent
l e v e l s o f A l l e y ' s motor l e a r n i n g model were an i n d i v i d u a l ' s pe rc ep tu a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e fo u n d a ti o n s k i l l s and th e a b i l i t y t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e
movement p a t t e r n s .
A ll e y b e l i e v e d t h i s f i n a l s t a g e o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n
to be most c r i t i c a l in complex s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n ,
C r a t t y (1968) d i s c u s s e d motor l e a r n i n g as in v o lv in g c o n s t a n t
a d a p t a t i o n to demands p r e s e n t e d by a movement t a s k .
This a d a p t a t i o n , he
f e l t , r e s u l t e d from c o g n i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s en so ry i n p u t r e l a t i v e
to t h e t a s k and depended p r i m a r i l y on p e r c e p t u a l p r o c e s s e s .
The
a b i l i t y to gra sp an i n t e l l e c t u a l and co nceptual unde rs ta n d in g o f a
movement determined t h e de gre e to which an i n d i v i d u a l s u c e s s f u l Iy
mastered motor s k i l l s .
Smith (1968) and Adams (.1971) b oth rec ogn iz e d t h e c r i t i c a l i n v o l v e ­
ment o f c o g n i t i o n in t h e motor l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
An im p o r ta n t c o n s t r u c t
in th e c l o s e d - l o o p th e o r y which both Smith and Adams advocated was the
e x i s t e n c e o f an i n t e r n a l i z e d co nce ptio n o f an optimal performance on
which performers r e l i e d to d e t e c t and c o r r e c t e r r o r s in a motor o u t p u t ,
In agreement with t h e s e views r e g a r d i n g c o g n i t i v e involvement in
motor l e a r n i n g , Oxendine (1972) c o n s i d e r e d motor l e a r n i n g to be a
12
t hou gh tf ul proc ess t h a t r e q u i r e d i n t e l l e c t u a l as well as physi cal
involvement.
He s t r e s s e d th e v i t a l importance o f c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n in
s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n , and f e l t e f f i c i e n t performance depended on ones'
a b i l i t y to form an i n t e r n a l image o f a movement t a s k .
C r a t t y (.1968) f e l t t h e p e r c e p t u a l involvement in motor l e a r n i n g
depended on i n f o r m a t io n r e c e i v e d by a p e rfo rm er r e g a r d i n g a performance.
He contended t h a t through t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a perfor me r became aware o f
any e r r o r s in movement and was then ab le, t o modify t h e ne xt performance
accordingly.
C r a t t y summarized f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s in th e a r e a o f
i n fo r m a t io n feedback and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s to l e a r n i n g , and concluded
t h a t some form of feedback was e s s e n t i a l t o motor l e a r n i n g .
Documentation o f t h e e f f e c t s o f fe e dback on motor l e a r n i n g and
s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n has i n d i c a t e d i t t o be a c r u c i a l v a r i a b l e in the
l e a r n i n g pr oc e ss (Adams, 1971; C r a t t y 1968; Robb, 1968; S i n g e r , 1968;
Smith, 1968.)
Many concerned with motor l e a r n i n g and human performance
have i d e n t i f i e d fe e dback as one o f t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s in s k i l l a c ­
q u i s i t i o n (Bilodeau and B i lo d e a u , 1961; Knowles, 1973; Oxendine, 1972.)
Adams (.1971; and Goetz, 1973) has been a major c o n t r i b u t o r to
feedback th e o r y in r e c e n t y e a r s .
He b e l i e v e d motor l e a r n i n g was problem
a t i c in n a t u r e , a p ro c e s s which inv ol ved an i n i t i a l a t t e m p t a t s p e c i f i c
movements, followed by i n t e g r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f feedback about
the movements and a m o d i f i c a t i o n of movements based on the feedback.
In Adams' view of l e a r n i n g , feedback provide d e r r o r in fo r m a t io n on which
a perfor me r based any a l t e r a t i o n in motor o u tp u t during subsequent
performances.
This con cep t o f s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r p ro c e ss in g formed the
crux of t h e c l o s e d - l o o p l e a r n i n g th e o ry su pported by Adams, who f i r m l y
m a int ai ned t h a t w it h o u t some form o f feedback on which to base th e
d e t e c t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n of movement e r r o r s , l e a r n i n g could not occu r.
The idea o f feedback as a means o f pro vid in g e r r o r in fo r m a t io n has
been su pp orte d and s u b s t a n t i a t e d by o t h e r s working in th e f i e l d of
human movement performance.
Robb (1968) d i s c u s s e d the vie w poi nt t h a t
feedback provided i n f o r m a t i o n n e c e s s a ry t o make comparisons between
a motor o u t p u t and a s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e .
Oxendine (1972) and Knowles
(1973) both m ai n ta in ed t h a t not only did feedback s erve to provid e
e r r o r i n f o r m a t i o n , but a l s o helped to i d e n t i f y c o r r e c t and d e s i r e d
motor o u t p u t s to a p e r f o r m e r .
Feedback has been d i s s e c t e d i n t o c a t e g o r i e s and l a b e l e d according
to th e manner in which in f o r m a t io n i s a v a i l a b l e to a p e r f o r m e r .
Feed­
back can be i n t r i n s i c or e x t r i n s i c , with th e l a t t e r comprised of
v e r b a l , v i s u a l , t a c t i l e or a u d i t o r y i n p u t (Knowles, 1973; Robb, 1968.)
I n v e s t i g a t o r s have concerned themselves e x t e n s i v e l y , with e x t r i n s i c
fee dba ck , st udy in g v a r i o u s modes and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o p t i o n s to d e t e r ­
mine t h e t e c h n i q u e s most conducive to motor l e a r n i n g and s k i l l a c q u i s i ­
tion.
Visual cues seem to be t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l form o f feedback in
motor l e a r n i n g (Adams, Gopher and L i n t e r n , 1977; Dwyer and Arnold,
14
1976; S i n g e r , 1968.)
C r a t t y (1968) f e l t t h a t v i s i o n pro vid ed th e most
v a lu a b l e s en s or y i n p u t t o a pe rformer because i t i n t e g r a t e d complex
in fo r m a t io n with l i t t l e d i s t o r t i o n , and th e i n f o r m a t i o n was unambiguous.
In i n v e s t i g a t i n g v i s u a l f e e d b a c k , r e s e a r c h e r s have shown t h e methods of
model de m onst rat ion (. C r a t t y , 1968; S i n g e r , 1968) and t h e use o f f i l m
t o r e p l a y performances (Neufeld and Ne ufeld, 1972; R o t h s t e i n , 1980;
S i n g e r , 1968) t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e in p ro v id i n g pe rfo rm ers with
in fo r m a t io n v a l u a b l e t o motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n .
These modes a r e now
being c o n s id e re d f o r use with i n d i v i d u a l s who e x p e r i e n c e d i f f i c u l t i e s
with motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n , and th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f model demonstra­
t i o n and f i l m in t e a c h i n g motor s k i l l s t o t h e r e t a r d e d i s an area
o f i n t e r e s t in p a r t i c u l a r ( C r a t t y , 1968; C a n t r e l l , 1977.)
Motor Learning and t h e Mentally Retarded
Although e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h has been conducted in t h e a r e a o f motor
l e a r n i n g and s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n , few s t u d i e s have d e a l t with t h e s e
pa rameters and t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
Because o f t h e l i m i t e d e m piri c a l
ev id en c e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f why th e dev elo pm en ta lIy d i s a b l e d have d i f f i c u l
t i e s m a st er i n g motor s k i l l s remains unanswered ( C r a t t y , 1972; C r a t t y ,
1980; R a r i ck, 1973.)
There has been c o n s i s t e n t documentation of motor d e f i c i e n c i e s in
the m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d ( C r a t t y , 1980; R a r i c k 5 Widdop and Broadhead, 1970;
Ross, 1969.)
R a r i c k , Widdop and Broadhead (1970) i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s by
15
conducting a s tu dy u t i l i z i n g th e AAHPER Youth F i t n e s s T e s t to o b t a i n
da ta on th e degree to which r e t a r d e d a d o l e s c e n t s performed below th e
e s t a b l i s h e d norms o f t h e n o n re ta rd e d p o p u l a t i o n .
The components o f the
t e s t were th e s o f t b a l l throw, the th r e e - h u n d r e d y a rd r u n / w a l k , the
s ta n d i n g broad jump, t h e f i f t y y a rd d a sh , t h e . f l e x e d arm hang, the
s h u t t l e run and s i t u p s .
In a s s e s s i n g f o u r thousand r e t a r d e d a d o l e s ­
c en ts th e a u th o r s found t h e i r o v e r a l l performance t o be i n f e r i o r to
e i g h t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e i r n o n r e ta r d e d p e e r s .
Explan at ion o f t h e d e f i c i t s e v i d e n t in th e motor performances o f
th e m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d remains e l u s i v e ,
Rartck (1973) i n d i c a t e d t h a t the
lack o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e neuromuscular mechanisms inv ol ved in th e
motor l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s p e r p e t u a t e d t h e i n a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f o r th e m e n ta ll y
r e t a r d e d ' s motor problems.
C r a t t y (1980) a g r e e d , c onte ndin g t h a t
because th e e f f e c t s o f p e r i p h e r a l s t i m u l a t i o n and o t h e r s en s ory e x p e r ­
ie nce s on- t h e nervous system were r e l a t i v e l y unknown, compounded by i n ­
d iv i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s in n e u r o l o g i c a l and biochemical makeup, p i n p o i n t ­
ing s p e c i f i c cau se s f o r motor d e f i c i e n c i e s was d i f f i c u l t .
I t i s a p p a r e n t t h e motor peoblems o f t h e r e t a r d e d escape e x p la n ­
a t i o n on a neuromuscular l e v e l .
S p e c u l a t i o n , n o n e t h e l e s s , has been
made on p o s s i b l e caus es f o r t h e performance d e f i c i e n c i e s .
B a u m e i s t e r , . Hawkins and Holland (1966) f e l t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s ex­
pe ri e nce d by th e r e t a r d e d in motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n stemmed from an i n ­
a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y and respond to c r i t i c a l feedback r e g a r d i n g motor
16
performance.
