Proceedings of 5th Annual American Business Research Conference
6 - 7 June, 2013, Sheraton LaGuardia East Hotel, NY, USA, ISBN: 978-1-922069-24-5
Music, Emotions and Colors: Imperative Content
Dimensions of Advertising
Dr.Varisha Rehman*1 and Dr.Anurika Vaish**
Content, in normal, parlance refers to the usage of text, audio or video
capable of imparting meaning to the viewers. To be more specific it
includes video, images, animation and sound. Similarly, the content for
advertisement whether for traditional or new media includes all the above
mentioned forms used creatively. This paper tries to include content
dimensions like music, emotions and colors as peripheral routes of
advertising and interrelates its imperativeness with theories from
psychology ( like music has classical conditioning theory; colors has
distinctiveness theory and emotions has Circumplex model and
Roseman’s Appraisal Theory).Various aspects of each of the dimensions
like music (fast or slow; popular or unpopular); colors (distinctiveness)
and emotions (active over dull; quite over astonished; calm over hostile)
have been measured. The research was conducted in a Tier II city of
India , with a sample size of 436 .Its results provide insight into the right
combination of choices of content for advertisement across age and
genders.
Field: Marketing
1. Introduction:
Any advertisement to be successful has to be creatively drafted to have its impact on
consumers mind. It should not be misunderstood and misinterpreted by the
advertiser that the consumer mind is a blank canvas in which they can paint anything
but rather the consumer already has an idea of the products availability, its attributes
and the memories associated with its usage. Therefore it becomes imperative for the
advertiser to draft an advertisement with proper content to be impactful. Content in
normal meaning is understood as anything that is capable of imparting meaning to
the audience. For the context of advertising, content means proper usage of
pictures, colors, words, emotions and animation. To make the study more impactful
the variants have been linked with theories from advertising and psychology domain.
The present paper is a study to identify the choices of music, emotions and colors
across gender and age in an effective advertisement for a small city audience.
2. Literature Review of Content Variants
Content variants for the study are music, emotions and colors. The present section
describes the importance of each dimension and its linkage with the theories:
*Dr.Varisha Rehman, Assistant Professor, Galgotias University, Greater Noida (UP), India.
Email: varisharehman@gmail.com
**Dr.Anurika Vaish ,Associate Professor , Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) , Allahabad,
Email: anurika@iiita.ac.in
Rehman & Vaish
2.1: Music
Music as an advertising moderator is “widely used and well established” observation
(Hawkins, Best & Coney, 1983).Background music has been used as an ingredient
in advertisement. Due to the presence of hindrances like “clutter” (Webb & Ray,
1979), “zipping” (Yorke & Kitchen,1985) and “zapping” (Heeter & Greenberg,1985) –
ad retention is becoming increasing difficult (Olney, Holbrook & Batra,1991) and
musical advertisement has been resorted to as a remedy for overcoming these
obstacles. The first network radio broadcast in 1923 used music in advertisement for
the first time (Hettinger, 1933). Musical advertisement2 on television have affected
the emotional response of the audiences (Wintle, 1978).Radio commercials tends to
have “pleasant background” with music (Wells, Burnett & Moriarty, 2004) which
ultimately leads to have higher recall rates as compared to ads with ads without
music (Hunt,1988) but the “right” music is still choosen and selected by the musician
and not by the advertisers (Bruner,1990).Music reduces boredom (Kellaris & Mantel,
1996), enhances messages (Sullivan,2002) and provides a linkage with earlier
experiences (Scott,1990). By moderating the loudness, pitch and other dimensions
of music the advertisers can carefully focus on few important aspects of verbal
message. Music is said to have the power to hit the nervous system like a key on the
lock, thereby acting upon the brain to produce desired emotional response (Clynes
1975, 1977, 1980; Clynes &Nettheim 1982).But many researchers have questioned
the effectiveness of music in advertisement right from the time when Gorn (1982)
conducted an experiment in music where he concluded that presence of pleasant
music rather than unpleasant music influenced the subjects to choose a particular
color pen. Later researchers accepted that music has unique conditioning power
(Allen & Madden 1985) and has the capability of imparting meaning and shades to
all the emotions in human expressions.
2.2 Emotions:
Due to the works of various neuroscientists, emotions are now considered inevitable
for rational thinking (Le Doux, 1996; Damasio, 1994) ,decision making (Du Plessis,
2005 ;Hall, 2002) and for evoking purchase decisions (Gardner, 1985; Hill & Gardner
1987). Often people gets confused with emotions and moods and use them
interchangeably, however the difference between the two is that former is intentional
and deliberate (Frijda ,1993),shorter in duration and higher in intensity (Bagozzi,
Gopinath & Nyer,1999) while moods are non-intentional (Frijda ,1993) longer in
duration and lower is intensity (Bagozzi, Gopinath & Nyer,1999).Brain theorists have
mentioned about the two hemisphere in brain where the left brain was related to
verbal content –more apt for radio advertising while the right brain was related to non
verbal content like images and pictures- more suitable for television advertising
(Krugman ,2000). But recently the brain theorists disagree with the two hemispheres
and have put forward the concept of one memory in advertising where all the content
of advertisement like colors, pictures, music, emotions, words are processed and
since emotions is essential for feeling and understanding advertisement therefore it
becomes imperative for all media channels like radio ,television, outdoor etc. to
weave emotions in their advertisement(Du Plessis,2005).Emotions helps in the
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Rehman & Vaish
evaluation of plan (Oatley & Johnson Laird,19873).Emotions can also be classically
conditioned due to the presence and treatment of stimuli (Frijda,1986).