This i n e f f i c i e n c y in p e r c e i v i n g e r r o r s in performance
r e s u l t e d in the absence o f a s t a n d a r d on which to base m o d i f i c a t i o n of
i n c o r r e c t movement p a t t e r n s .
Morgan (1977) su ppor te d t h i s view, m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t th e m e n ta ll y
r e t a r d e d did not p r o f i t from feedback cues i n h e r e n t in a motor t a s k
because they could n o t re c o g n iz e e r r o r s in t h e movements.
He a l s o
contended t h a t in o r d e r f o r any feedback t o be conducive to l e a r n i n g ,
a perfor me r must u nde rs ta nd t h e importance o f th e i n fo r m a t io n provid ed .
The r e t a r d e d were most l i k e l y un a b le , Morgan f e l t , t o grasp th e r e l e ­
vance o f most feedback cues
r e g a r d i n g a motor performance.
C r a t t y (1974) b e l i e v e d t h e d e vel opm en ta lIy d i s a b l e d ^ a b i l i t y to
l e a r n motor s k i l l s was impeded by d i f f i c u l t i e s in t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of
sens ory i n f o r m a t i o n ,
He s ugg es te d an i n a b i l i t y t o pro c e ss cues i n d i g ­
enous t o a t a s k , o r feedback provided by o u t s i d e s o u r c e s , hindered t h e .
'
development and m ast ery o f motor s k i l l s by th e r e t a r d e d .
A lle y (.1968) re g a rd e d p e r c e p tu a l c a p a b i l i t y t o be a prod uc t of
i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t u r a t i o n , and f e l t t h e immature c o g n i t i v e le v e l o f th e
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d l i m i t e d t h e i r p e r c e p t u a l p o t e n t i a l .
One o f A l l e y ' s
s t a t e d p r e r e q u i s i t e s to motor l e a r n i n g was t h e p e r c e p tu a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
of movement p a t t e r n s , and he su ggested t h a t t h e r e t a r d e d ^ l i m i t e d
pe rc e p tu a l c a p a b i l i t i e s accounted f o r t h e i r d i f f i c u l t i e s in motor
l e a r n i n g and performance.
Oxendine (1972) contended t h a t problems with s k i l l development
17
were a r e s u l t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n a b i l i t y to c o n c e p t u a l i z e a movement
task.
He b e l i e v e d e f f i c i e n t l e a r n e r s were a b l e to q u i c k l y grasp the
concept o f a movement and th o s e who had d i f f i c u l t y forming an a b s t r a c t
image o f a motor p a t t e r n were a t a d i s t i n c t d i s a d v a n ta g e in motor
learning.
C r a t t y (1974) s ugge s te d t h a t q u a l i t i e s such as i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s and
d i s t r a c t a b i I i t y may acc ou nt f o r some d i f f i c u l t i e s in i n fo r m a t io n pro ­
c e s s in g by many m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s .
He f u r t h e r s p e c u la te d
t h a t t h e i r motor l e a r n i n g problems may be p e r p e t u a t e d by l e a r n i n g in an
i n s t r u c t i o n a l environment in which t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a perdominance o f verba l c u e s , were t h e major modes o f d e l i v e r i n g
feedback.
C r a t t y b e l i e v e d t h a t the r e t a r d e d were o f t e n in c a p a b le of
un de rs ta n d in g v e r b a l i z e d performance i n f o r m a t i o n and t h a t th e y perhaps
ex pe ri en c e d problems in p r o c e s s i n g o t h e r forms o f i n fo r m a t io n as well
because o f t h e i r l o w . c o g n i t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s .
D esp ite th e s u b s ta n d a r d motor p r o f i c i e n c y o f t h e dev elo pm ent al Iy
d i s a b l e d , phy s ic a l a c t i v i t y i s j u s t as im p o r ta n t f o r them as f o r t h e
n o n r e ta rd e d ,
Many p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s r e s u l t from f r e q u e n t a c t i v i t y .
Bene­
f i t s such as an i n c r e a s e in c a r d i o v a s c u l a r en durance, muscular s t r e n g t h
and endurance and f l e x i b i l i t y as well as d e c r e a s e s in r e s t i n g blood p r e s ­
su re and r e s t i n g h e a r t r a t e have been c o n s i s t e n t l y r e p o r t e d ( Astrand
and Rodahl, 1977; Wilmore, 1976.) P a r t i c i p a t i o n in phys ic a l a c t i v i t y has
a l s o been shown to be a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r in weight r e d u c t i o n and c o nt ro l
i
18
(Wilmore, 1976.)
These p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s of phys ic a l a c t i v i t y play j u s t as v i t a l a
r o l e in t h e h e a l t h o f t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d as f o r t h e i r non re ta rd e d
counterparts.
In a d d i t i o n to t h e s e b e n e f i t s , movement a c t i v i t i e s a re
im p o r ta n t in th e r e m e d ia t io n o f many compounding handicapping c o n d i­
t i o n s o f t e n found in r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s ,
C r a t t y (1975) d i s c u s s e d the
use o f tr a m p o li n e a c t i v i t i e s to help develop leg and trunk s t r e n g t h ,
improve abnormal g a i t p a t t e r n s and a i d in e s t a b l i s h i n g balanc e and
coordination.
Sherrill
(1977) c i t e d examples of a c t i v i t i e s b e n e f i c i a l
in th e t h e ra p y of j o i n t c o n t r a c t u r e s , o b e s i t y , lo os en e s s of j o i n t s ,
muscular weakness, ba la n c e ma lad ies and o t h e r p h y s i c a l Iy handicapping
c o n d i t i o n s t h a t o f t e n e x i s t in dev elo pm ent al Iy d i s a b l e d perso ns .
C a n t r e l l (1977) b e l i e v e d t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in r e c r e a t i o n a l and
l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t i e s helped round out th e l i f e s t y l e o f th e d i s a b l e d .
In r e a l i z i n g th e problems fa c ed by many r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s in l e a r n ­
ing and m a s t e r i n g motor s k i l l s , C a n t r e l l urged t h a t s p e c i a l e f f o r t s be
made and t e c h n i q u e s u t i l i z e d t o te ac h them s k i l l s n e c e s s a ry f o r p a r ­
t i c i p a t i o n in ph y s ic a l a c t i v i t i e s .
C r a t t y (1968) re g a rd e d motor l e a r n i n g in the r e t a r d e d to be com­
p a r a b le to th e motor development o f c h i l d r e n in th e r e s p e c t t h a t d e v e l ­
opment could be enhanced by a v a r i e t y o f percep tuo -m oto r e x p e r i e n c e s .
These movement e x p e r i e n c e s helped i n c r e a s e i n d i v i d u a l s ' p e r c e p t i o n of
t h e i r bod ie s and t h e i r s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e environment, a
19
r e l a t i o n s h i p , C r a t t y m a i n t a i n e d , t h a t played a c r i t i c a l r o l e in d e c i ­
si ons made by pe rformers r e g a r d i n g motor o u t p u t s .
In d i s c u s s i n g ph y s ic a l a c t i v i t y and th e r e t a r d e d . Levy (1974)
o u t l i n e d a contemporary view t h a t motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n ser ved to help
th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d j u s t t o v o c a t i o n a l and l e i s u r e time s i t u a t i o n s
by p ro v id i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r fun and s u c c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e s .
Cratty
(1980) sup porte d t h i s i d e a , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t s u c c e s s f u l movement ex per­
ie nce s c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e
s e l f esteem o f d i s a b l e d p e r s o n s .
I t i s a p p a r e n t , t h e n , t h a t p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y i s i m p o r ta n t to the
h e a l t h o f th e de ve lo pm en ta ll y . d i s a b l e d n o t only because p h y s i o l o g i c a l
b e n e f i t s a c c r u e , bu t a l s o because a c t i v i t y appears to have some p o s i t i v e
e f f e c t s on t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l and emotional well being o f the
r e t a r d e d as w e l l .
More o f t e n than n o t , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , p hys ic a l a c t i v i ­
t i e s conducive to e l i c i t i n g many o f t h e b e n e f i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y phys io­
l o g i c a l o n e s , r e q u i r e some degree o f motor p r o f i c i e n c y .
In l i g h t o f t h e
g e n e r a l l y su b st a n d a rd motor performance o f t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d ,
te c h n i q u e s must be found and u t i l i z e d t h a t w i l l enhance motor l e a r n i n g
and s k i l l development in th e r e t a r d e d ( C a n t r e l l , 1977.)
Feedback and th e Menta lly Retarded
Since feedback has been shown to be e s s e n t i a l to l e a r n i n g , and i t
i s proposed t h a t th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d have d i f f i c u l t y i n t e r p r e t i n g
a b s t r a c t forms o f i n f o r m a t i o n , i t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t m o d i f i c a t i o n in
20
th e p r o v i s i o n o f feedback is n e c e s s a ry in te a c h in g t h e r e t a r d e d .
Some (B au me is te r, Hawkins and Ho lla nd, 1966; Horgan, 1977) have
sug ges te d t h a t supplemental fee dback , such as a d d i t i o n a l v i s u a l cues
and ph y s ic a l m a n ip u la ti o n o f th e l e a r n e r , help the m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d to
comprehend demands o f a movement t a s k .
Others ( C r a t t y , 1974; C a n t r e l l ,
1977) contended t h a t methods o f pro vid i n g more c o n c r e t e types of f e e d ­
back have a g r e a t deal o f p o t e n t i a l f o r use with the de ve lo pm en ta lIy
disabled.
Model d e m o n st ra t io n and th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f f i l m to i l l u ­
s t r a t e o r r e p l a y movement t a s k s have been proposed as two v i a b l e modes
of p r e s e n t i n g i n t e r p r e t a b l e in fo r m a t io n conducive to motor s k i l l a c ­
q u i s i t i o n ( C r a t t y , 1968; S i n g e r , 1968.)
Videotape i s one f i l m medium t h a t has been i n v e s t i g a t e d as a means
of p ro v id i n g t a n g i b l e performance i n f o r m a t i o n .
R oth st ei n (.1980) com­
mented t h a t th e im p o r ta n t r o l e t h a t v i s i o n played in motor l e a r n i n g ,
combined with th e p o p u l a r i t y o f t e l e v i s i o n , made vid e o ta p e a p o t e n t i a l ­
ly v a l u a b l e i n s t r u c t i o n a l t o o l .
C r a t t y (.1968) ma intained t h a t i n f o r ­
mation d e l i v e r e d in t h e form o f a v i d e o t a p e re c o rd in g was s t r a i g h t f o r ­
ward and unambiguous, and was a promising method o f p r e s e n t i n g vis u al
feedback t o a pe rf o rm er .
Ryan (1969) e x p la i n e d t h a t th e b e n e f i t s of
allow ing people to view t h e i r own performances via v id e o ta p e r e p l a y lay
in the f a c t t h a t e r r o r s were e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e and m o d i f i c a t i o n s were
more r e a d i l y implemented as a r e s u l t .
Neufeld and Neufeld (1972) f e l t
t h a t v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s were v a l u a b l e in t h a t they helped i n d i v i d u a l s
I
21
form a c l e a r p i c t u r e o f th e elements r e q u i r e d to perform a movement
ta s k c o r r e c t l y .
Others ( DeRoo and H a ra l s o n , 1971; Morgan, 1971;
Penman, 1969; Schweid e r , 1977; Wadsworth, 1973) have surmised t h a t
v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s pro vided c o n c i s e and i n t e r p r e t a b l e feedback r e ­
garding performance.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , v i d e o t a p e i s not a panacea in the a re a of motor
l e a r n i n g and s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n . I n v e s t i g a t o r s have found t h a t th e value
of the in f o r m a t io n a v a i l a b l e to a I e a r n e r in a re c o rd in g o f th e i n d i v i ­
d u a l ' s performance was c o n t i n g e n t on a number of f a c t o r s .
Rothstein
and Arnold (1976) an al yz e d f i f t y - t w o r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s concerned with
the use o f v i d e o t a p e as a tool in t e a c h i n g motor s k i l l s . The parameters
c on si de re d by R o t h s t e i n and Arnold were ag e, sex and s k i l l l e v e l o f the
s u b j e c t s ; t h e t a s k being performed by t h e s u b j e c t s ; th e t r e a t m e n t con­
d i t i o n s ; and t h e l e n g t h or number o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f th e t r e a t m e n t .
The r e s u l t s of t h e i r a n a l y s i s were t h a t advanced beg inn ers and more
hig hl y s k i l l e d pe rfo rm ers b e n e f i t t e d more from exposure to vid e o ta p e
r e p la y s than did b e g i n n e r s .
The a u t h o r s a l s o found t h a t r e p e t e t i v e
re p l a y o f v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s was n e c e s s a r y f o r s i g n i f i c a n t improve­
ments in performance t o o c cu r and t h a t cues to d i r e c t a l e a r n e r ' s a t ­
t e n t i o n to s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f th e re c ord ed performances were e s s e n t i a l
to enhace l e a r n i n g and performance.
Morgan (19-71) c o n s i d e r e d v id e o ta p e to a very promising way to
provid e v i s u a l c u e s .
She d i d , however, re c o g n iz e th e l i m i t a t i o n s
22
of i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y to motor l e a r n i n g and s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n ,
Morgan
i n d i c a t e d t h a t be gi nne rs did no t b e n e f i t from viewing a vid e o ta p e
re c o rd in g o f t h e i r pe rfo rm anc es, and c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t be gin ner s did not
have enough o f an e s t a b l i s h e d concept o f t h e p r e s c r i b e d movement ta s k
to a p p r e c i a t e th e e r r o r i n fo r m a t io n pro vided by th e r e p l a y .
DelRey (1971) d i s c u s s e d t h e predominance o f s t u d i e s which showed
t h a t th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s had l i t t l e e f f e c t on motor
s k i l l development.
She r e v e a l e d , however, t h a t none o f th e s t u d i e s
inc lud ed d i r e c t i n g a l e a r n e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o s p e c i f i c r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s
o f th e re p la y ed perfor ma nc es.
DelRey s t r o n g l y suggested t h a t by f o c u s ­
ing on c e r t a i n f a c t o r s w hi le viewing a re c ord ed performance, a l e a r n e r
could b e t t e r r e c o g n iz e and i n t e r p r e t c r i t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n .
I t would appea r t h a t i t i s t h e manner in which v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d in g s
a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n t h a t det ermi ne s i t s e f f e c t i v e ­
ne ss .
As R o t h s t e i n (1980: 60) c oncl uded , " Videotape r e p l a y has t h e
.
p o t e n t i a l t o enhance t h e l e a r n i n g and performance o f motor s k i l l s
pro vid ed th e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s g uid in g i t s e f f e c t i v e use a r e adhered to
by t e a c h e r s and c o ac h e s. "
Desp ite the numerous s t u d i e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e e f f e c t s of vid e o ta p e
r e p l a y on l e a r n i n g , r e s e a r c h co ncerning i t s use with t h e handicapped
remains s o r e l y l a c k i n g .
The few who have examined v i d e o t a p e ' s value
in d e a li n g with e x c e p t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s have p r i m a r i l y i n v e s t i g a t e d i t
as a p o t e n t i a l a id in modifying m a la d a p ti v e and u n d e r s i r a b l e behaviors
23
(DeRoo and H a ra l so n , 1971; Nelson, Gibson and C u t t i n g , 1973; Schweider,
1977; Weisbord, 1976.)
The s c a r c i t y o f e vid enc e r e g a r d i n g e f f e c t s of
the use o f v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s on. movement p a t t e r n s and motor
s k i l l development by th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d l i m i t s the p ro g r e s s toward
de ter mi nin g and implementing t e c h n i q u e s t h a t w i l l enhance t h e i r motor
l e a r n i n g and performance.
I t i s im p e r a t i v e t h a t p r o g r e s s i v e i n s t r u c t i o n
a I approaches, be more th oro u g h l y i n v e s t i g a t e d i f t h e problem o f motor
d e f i c i e n c i e s in t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i s e v e r t o be e f f e c t i v e l y d e a l t
with ( C a n t r e l l , 1977.)
Summary
I t has been shown t h a t feedback pla y s a c r i t i c a l r o l e in motor
l e a r n i n g , and t h a t p e r c e p tu a l p r o c e s s e s inv ol ved w it h i n t e r p r e t i n g
feedback a r e i m p o r ta n t t o s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n .
I t has been s p e c u l a t e d
t h a t t h e i n a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e and i n t e r p r e t e r r o r in f o r m a t io n may be
a major f a c t o r u n d e rl y in g t h e motor d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e m e n ta ll y
retarded.
Since ph y s ic a l a c t i v i t y i s im p o r t a n t t o t h e well being of
the r e t a r d e d , i t becomes n e c e s s a r y to p r o v id e them with feedback t h a t
allows f o r motor l e a r n i n g d e s p i t e t h e i r c o g n i t i v e and pe rc e p tu a l
lim itations.
Videotape r e c o r d i n g s may be one way to p r e s e n t c o n c r e te
in f or m at io n t h a t may be r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t e d and pro ce sse d by the
develo pm ent al Iy d i s a b l e d .
CHAPTER I I I
METHODOLOGY
The purpose o f t h i s s tu dy was to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s of v id e o ­
ta pe r e p l a y on the s t a n d i n g broad jump performances o f s i x t e e n m e n ta ll y
retarded a d u lts.
The method in which t h i s was accomplished w il l be
p r e s e n te d in the f o ll o w i n g o r d e r :
( I ) S u b j e c t s ; (2) s c h e d u l e ; (3) i n ­
s t r u m e n t a t i o n ; (4) a sse ssm en t p r o c e d u r e s ; (5) t r e a t m e n t p r o c e d u r e s ; and
( 6 ) a n a l y s i s of d a t a .
S u b je c ts
The s u b j e c t s in t h i s s tu dy were t e n male and s i x female m il d ly
and mod erat el y m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s who were p a r t i c i p a n t s in a
weekly r e c r e a t i o n program f o r e x c e p t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s a t Montana S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , Bozeman, Montana,
F i f t e e n o f t h e s u b j e c t s l i v e d in group
homes a d m i n i s t r a t e d by Reach I n c . , a n o n p r o f i t o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t
pro vi de s community s e r v i c e s to the de ve lo p m e n ta lIy d i s a b l e d a d u l t s of
Bozeman.
One s u b j e c t l i v e d s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t l y in Bozeman.
The s u b j e c t s ranged in age from n i n e t e e n to f o r t y y e a r s of age.
None o f th e s u b j e c t s had any o r t h o p e d i c impairments o r o t h e r p h y s i c a l Iy
handicapping c o n d i t i o n s t h a t would have i n h i b i t e d t h e i r performing the
s ta n d i n g broad jump. All s u b j e c t s s ig ned a conse nt form p r i o r to the
i n i t i a t i o n of t h i s s tu dy .
(See Appendix A.)
The s u b j e c t s were d i v id e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s ,
One group was the
25
Control Group, th e second group was th e Verbal Feedback Group and the
t h i r d group was t h e V ide o/v erbal Feedback Group.
There was a wide range
of e x i s t i n g l e v e l s o f motor p r o f i c i e n c y w i t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , so the
fo ll ow in g procedures were u t i l i z e d in th e grouping pro ce ss to help a t t a i n
homogeneity between t h e t h r e e t r e a t m e n t groups;
The s u b j e c t s were l i s t e d
in rank o r d e r a cc ord in g t o t h e s c o r e s from t h e i r i n i t i a l a ss e ss m e nts .
This rank o r d e r was then s t r a t i f i e d with t h r e e s u b j e c t s per s t r a t u m .
The
t h r e e s u b j e c t s in each s t r a t u m were then randomly a s s ig n e d to one o f th e
t h r e e t r e a t m e n t groups in o r d e r to e n s u r e an even d i s t r i b u t i o n . acc ording
to the s u b j e c t s 1 jumping p r o f i c i e n c y ,( M o r g a n , 1977.)
The means of the
i n i t i a l and f i n a l p r o f i l e s c o r e s f o r each group a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table
I . , and r e f l e c t a r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s
based on t h e i r i n i t i a l p r o f i c i e n c y a t performing th e s t a n d i n g broad
jump.
Schedule
This s tu dy was conducted in th e Phys ic al Education Curriculum Lab
a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Bozeman, Montana,
The d a t a f o r t h i s study
were c o l l e c t e d on April 10, 1980 and June 5, 1980.
The experimental
t r e a t m e n t was a d m i n i s t e r e d on Thursday evenings between 6:00 p.m. and
8:00 p.m. beginning April 17, 1980 and concl udi ng May 19, 1980.
Treat­
ment was not a d m i n i s t e r e d on Thursday, May .15, 1980 because some of the
s u b j e c t s were p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the Montana S pec ial Olympics in Missoula,
26
Table I.
Means and Sta ndard D e via ti on s o f the I n i t i a l and Final P r o f i l e
Scores o f Each Group, t- V a lu e s and P r o b a b i l i t y of the I n t r a ­
group Comparisons o f the I n i t i a l and Final Performance.
Control (N=5)
Verbal (N=6)
Video/verbal
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
INITIAL
4.67
1.21
4.60
1.14
4.60
1.52
FINAL
5.17
2.32
4.20
1.09
4.80
1.64
t - v a l ue
-.89
1.63
-.53
.42
.18
.62
PROB
*
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t th e .05 l e v e l ,
tg = 2.5 7 ; p< .05
Table 2.
Means and Standa rd D e via ti ons o f th e I n i t i a l and Final Dis­
ta nc e Measurements o f Each Group, t- V a lu e s and P r o b a b i l i t y of
t h e I n t r a g r o u p Comparisons o f th e I n i t i a l and Final P e r f ­
ormance.
Verbal
LO
Il
Z
Control (N=5)
X
SD
X
INITIAL
26.70
8.63
27.04
11.76
32.76
17.30
FINAL
27.60
10.85
30.06
17.89
33.42
18.44
t - v a l ue
PROB
*
SD
Video/verbal
X
-.30
-.96
-.22
.77
.39
.84
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t the .05 l e v e l ,
t ^ = 2 .5 7 ; p<.05
SD
27
Montana.
Instrumentation
The s ta n d i n g broad jump i s u t i l i z e d in numerous f i t n e s s t e s t
b a t t e r i e s as a t e s t of leg s t r e n g t h and power.
I t has a v a l i d i t y co-
e f f e c i e n t g r e a t e r than .90 and a r e p o r t e d r e l i a b i l i t y o f .97 (Matthews,
1973.)
The procedures f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g and performing t h e st a n d i n g
broad jump were th o s e d e s c r i b e d in t h e MHPER Spec ial F i t n e s s Manual
f o r Mildly Mentally Retarded Persons (MHPER, 1976: 18.)
These pro­
cedures a re p r e s e n t e d in Appendix B.
The s t a n d i n g broad jump was chosen as t h e movement t a s k in t h i s
study because i t was a r e l a t i v e l y uncomplicated t a s k which t h e s u b j e c t s
would be a b l e to perform w it h some de gre e o f s u c c e s s .
Another concern
in th e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump f o r use in t h i s study was
-
t h a t a l l o f t h e s u b j e c t s were known t o have immature jumping p a t t e r n s ,
and hence t h e r e was p o t e n t i a l f o r improvement in a l l t h e s u b j e c t s '
jumping p r o f i c i e n c y d uri ng t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
The in s t r u m e n t s used in t h i s s tu d y t o f i l m and r e p l a y th e s u b j e c t s '
s ta nd in g broad jump performances were a Sony 3/4 inch Videocamera, model
AVC-3260, and a Sony V i d e o c a s s e t t e r e c o r d e r , model V0-2600.
The r e p l a y
of th e vi d e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s was viewed on a Sony T r i n i t r o n Color
R ec e iv er /M oni to r, model CVM-1250,
This stu dy was mainly concerned with t h e q u a l i t y of jumping p e r ­
28
formance, but i t a l s o c o n s id e r e d measurements o f q u a n t i t a t i v e a c h i e v e ­
ment.
The o b j e c t i v e q u a n t i t a t i v e measurement c o n s i s t e d o f r e c o r d i n g
th e d i s t a n c e jumped in each o f th e f i v e t r i a l s in both t h e i n i t i a l and
f i n a l a sse ssm en t s e s s i o n s .
The mean d i s t a n c e from each s e s s i o n c o n s t i ­
t u t e d th e e v a l u a t i o n c r i t e r i o n of q u a n t i t a t i v e performance.
The q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c t of th e s u b j e c t s - performances was e v a l u a t e d
s u b j e c t i v e l y through use o f an a ss ess me nt tool developed by McClehaghan
and Gallahue (McClenaghan and G a ll a h u e , 1978: 104.)
sen te d in Appendix B,
The to o l i s p r e ­
This to ol i s comprised o f l i s t s o f performance
t r a i t s commonly oc c u r in g a t v a r io u s s t a g e s in t h e development o f a
mature jumping p a t t e r n .
I t was designed f o r use in a s s e s s i n g th e de­
velopment o f c h i l d r e n ’s jumping p a t t e r n s and was a p p l i c a b l e t o th e
p o p u la ti o n of t h i s s t u d y as a l l o f th e s u b j e c t s performed t h e s ta n d i n g
broad jump a t some p o i n t below t h e mature le v e l on t h e developmental
scale.
This i n v e s t i g a t o r assumed th e to ol t o have f a c e v a l i d i t y as
o t h e r so urc es from t h e f i e l d o f motor development have s u b s t a n t i a t e d
McClehaghan and G a l l a h u e ’s breakdown and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e de v e lo p ­
mental s t a g e s in jumping by r e v e a l i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s common to the
v a ri o u s performance l e v e l s (Corb in, 1980; Wickstrom, 1977.)
Assessment Procedures
An i n i t i a l , e v a l u a t i o n of each s u b j e c t ’s jumping p a t t e r n was,conduct
ed on April 10, 1980 and a f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n of t h e p a t t e r n o f each
29
s u b j e c t was done on June 5, 1980.
The ass e ss m e nt proce dures c o n s i s t e d
o f each s u b j e c t performing f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e s ta n d i n g broad jumps a f t e r
r e c e i v i n g th e f o ll o w i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rba l i n s t r u c t i o n s from th e i n v e s ­
t i g a t o r : "When I ask you to jump, I want you to jump as f a r as you can.
Keep your f e e t t o g e t h e r t h e whole time.
line.
Ready?
Jump."
Put your to e s on th e white
The i n i t i a l f i v e and f i n a l f i v e performances of
each s u b j e c t were re c o rd e d on v id e o ta p e to en sur e an a c c u r a t e q u a l i t a ­
t i v e a ss ess me nt by a ll o w in g t h e a s s e s s o r s to view t h e performances r e ­
p e a t e d l y . (See Appendix B f o r an e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e s c o r i n g p r o c e d u r e s . )
The i n v e s t i g a t o r c o l l e c t e d th e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a by measuring and
re c o r d in g th e d i s t a n c e s o f each jump.
the q u a l i t a t i v e a ss e ss m e n t.
Two female a s s i s t a n t s conducted
Both a s s i s t a n t s had background in the area
o f fundamental motor p a t t e r n s through t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e s as phys ic a l ed­
ucators.
Both had been employed as g r a d u a t e t e a c h i n g a s s i t a n t s of elem­
e n t a r y ph y s ic a l e d u c a t i o n by Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Bozeman, Montana,
and t a u g h t ph y s ic a l e d u c a t i o n in th e Bozeman P u b li c School D i s t r i c t f o r
one y e a r .
Each a l s o had one ye ar ns e x p e r i e n c e working with th e han di­
capped in. th e Bozeman p u b l i c s c h o o l s , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on the development
of fundamental movement p a t t e r n s and motor s k i l l s with m e n t a l l y r e ­
ta rd e d c h i l d r e n .
Through t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s working with handicapped
and nonhandicapped c h i l d r e n , both a s s i s t a n t s became very f a m i l i a r with
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e developmental s t a g e s in jumping.
The a s s i s t a n t s were t r a i n e d in use o f t h e asse ssm en t tool by the
30
investigator.
A r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t o f 1.0 was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r the
a s s i s t a n t s through a p i l o t stu dy conducted between Janu ary 22, 1980 and
February 5, 1980.
The a s s i s t a n t s made an i n i t i a l ass e ss m e nt o f th e p i l o t
stu dy s u b j e c t s and conducted a n o t h e r a ss e ss m e nt o f t h e s u b j e c t s two weeks
later.
The s u b j e c t s o f t h e p i l o t s tu dy were seven m i l d l y and mo derately
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d male and female high school s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g
Bozeman S e n io r High S c ho ol, Bozeman, Montana.
In a d d i t i o n to e s t a b l i s h ­
ing th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e a s s i s t a n t s in use o f th e a sse ssm en t t o o l ,
a n o t h e r purpose o f t h e p i l o t stu dy was to determine t h e c l a r i t y o f the
s t a n d a r d i z e d verbal i n s t r u c t i o n s and v e rb a l feedback cues to m e nta lly
retarded individuals.
The p i l o t stu dy f u r t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d a s t a n d a r d
procedure f o r t h e d e l i v e r y o f feedback and allowed t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r and
th e a s s i s t a n t s to become f a m i l i a r w it h u s i n g . t h e video equipment and th e
asse ssm en t too l used in t h i s s tu dy.
Treatment Procedures
The ex perimental t r e a t m e n t was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o th e s u b j e c t s on an
individual b a s i s .
Control Group:
The p r e s c r i b e d t r e a t m e n t s f o r th e groups were:
Each o f th e f i v e s u b j e c t s in th e Control Group was
given th e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n s p r i o r t o th e f i r s t s ta ndin g
broad jump performance in each t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n .
Each s u b j e c t
then performed te n c o n s e c u t i v e jumps and r e c e iv e d no feedback what­
s oe ve r on how t o improve t h e jumping p a t t e r n .
Following every jump,
31
the i n v e s t i g a t o r s a i d , "Nice j o b .
P le a se jump a g a i n . "
No o t h e r
communication took p l a c e between gny s u b j e c t and th e i n v e s t i g a t o r
during the t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s .
Verbal Feedback Group:
Each of th e s i x s u b j e c t s in t h e Verbal
Feedback Group was given th e s ta nd a rd iz e d, i n s t r u c t i o n s p r i o r to
t h e f i r s t s t a n d i n g broad jump performance in each t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n .
Each s u b j e c t performed t e n jumps p e r s e s s i o n .
A f t e r each jump,
a s u b j e c t r e c e i v e d s t a n d a r d i z e d verba l cues ( s e e Appendix C) from
th e i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t were a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r f o r ­
mance t h a t needed improvement.
Following t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the
ve rbal feedback c u e s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s a i d , "Nice j o b .
jump a g a i n . "
Please
No v i s u a l cues were given any to any o f t h e s u b j e c t s ,
and no communication o t h e r than t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n s ,
s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rba l cues and th e r e q u e s t to r e p e a t t h e jumping t a s k
took p la c e d u ri n g t h e t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s .
Video/verbal Feedback Group: Each o f th e f i v e s u b j e c t s in the Video/
ve rbal Group was given t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n s p r i o r to the
f i r s t s t a n d i n g broad jump performance in each t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n .
Each s u b j e c t performed te n jumps pe r s e s s i o n .
Before th e f i r s t
jump, each s u b j e c t viewed a v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g of a model perform­
ing a mature s ta n d i n g broad jump p a t t e r n .
The s u b j e c t then p e r ­
formed t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e jumps which were rec ord ed on v i d e o t a p e .
Following the t h r e e jumps, the v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g was re p la y ed to
32
the s u b j e c t w hi le t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r provide d s t a n d a r d i z e d verbal
feedback cues t h a t were a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a p s e c t s o f the performances
t h a t needed m o d i f i c a t i o n .
A f t e r th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of th e feedback,
th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s a i d , "Nice j o b .
P l e a s e jump t h r e e more t i m e s . "
This procedure o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g feedback f o ll o w i n g t h r e e jumps was
was done t h r e e t im e s .
J u s t p r i o r t o t h e t e n t h and f i n a l jump of
each s e s s i o n , th e s u b j e c t again viewed t h e model performance.
No
verbal o r v i s u a l cues o t h e r than t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n s ,
s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rba l feedback cues and t h e v i d e o t a p e r e p l a y s were
pr ovi de d.
.
The s t a n d a r d i z e d verba l feedback cues (s e e Appendix C) were d e vel op­
ed by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r based on Wickstromt S (1977) d e s c r i p t i o n of the
components o f a mature jumping p a t t e r n .
Wickstrom s y n t h e s i z e d numerous
so urc es o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an e f ­
f i c i e n t l y executed s t a n d i n g broad jump, and found t h e f o ll o w i n g f a c t o r s
to be c r u c i a l to optimal performance:
1.
The de ep e r t h e crouch, given t h a t th e le g f l e x i o n was not
extreme, t h e g r e a t e r the d i s t a n c e t h a t could be covered.
2.
The arms helped f a c i l i t a t e and enhance t h e jump by s e r v in g to
s h i f t . a j u m p e r ' s weight when t h e arms were f i r s t swung behind
the body, then swung v i g o r o u s l y forward to a hyperextended
p o s i t i o n above th e head.
The arms a l s o helped m a in ta in the
the momentum o f th e body in f l i g h t by remaining hyperextended
33
with the elbows s t r a i g h t .
3.
The optimal t a k e o f f angle was ap pro xi ma te ly f o r t y - f i v e de g re e s .
4.
The h e el s were p u l l e d o f f t h e f l o o r and t h e jump was i n i t i a t e d
from the t o e s , followe d in s u c c e s s i o n by th e e x t e n s i o n of the
h i p s , then t h e knees and then th e a n k l e s .
5.
The e x t e n s i o n o f t h e lower e x t r e m e t i e s was done r a p i d l y to
f a c i l i t a t e t h e jump.
The knees and hips f l e x e d soon a f t e r
t a k e o f f , and t h e knees extended a gai n to p o s i t i o n th e f e e t in
f r o n t o f t h e body in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l a n d i n g .
The knees and
hips f l e x e d upon c o n t a c t with th e la ndin g s u r f a c e t o absorb th e
impact o f t h e l a n d in g a n d . t o help d e c e l e r a t e t h e body smoothly.
The verbal feedback cues were developed with t h e s e performance
f a c t o r s in mind.
The cues were a l s o worded simply in o r d e r to
help p r e s e n t t h e feedback i n f o r m a t io n as c l e a r l y and u n d e r s ta n d a b ly as
p o s s i b l e to t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s .
The procedure o f r e p l a y i n g t h e v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s to th e s u b j e c t s
was e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r based on C r a t t y t S (1968) ide as
re g a rd in g the most e f f e c t i v e way to p r e s e n t v i s u a l feedback by means of
vi d e o ta p e r e p l a y .
C r a t t y f e l t t h a t when l e a r n e r s viewed a model as
well as t h e i r own p e r f o r m a n c e s , they had a c l e a r s t a n d a r d o f r e f e r e n c e
on which to base c o r r e c t i o n s in t h e i r movements.
He a l s o contended t h a t
l e a r n i n g was enhanced when p r a c t i c e c l o s e l y followed viewing o f e i t h e r
a model o r . a I e a r n e r ' s own performance on a v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g .
34
With C r a t t y ' s vie w poi nts in c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r d e s i g n ­
ed th e v id e o ta p e feedback t r e a t m e n t procedure to al low th e s u b j e c t s to
view a model performance o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump as well as t h e i r
own p e rf or m an c es , and to p ro vid e an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p r a c t i c e immediately
fo ll ow in g the r e p l a y o f t h e pe rf o rm a n c e s .
Each s u b j e c t in th e Video/
verbal Feedback Group r e c e i v e d th e v id e o ta p e feedback t r e a t m e n t as
f o ll o w s : (a) View model performance; (b) perform t h r e e jumps; (c) view
re p l a y of t h e t h r e e jumps; (d) perform t h r e e more jumps; (e) view r e p l a y
of th e second s e t o f t h r e e jumps; ( f ) perform t h r e e more jumps; (g) view
r e p l a y o f th e t h i r d s e t o f t h r e e jumps; (h) review model performance;
and ( i ) perform t h e t e n t h and f i n a l jump.
Anal ysi s o f Data
All o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d were analyze d by t h e Sigma Seven Com­
p u t e r l o c a t e d in t h e Computing Center a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
Bozeman, Montana.
The hypotheses were t e s t e d using t h e f o l l o w i n g SPSS
programs:
t - t e s t — a subprogram used to t e s t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r ­
ence between a p r e t r e a t m e n t and a p o s t t r e a t m e n t
measurement o f a v a r i a b l e w i t h i n one group,
ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e - - a subprogram used to t e s t th e s i g n i ­
f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between two o r more groups when
one v a r i a b l e i s being c o n s i d e r e d .
35
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were computed f o r a l l raw s c o r e s o b ta in e d
in a s s e s s i n g the s u b j e c t s .
The s t a t i s t i c s were then s u b j e c t e d to t e s t s
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e usi ng t h e SPSS program d e s c r i b e d .
Both hypotheses were
t e s t e d a t the .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Hypothesis I was t e s t e d by s u b j e c t i n g t h e d a t a from th e f i n a l p e r ­
formance a sse ssm en t to a t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t would re v e a l th e
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t h r e e t r e a t m e n t groups * performance o f th e s t a n d ­
ing broad jump f o l l o w i n g th e experimental t r e a t m e n t . p e r i o d .
Hypothesis
2 was t e s t e d by s u b j e c t i n g t h e d a t a from t h e i n t i a l performance e v a l u a ­
t i o n and the f i n a l performance e v a l u a t i o n to a t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t
would re ve al t h e d i f f e r e n c e between each g r o u p ' s i n i t i a l performance and
f i n a l performance o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The purpose o f t h i s study was to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f vide o­
ta p e feedback on t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump performances o f r e t a r d e d
adults.
A s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s 1 jumping p a t t e r n s and
and o b j e c t i v e measurement o f th e d i s t a n c e s jumped preceeded and suc­
ceeded t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e exper imen ta l t r e a t m e n t .
The assessment
s co r es were s t a t i s t i c a l l y analyzed and t h e f o ll o w i n g comparisons were
made:
( I ) a comparison of th e f i n a l performances o f a l l t h r e e ex­
perimental grou ps ; and (2) a comparison o f th e i n i t i a l and f i n a l
performances o f each group.
order:
The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e fo ll ow in g
( I ) d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s ; and (2) hypotheses t e s t i n g .
D escriptive S t a t i s t i c s
The means and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l perform­
ance p r o f i l e s c o r e s f o r each group a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table I .
The means
and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l d i s t a n c e measurements
f o r each group a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 2.
Hypotheses T e s ti n g
Two hypotheses were t e s t e d . i n t h i s s t u d y .
The r e s u l t s w i l l be
pr e s e n te d f o r each h y p o th e s i s in the fo ll o w i n g manner: . (a) s t a t e m e n t
of h y p o t h e s i s ; (b) d e s c r i p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e method of
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s ; (c) r e s u l t s of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s ; and (d)
be h av io r al i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e t e s t s t a t i s t i c .
HYPOTHESIS I
There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < .05) in t h e perfomance o f t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump between th e Control Group, the
Verbal Feedback Group and th e Video/verbal Feedback.Group f o ll o w ­
ing a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e experimental t r e a t m e n t .
This h y p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d by s u b j e c t i n g th e raw d a ta to a ONEWAY
analysis of variance.
The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s u s i n g . a ONEWAY a n a l y ­
s i s of v a r i a n c e r e v e a l e d th e d i f f e r e n c e s between the f i n a l s ta n d i n g
broad jump performances o f th e t h r e e groups.
An F - p r o b a b iI i t y g r e a t e r
than .05 would r e s u l t in acc ep ta nc e o f th e null h y p o t h e s i s , w it h the
subse que nt c o n c l u s i o n being t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in th e
.
s u b j e c t s ' performance o f th e s ta n d i n g broad jump oc c u r re d as a r e s u l t
of t h e v e rb a l o r v i d e o / v e r b a l feedback t r e a t m e n t .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e between t h e p r o f i l e
s c o r e s o f t h e t h r e e groups a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 3.
The r e s u l t s of
th e ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e between t h e d i s t a n c e measurements of.
the t h r e e groups a r e pro vid ed in Table 4.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e f i n a l performance p r o f i l e s or t h e f i n a l performance d i s ­
ta nc e measurements was found.
The null hy p o th e si s was a c c e p t e d ,
and i t was concluded t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e ve rbal f e e d -
;
38
Table 3.
Degrees of Freedom, Sum o f S q u a r e s , Mean S q u a r e s , F-Ratio
and P r o b a b i l i t y of the I n t e r g r o u p Comparison of th e Final
Performance P r o f i l e Scores o f Each Group.
SOURCE
DF
Between Groups
SS
MS
2
2.566
1.238
Within Groups
13
42.434
3.264
Total
15
45.000
*
.393
PROB
.683
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t the .05 l e v e l .
f 2,13 = 3,8 0 ; p< ,05
Table 4.
Degrees of Freedom, Sum o f S q u a re s , Mean S q u a re s , F-Ratio
and P r o b a b i l i t y of th e I n t e r g r o u p Comparison of t h e Final
Performance D is tan ce Measurements o f Each Group.
SOURCE
DF
MS
SS
Between Groups
2
92.500
46,250
Within Groups
13
3228.855
248.373
Total
15
3321.355
*
F
S i g n i f i c a n c e was t e s t e d a t the .05 l e v e l .
f 2,13 = 3.8 0 ; p < 0 5
F
.186
PROB
.832
39
back had no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on th e s t a n d i n g . b r o a d jump performances
o f th e m i l d l y and m ode ratel y m e nta lly r e t a r d e d a d u l t s u b j e c t s .
HYPOTHESIS 2
There w i l l be no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (p < .05) between the
i n i t i a l and f i n a l performances o f t h e s ta n d i n g broad jump in
any o f th e t h r e e groups.
This h y p o th e s i s was t e s t e d by s u b j e c t i n g t h e raw d a ta t o a Paired
t-test.
The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s using a P a ir e d t - t e s t r e v e a l e d the
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l s t a n d i n g broad jump perform­
ances of each group.
A t - p r o b a b j I i t y g r e a t e r than .05 would r e s u l t in
acc ep ta nc e o f t h e n u ll h y p o t h e s i s , w it h t h e su bse que nt co n cl u s io n being
t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in any o f t h e g ro u p s ' s t a n d i n g broad
jump performances o c c u r re d as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e experimental
treatment.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e P a ir e d t - t e s t between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l mean
p r o f i l e s c o r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r each group in Table I ,
The r e s u l t s o f
the P a ir e d t - t e s t b e tw e e n .t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l mean d i s t a n c e measure­
ments a r e given f o r each group in Table 2.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between the i n i t i a l mean p r o f i l e s c o r e and t h e f i n a l performance mean
p r o f i l e s co r e was found in any of t h e gro ups.
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between th e i n i t i a l performance mean d i s t a n c e measurement and t h e f i n a l
performance mean d i s t a n c e measurement was found in any o f th e groups.
40
The nu ll h y p o th e s i s was a c c e p t e d , and i t was concluded t h a t th e absence
of fe e db ac k, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of ve rbal feedback and the a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i o n o f v i d e o / v e r b a l feedback had no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on th e s t a n d ­
ing broad jump performances o f th e m i l d l y and m ode ra te ly m e n ta ll y
retarded subjects.
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The purpose o f t h i s stu dy was to examine t h e e f f e c t s o f vid e ota pe
feedback on th e s t a n d i n g broad jump performances o f m i l d l y and mod­
e r a t e l y m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s .
Videotape feedback was p r e s e n t e d by
r e p l a y i n g v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s of s u b j e c t s ^ performances w h il e p ro v id ­
ing verbal cues c o n c u r r e n t l y .
D i f f e r e n c e s Between t h e Final Performances o f t h e Three Groups .
R e s u lt s of t h e ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e mean p r o f i l e s c o r e s o f t h e f i n a l performances o f
the Control Group, t h e Verbal Feedback Group and t h e V ide o/verbal
Feedback Group.
I t vtas hypothe si zed t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e t h r e e groups would be found f o ll o w i n g t h e completion of
the ex perimental t r e a t m e n t .
R e s u lt s o f th e ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e mean d i s t a n c e measurements from th e f i n a l p e r ­
formances of t h e Control Group, t h e Verbal Feedback Group and the
Video/verbal Feedback Group.
I t was h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t ho s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t h r e e groups would be found f o ll o w i n g th e com­
p l e t i o n of th e e xperim ent al t r e a t m e n t .
42
D i f f e r e n c e s Between th e I n i t i a l and Final Performances o f Each Group
The r e s u l t s o f t h e t - t e s t r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e i n t i a l mean p r o f i l e s co r e and th e f i n a l mean p r o f i l e
s cor e in any o f the t h r e e g r o u p s .
The r e s u l t s a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d between "the i n i t i a l mean d i s t a n c e
measurement and the f i n a l mean d i s t a n c e measurement in any o f t h e t h r e e
groups.
I t was hy p o th e si ze d t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e would be
found as a r e s u l t o f any o f t h e exp eriment al c o n d i t i o n s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu dy r e v e a l e d t h a t e x t r i n s i c ve rbal and v i s ­
ual cues did not p o s i t i v e l y e f f e c t th e motor l e a r n i n g of th e s u b j e c t s .
Knowles (1973) found s i m i l a r r e s u l t s when she i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t s
of e x t r i n s i c feedback on t h e l e a r n i n g o r two gross motor s k i l l s by
moderately and m il d ly m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d males.
She d i s c o v e r e d t h a t
pr ov id in g feedback r e g a r d i n g th e outcome o f a performance fo ll o w i n g
completion o f the performance y i e l d e d no s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t s .
In
Knowles' s t u d y , th e s u b j e c t s in one t r e a t m e n t group were informed of
the r e s u l t s o f t h e i r performances in terms of numerical s c o r e s in ad­
d i t i o n to r e c e i v i n g v e rb a l cues oh how t o improve th e q u a l i t y o f the
performance. ' S u b j e c t s in a n o t h e r group r e c e i v e d only, verbal cues r e ­
garding how to improve t h e i r movements w hil e s u b j e c t s in a t h i r d group
r e c e iv e d no feedback w ha tso ev er.
The r e s u l t s of Knowles' study
re v e a le d t h a t none o f t h e feedback provide d had any s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t
43
on th e l e a r n i n g and performance o f the movements t a s k s in t h e stu dy.
She concluded t h a t e x t r i n s i c feedback provided a f t e r th e completion of
a performance did not b e n e f i t the m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d .
■
Baumeis t e r , Hawkins and Holland (1966) a l s o conducted a study i n ­
v e s t i g a t i n g th e e f f e c t s o f e x t r i n s i c feedback on th e motor performance
of th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
In c o n t r a s t to Knowlest feedback a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i o n , Baumeister and h i s a s s o c i a t e s provided t h e i r s u b j e c t s with f e e d ­
back du rin g performance o f a p u r s u i t r o t o r ta s k by f l a s h i n g a l i g h t
whenever t h e s u b j e c t s were on t a r g e t .
The i n v e s t i g a t o r s found t h a t the
r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y improved t h e i r performances when pro ­
vided feedback c o n c u r r e n t l y with t h e i r performances.
The d i s p a r i t y between Knowles' f i n d i n g s and the outcome of
B aum eis te r, Hawkins and H o l l a n d ' s study s t i m u l a t e s s p e c u l a t i o n about
th e most e f f e c t i v e way to p r e s e n t feedback to th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
The need f o r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n may perhaps be reduced when p e r t i n e n t
i n f o r m a t io n i s d e l i v e r e d d urin g performance r a t h e r than fo ll o w i n g i t s
co mple tion.
Since i t has been s ug ges te d t h a t motor performance prob­
lems o f t h e r e t a r d e d may be a r e s u l t o f d i f f i c u l t i e s in p r o c e s s in g
a b s t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n , c o n c u r r e n t p r o v i s i o n o f feedback may be an
e f f e c t i v e method o f p r e s e n t i n g c o n c r e t e in fo r m a t io n to r e t a r d e d p e r ­
for me rs .
Perhaps had t h e v i d e o t a p e feedback in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n
somehow been provide d c o n c u r r e n t l y with th e performances of th e s t a n d ­
ing broad jump, the outcome o f t h i s study may have been d i f f e r e n t .
T h e . r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n may have been i n f l u e n c e d some­
what by t h e a t t i t u d e s o f th e s u b j e c t s toward the movement t a s k and the
ex perimental t r e a t m e n t .
C r a t t y (1974) d i s c u s s e d i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s and
d i s t r a c t a b i I i t y as f a c t o r s t h a t might p o t e n t i a l Iy i n h i b i t e f f i c i e n t
in fo r m a t io n p ro c e s s i n g by t h e m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d .
Some s u b j e c t s in the
Verbal Feedback Group and th e V i d e o /v e r b a l Feedback Group o f t e n became
i m p a t i e n t with having to perform the s t a n d i n g broad jump ten times and
co n se q u e n tl y did no t always pay c l o s e a t t e n t i o n when feedback was being
pr ovi de d.
The s u b j e c t s in th e V ide o/verbal Feedback Group were i n i ­
t i a l l y q u i t e a t t e n t i v e to th e v id e o ta p e r e p l a y s , but a f t e r t h r e e t r e a t ­
ment s e s s i o n s grew u n i n t e r e s t e d in viewing t h e i r performances'.
Desp ite th e c o n t e n t i o n s held by some ( C r a t t y , 1968; N e ufe ld , 1972;
Ryan, 1969) t h a t v i d e o t a p e cna p r e s e n t t a n g i b l e and i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n ­
f o r m a t i o n , t h i s p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n found t h a t the use o f v id e o ta p e
to r e l a y performance i n f o r m a t i o n did not b e n e f i t th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d
s u b j e c t s ' l e a r n i n g or performance of a movement t a s k ,
Perhaps th e low
c o g n i t i v e l e v e l of t h e s u b j e c t s l i m i t e d t h e i r p e r c e p tu a l c a p a b i l i t i e s
as A lley (1968) s u g g e s te d .
I t appears t h a t although feedback was
provided t o th e r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s in a c o n c r e t e manner, the s u b j e c t s
were s t i l l unable to p e r c e i v e or modify e r r o r s in performance even
when t h e e r r o r s were s p e c i f i c a l l y poin te d ou t to th e s u b j e c t s by th e
investigator.
The m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s in t h i s study were p o s s i b l y a t too
45
low of a performance l e v e l t o b e n e f i t from th e v i d e o t a p e r e p l a y s .
Following t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f l i t e r a t u r e concerned with t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
o f v id e o ta p e r e p l a y on motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n , R o t h s t e t n and Arnold
(1976) concluded t h a t beg inn ers did no t seem t o p r o f i t from exposure to
vi d e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s o f t h e i r pe rform ances.
DelRey (1971) i n d i c a t e d
t h i s a l s o , and s p e c u l a t e d t h a t beg inn ers did n o t b e n e f i t from vid e ota pe
r e p l a y because t h e i r a t t e n t i o n was u s u a l l y n o t d i r e c t e d to p e r t i n e n t
a s p e c t s o f t h e re c ord ed performances.
Most o f t h e r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s
in t h i s p r e s e n t s t u d y performed th e s t a n d i n g broad jump a t a beginning
skill level.
The s u b j e c t s r e c e i v i n g t h e v i d e o / v e r b a l feedback t r e a t ­
ment were s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d to c e r t a i n f a c t o r s o f t h e i r performances
w hile viewing th e r e p l a y s o f t h e i r jumps, as DelRey s u g g e s te d .
Since
t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l
performances o f t h e Video /ve rb al Feedback Group, i t would ap pea r t h a t
m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s a t a beg innin g performance l e v e l do not
p r o f i t from v i d e o t a p e feedback even when t h e i r a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d to
s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f r e c or ded performances.
Summary
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stud y f a i l e d t o f i n d v i d e o t a p e feedback to be
a p o s i t i v e tool in enhancing t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d ' s motor l e a r n i n g and
performance o f a s e l e c t e d motor t a s k .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , few o t h e r s t u d i e s
have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e use o f vid e o ta p e with t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d , and
46
th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s st udy should not be co n si d e re d c o n c l u s i v e .
F ac tor s
t h a t may have a f f e c t e d t h e outcome could have been i n a t t e n t i v e n e s s or
d i s t r a c t i b i I i t y ( C r a t t y , 1974.)
Poor pe rc e p tu a l p r o c e s s i n g may have
a l s o accounted f o r t h e la c k o f s i g n i f i c a n t changes in performance ( A l l e y ,
1968.)
The f a c t t h a t the. s u b j e c t s were a t a beginning l e v e l a t th e
motor s k i l l used in t h i s s tu d y may have been a f a c t o r in th e la c k of
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f t h e v id e o ta p e feedback ( R o t h s t e i n and Arnold,
1976.)
CHAPTER VI ■
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Purpose
. The purpose o f t h i s study was t o examine t h e e f f e c t s o f vide ota pe
feedback on m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s ' performance o f a motor t a s k .
Videotape r e c o r d i n g s were u t i l i z e d as feedback r e g a r d i n g performances
of t h e s ta n d i n g broad jump o f m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s .
The c o n c l u s i o n s o f th e reviewed l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g feedback was
t h a t i t played a c r i t i c a l r o l e in t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , and t h a t vis u al
feedback was t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l type o f feedback in motor l e a r n i n g .
The l i t e r a t u r e concerned with v id e o ta p e i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e va lu e o f .
using v id e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g s to pro vid e feedback l a y in t h e f a c t t h a t
th e r e c o r d i n g s p r e s e n t e d i n fo r m a t io n in a c l e a r and c o n c i s e manner.
L i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w i t h motor l e a r n i n g and t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d reveal
ed t h a t an i n a b i l i t y t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e movements may be one e x p l a n a t i o n
f o r th e d i f f i c u l t i e s ex per ie nc e d by t h e r e t a r d e d in motor l e a r n i n g and
skill acquisition.
I m p l i c a t i o n s were made.in some s o u rc e s t h a t vide o­
ta pe could p o t e n t i a l l y a i d th e de vel opm en ta lIy d i s a b l e d in motor s k i l l
l e a r n i n g by p r e s e n t i n g i n fo r m a t io n n e c e s s a r y f o r l e a r n i n g a s k i l l in a
c o n c r e te manner, th u s reduci ng th e need f o r c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n .
48
Procedures
An i n i t i a l ass e ss m e nt was made o f s i x t e e n m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s '
jumping p a t t e r n s w hil e th e y performed th e s t a n d i n g broad jump.
The
s u b j e c t s were then d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e groups to undergo t h e fo ll o w i n g
treatments:
(I). Control Group: The s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e d t h e s t a n d i n g
broad jump and r e c e i v e d no feedback r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p erfo rm an ces ;
(2) Verbal Feedback Group: The s u b j e c t s p r a c t i c e d th e s t a n d i n g broad
jump and r e c i e v e d s t a n d a r d i z e d verbal cues on how t o improve t h e i r
jumping p a t t e r n s ; and (3) V ide o/verbal Feedback Group: The s u b j e c t s
p r a c t i c e d t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump and r e c e i v e d s t a n d a r d i z e d ve rbal
feedback cues w hi le viewing a vid e o ta p e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e i r performances;
The s u b j e c t s r e c e i v e d t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s once weekly f o r
a pe ri o d o f s i x weeks.
A f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n was made o f t h e s u b j e c t s '
jumping p a t t e r n s f o l l o w i n g th e c o n c lu s io n o f t h e t r e a t m e n t s e s s i o n s .
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l
performances of t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump.
A ONEWAY a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e
as used to compare t h e f i n a l performances o f t h e t h r e e grou ps .
A t-test
was used to compare t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l performances o f each group.
Resu lts
There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between th e f i n a l performances
of the t h r e e groups f o ll o w i n g the exp eriment al t r e a t m e n t .
There were
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l performances
49
of any o f th e gro ups.
Conclusions
/ -
The fo ll ow in g c o n c l u s i o n s can be for m ul at ed s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r the
po p u la ti o n o f t h i s s tu d y based on th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Caution should he e x e r c i s e d in g e n e r a l i z i n g t h e r e s u l t s to o t h e r
populations,
1,
In t h i s s t u d y , feedback provided by verba l cues has no
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on th e l e a r n i n g o r m a st e ry o f t h e s ta n d i n g
brgad jump by t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d s u b j e c t s ,
2,
In t h i s s t u d y , feedback provided by v i d e o t a p e r e p l a y accom. panied by verba l cues has no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e l e a r n ­
ing o r mast ery o f t h e s ta n d i n g broad jump by t h e m e n t a l l y
retarded a d u lt su b jec ts,
Tbe la c k o f a more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g to o l may.be one f a c t o r under­
ly in g t h e n o n - s i g n i f i . c a n t r e s u l t s .
The too l used in t h i s s tu dy was
designed f o r use t o g e n e r a l l y a s s e s s th e jumping p a t t e r n s o f young
children.
I t was t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e too l found t h a t could be
a d e q u a te ly modif ied f o r use in t h i s s tu dy.
Videotape may be a p o t e n t i a l l y v a l u a b l e to ol t o d e l i v e r c o n c r e t e
and i n t e r p r e t a b l e v i s u a l feedback to m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s .
E s t a b l i s h e d movement p a t t e r n s a r e , however, d i f f i c u l t t o change, and
the f a c t t h a t the s u b j e c t s in t h i s study were a l l a d u l t s with f i r m l y
50
e s t a b l i s h e d jumping p a t t e r n s may have been an element in th e outcome
o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
A general c o n c lu s io n o f t h i s s tu dy i s , no ne th e ­
l e s s , t h a t v id e o ta p e f e e db ac k, as a d m i n i s t e r e d in t h i s s t u d y , does
not have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on th e s t a n d i n g broad jump performances
o f m il d ly and m ode ra te ly m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d a d u l t s .
Recommendations
Evidence o f t h e e f f e c t s o f v i d e o t a p e feedback on t h e motor l e a r n ­
ing and performance o f m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s in s o r e l y l a c k ­
ing.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y r e v e a l e d no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s of
t h i s mode o f f e e d b a c k , a lt ho ugh the l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
p o t e n t i a l o f v i d e o t a p e as a feedback t e c h n i q u e with t h e r e t a r d e d was
promising.
The f o ll o w i n g recommendations f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in
th e a r e a s o f v i d e o t a p e as a feedback mode and motor, l e a r n i n g and th e
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d a r e o f f e r e d :
1.
Conduct s t u d i e s to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f v i d e o t a p e f e e d ­
back on t h e l e a r n i n g and performance o f young m e n t a l l y r e ­
ta r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s .
Retarded c h i l d r e n and youth s t i l l
in
t h e developmental s t a g e s may b e n e f i t from t h i s type o f
feedback.
2.
Conduct l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s in v o lv in g l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n s o f
m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d p e rs o n s.
S t u d i e s such as t h e s e may y i e l d
more c o n c l u s i v e evidence r e g a r d i n g feedback and t h e motor
51
l e a r n i n g p ro c e s s in t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d by i n c o r p o r a t i n g
many motor s k i l l s in th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,
3.
Devise more dynamic ways to d e l i v e r v i d e o t a p e feedback t o
m e n ta ll y r e t a r d e d i n d i v i d u a l s .
By p r e s e n t i n g feedback i n ­
for matio n in a manner t h a t i s s t i m u l a t i n g , r e t a r d e d l e a r n e r s
may d i s p l a y more i n t e r e s t and en thusi asm in l e a r n i n g and
p r a c t i c i n g motor s k i l l s .
Feedback t r e a t m e n t and o p p o r t u n i ­
t i e s f o r p r a c t i c e should a l s o be provide d a t more f r e q u e n t
i n t e r v a l s than th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y would allow .
4.
Develop a ss e ss m e n t t o o l s desi gne d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o e v a l u a t e
movement p a t t e r n s and motor s k i l l s o f t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
C u r r e n t l y , in a d e q u a t e means o f a s s e s s i n g t h e motor p r o f i c i e n ­
cy o f d e vel op m en ta lI y d i s a b l e d i n d i v i d u a l s o f t e n i n h i b i t s
e f f e c t i v e p r e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r a p y o r remedial a c t i v i t i e s which
could a i d t h e r e t a r d e d in overcoming t h e i r motor d e f i c i e n c i e s .
Work in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a re a would be a ma jor c o n t r i b u t i o n
to th e f i e l d o f motor l e a r n i n g and t h e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
APPENDICES
53
APPENDIX A
LETTER OF CORRESPONDENCE AND SUBJECT CONSENT FORM
PHYSICAL EDUCATION TRAINING PROJECT FOR THE EXCEPTIONAL INDIVIDUAL
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH PHYSICAL EDUCATION AN D RECREATION
CRAIG STEWART E D D
M O N T A N A STATE UNIVERSITY. B O Z E M A N
PROJECT DIRECTOR
M O NTANA
59717
March 13, 1980
Dear Group Home C oun se lo rs ,
My name i s Laura Sim, and I am a gra d u a te a s s i s t a n t working with
Dr. Craig St e w a rt a t Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . As p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
of t h e re qui re m e nts f o r a Master o f Sc ie nce degree I in te n d to conduct
r e s e a r c h co ncer nin g motor s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n by th e m e n t a l l y r e t a r d e d .
I would l i k e to do a s tu dy using th e i n d i v i d u a l s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the
Thursday n i g h t r e c r e a t i o n program here a t the U n i v e r s i t y .
I pl a n to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f using v id e o ta p e feedback in
the development o f jumping s k i l l with t h e de velopm entalIy d i s a b l e d .
There i s some ev ide nc e t h a t i n d i c a t e s vid e o ta p e i s a v a l u a b l e method
of p r o v i d i n g performance in f o r m a t io n t h a t may enhance motor l e a r n i n g
by th e r e t a r d e d , bu t much more r e s e a r c h in th e area i s d r a s t i c a l l y
needed.
The p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e study w i l l work on jumping s k i l l s f o r
ap pr ox im a te ly twenty minutes each Thursday, beginning on April IOth
and c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l June 5 th . The v i d e o t a p e r e c o r d i n g s of the
s u b j e c t s w i l l be used only as feedback to th e i n d i v i d u a l s , and w il l
remain s t r i c t l y c o n f i d e n t i a l . All th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s w i l l be
p r e s e n t e d anonymously in th e p u b li s h e d t h e s i s , and w i l l be a v a i l ­
a b le to you upon r e q u e s t .
I f you have any q u e s t i o n s , concerns or o b j e c t i o n s , p l e a s e f e e l
f r e e to c o n t a c t me d u ri n g th e day a t 994-2260 o r in the evening a t
586-0889. I t w il l be a g r e a t help i f you would encourage th e c l i e n t s
to a t t e n d t h e program r e g u l a r l y as t h e i r pres enc e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i s e s s e n t i a l to t h e outcome o f the study.
Thank you very much f o r your c o o p e r a ti o n .
Sincerely,
Laura J . Sim
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
HUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH CONSENT FORM
T itle of research:
The E f f e c t s of Videotape Feedback on the Standing
Broad Jump Performances of Mildly and Moderately
Menta lly Retarded A dults .
Investigator:
Laura J . Sim, Graduate A s s i s t a n t
B.E.H. Tr ai n i n g ' P r o j e c t
Department of H e a l t h , Physical Education and
R ecr ea tio n
Montana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Bozeman, Montana
I,
_____________________ ______________, have been provided: A
(name o f p a r t i c i p a n t )
general d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e above named i n v e s t i g a t i o n and i t s purpose:an
e x p l a n a t i o n of why I was s e l e c t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e ; and an e x p l a n a t i o n of
my r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as a p a r t i c i p a n t ,
I hereby c ons e nt t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
s i g n a t u r e of p a r t i c i p a n t
56
APPENDIX B
PROCEDURES FOR THE STANDING BROAD JUMP AS DESCRIBED IN THE AAHPER
SPECIAL FITNESS MANUAL FOR MILDLY MENTALLY RETARDED PERSONS
AND
THE ASSESSMENT TOOL DEVELOPED BY McCLENAGHAN AND GALLAHUE
Procedures f o r t h e s t a n d i n g broad jump as d e s c r i b e d on page 18 o f the
AAHPER S pe ci al F i t n e s s Manual f o r Mildly M en ta lly Retarded Pe rs ons:
Equipment:
Mat, F lo o r , o r o u t s i d e jumping p i t and t a p e measure.
Description:
Pupil s ta nds with t h e f e e t s e v e r a l inc hes a p a r t and t h e t o e s j u s t
behtnd th e t a k e - o f f l i n e .
P r e p a r a t o r y t o jumping, t h e pupil swings the
arms backward and bends t h e knees.
The jump i s accomplished by
s im u lt a n e o u s ly ex te n d i n g t h e knees and swinging t h e arms for war d.
Rules:
.
1.
Allow t h r e e t r i a l s .
(*N0TE: Five t r i a l s were g i v e n . )
2.
Using a t a p e , measure from t h e t a k e - o f f l i n e to t h e back of
th e heel n e a r e s t t h e t a k e - o f f l i n e .
3.
When the t e s t in given i n d o o r s , i t i s c o n v e n ie n t t o t a p e the
57
ta p e measure t o th e f l o o r a t r i g h t a n g le s t o th e t a k e - o f f
l i n e and have th e p u p i l s jump along t h e t a p e .
The s c o r e r
s ta n d s to t h e s i d e and t a k e s t h e measurement.
Scoring:
Record th e b e s t of t h e t h r e e t r i a l s i n f e e t and inch es to the
n e a r e s t in c h.
utilized.
(* NOTE:
For t h i s s t u d y , t h e mean o f f i v e t r i a l s was
The d i s t a n c e s were rec ord ed i n inch es and measured to the
nearest one-half inch.)
The a sse ssm en t tool on t h e fo ll o w i n g page was developed by
McClenaghan and Gallahue ( McClehaghan and G allahue, 1978: 104.)
The
fo ll ow in g m o d i f i c a t i o n s were made by the i n v e s t i g a t o r to a d a p t the
tool f o r use in. t h i s stu dy:
1.
Performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r tru nk a c t i o n a t the elementary
level were added as t h e r e were none l i s t e d in the o r i g i n a l t o o l .
2.
A s c o r i n g system was de vis e d in o r d e r t h a t th e to ol may be
adapted f o r s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t .
This system c o n s i s t e d o f a s s i g n i n g
a numerical va lu e t o each o f t h e performance l e v e l s .
The i n i t i a l s t a g e
was a s s ig n e d th e number one, th e e le m ent ary s t a g e th e number two and
the mature s t a g e th e number t h r e e .
The s u b j e c t s were e v a l u a t e d by
a s s e s s i n g t h e a c t i o n s o f th e arms, tru nk and lower e x t r e m e t i e s s e p a r ­
ately.
By adding th e numbers a s s ig n e d t o the le vel a t which they p e r ­
formed each body a c t i o n , a t o t a l s c o r e , r e f e r r e d to in t h i s s tu d y as
the p r o f i l e s c o r e , was de ter mi ne d.
For example, a s u b j e c t whose arm
a c t i o n was a t t h e i n i t i a l l e v e l (a va lu e o f on e ,) t r u n k a c t i o n was a t
the e le m en ta ry l e v e l (a va lu e o f two,) and l e g - h i p a c t i o n was a t the
i n i t i a l l e v e l (a va lu e of one) would have a p r o f i l e s cor e of f o u r .
was t h i s p r o f i l e s c o r e t h a t was s u b j e c t e d to s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s to
determine th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
3.
Blanks on which t o re c o r d th e d i s t a n c e s of th e f i v e t r i a l s ,
the p r o f i l e s c o r e s and t h e s u b j e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number were added.
It
59
INITIAL
ELEMENTARY
MATURE
AA
R C
MT
I
O
N
Limited swing;
arms do not
i n i t i a t e the
jumping a c t i o n .
During f l i g h t .
sideward/downward o r r e a r ward/upward, to
m a in ta in b a l ance.
I n i t i a t e jumping
action.
Always remain
toward f r o n t o f
body d urin g p r e para to. ry crouch.
Move ou t to s i d e to
m a i n t a i n ba lan ce
during f l i g h t .
Move high and to
the r e a r during
p r e p a r a t o r y crouch.
During t a k e o f f , they
swing forward
with f o r c e and
reach high.
Arms a r e held high
th r oug hout t h e
jumping a c t i o n .
T
R
U
N
K
A
C
T
I
O
N
Moves in v e r tic a l direction; l i t t l e
emphasis upon
length of
j ump.
S l i g h t a n g le o f
trunk; a l i t t l e
more emphasis, on
horizontal
distance.
Trunk i s p r o p e l l e d
■ a t ap pro xi ma te ly
a 45 degree a n gl e.
Major emphasis i s .
on h o r i z o n t a l
distance.
L
E
G
H
I
. „.P
A
C
T
I
O
N
Preparatory
crouch i s
inconsistent
in terms o f
le g f l e x i o n .
D i f f i c u l t y using
both f e e t .
Extension a t
tak eo ff is
Iimi t e d .
Weight f a l l s
backward a t
landing.
P r e p a r a t o r y crouch
i s de ep e r and
more c o n s i s t e n t .
Extension i s more
complete a t
takeoff.
Hips a r e f l e x e d
duri ng f l i g h t .
and t h i g h s a r e
he ld i n a
flexed position.
P r e p a r a t o r y crouch
i s deep and consi s t e n t .
Complete e x te n s io n
o f a n k l e s , knees.
and hip s a t t a k e off.
Thighs a r e held
p a r a l l e l to
ground during
f l i g h t ; lower leg
hangs v e r t i c a l l y .
Body weight a t
la n d in g i s
forward.
Subject #
P r o f i l e Score
D is ta nc e s
Jl
#5
#3
#2
X D is ta nc e
#4
60
APPENDIX C
STANDARDIZED VERBAL FEEDBACK CUES
LEGS:
1. crouc h:
"Bend your knees more b e fo re you jump,"
2 . t a k e o f f : " S t r a i g h t e n your l e g s as f a s t as you. can when
you jump."
3. t a k e o f f : "Try to jump o f f y o u r t o e s . "
4. Landing: "Bend down when you l a n d , "
ARMS:
5. crouc h:
"Swing your arms behind you b e f o r e you jump."
6 . t a k e o f f : "Swing your arms forward over your head when
you jump and keep then high in t h e a i r the
whole time."7. l a n d i n g : "Keep your arms in f r o n t o f you where you can
s ee them when you l a n d , "
TRUNK:
8 . t a k e o f f : "Lean forward more when you jump,"
9. f l i g h t :
"Keep le a n i n g forward when you a r e in t h e a i r . "
10. l a n d i n g : "Bend forward when you l a n d , "
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