Stimulus event
Event Coding
Appraisal (Evaluation of relevance, context & urgency)
Action
Action Readiness
Arousal
Action may be referred to as the indulgence or avoidance of activities for the
accomplishment of some goal while arousal is inheriting in the nervous system of the
brain4 rather emotions in itself are biological functions of the nervous system (Le
Doux, 1996 & Damasio,1994).Attention or arousal towards an advertisement that is
evoked by positive emotions receive higher acceptance among the audience (Van
Raaij,1989).Better understanding of different shades of emotions can be understood
by the emotional continuum depicted in the following diagram:
Figure 1: The Emotional Continuum
Lower-order emotions:
Pleasure, Arousal
Automatic Process
Basic emotions
Eg. Fear, Anger,Happiness
Higher-order emotions:
Complex Emotions
Cognitive Process
Various studies have been done by researchers for understanding and developing
scales for emotions in advertising. Like – Izard (1977) 5 , Russell & Mehrabian
(1977)6,Plutchik (1980)7,Edel & Burke (1987)8;Hoolbrook & Batra (1987)9, Watson &
Clark (1992) 10 and Richins (1997) 11 are among the important ones which further
helped the academicians in research.
2.3 Colors:
The importance and usage of color has been the topic of study for advertisers since
past 60 years
(Hanssens & Weitz,1980). A standardized color strategy for
advertisement has been developed by marketers primarily on the basis of trial and
.
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Rehman & Vaish
error method by seeing the color schema in other parts of the world (Miller,1994)
Colors provide distinctiveness both sensory and visual to the ads (Houston &
Childers, 1984). Pictures with color are recognized not because of the effectiveness
and memorability of color but because of the distinctiveness being imparted in
picture due to the presence of color (Suzuki and Takahashi,1997). The usage and
choice of colors vary with cultures and economic development of a country.
Geographical location also plays an important role in color differentiation. For
instance, the people of the locations where the sunlight falls directly and brightly
have difficulty in distinguishing between wide array of colors and they usually fall
back on the colors like black and white (Petterson,1982).It has been found that there
is a greater pigmentation of yellow in the eye in people living near the equator which
ultimately causes reduction in the sensitivity of the color blue whereas people living
in the northern hemisphere has more appropriate and refined version of colors rather
than just black and white as the light is reflected less directly in these regions
(Bornstein,1973).The advertisement effectiveness is dependent on both the choice
and usage of color (Lee & Barnes,1990).Advertisement becomes more attractive
and vibrant with the usage of color. Rather color not only improves the advertisement
but also enables the arrangement, cataloguing and recognition of books (Boynton &
Dolensky,1979).In few media channels the advertisers are in a dilemmatic
confrontations like on one side for magazines they are aware that adding colors
increase advertising costs (Kirmani,1997) and on the other side they know that
colored advertisement increases sales (Anderson,1988) enhances learning
(Hendon,1973) and boosts readership (Auchincloss,1978).
3. Theories Taken in to Consideration for Content Variants:
Table 1: Interrelationship with Theories
Topic
Theory
Author
Journal
Color
Distinctiveness Hunt & Smith, Memory and Distinctiveness
Theory
1996
Cognition
Theory holds that
two objects can be
made more visible
by
distinction
between
them
through colors or
animation.
The
contrast in between
two
adjacent
objects
can
be
highlighted with the
help of different
colors.
Phillips
and Journal
of
Lee,2005
Current
Issues
and
Research in
Advertising
Description
If a source is
capable of drawing
attention, recall and
retention due its
distinctive features
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Rehman & Vaish
it is said to be
distinct
Heiser, Sierra, Journal
of An ad can impart
&Torres,2008
Advertising
unique
meaning
and features if it is
distinct from the
rest.
Relevance for present study: The impact and importance of colors can be
gauged. Colors – bright or dull is said to have the potential to make the source
clear, distinct and unique.
Music
Classical
Conditioning
Theory
Pavlov,1960
Conditional
Reflexes
The dog salivated
(unconditioned
response)
when
food was presented
to
them
(unconditioned
stimulus), but when
the bell rang dogs
did not salivate.
Then he presented
the
food
and
ranged the bell, dog
associated ringing
of the bell with the
food and after time
dog
started
salivating
(conditioned
response) by the
ringing of bell
(conditioned
stimulus).
Relevance for the present study: It helps in drawing inference that music can
be used as conditioned stimulus to produce desired advertising results
(conditioned response).
Emotions
Circumplex
Watson
& Psychological This
model
is
model or the Tellegen,1985 Bulletin
simple and is build
two
factor
on the assumption
model
that emotions exist
in bipolar states
(eg.
happy-sad,
dull-elated).One of
the major limitation
of this
model is that it does
not
reflect
the
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Rehman & Vaish
emotions related to
marketing
like
pride,
disgust,
embarrassment,
shame.
Roseman’s
Appraisal
Theory
Roseman,1991 Cognition
Emotion
& To overcome the
drawback of two
factor
model,
Roseman‟s
Appraisal
Theory
have also been
taken
into
consideration,
where almost all the
emotions
are
covered
and
categorised under
motive consistent /
motive inconsistent,
power, probability,
agency,
appetitive/aversive.
This theory not only
tells
about
the
emotions but also
about
the
occurrences
of
each emotion.
Relevance for the present study: It helped in understanding various shades of
emotions and in particular the emotions used in marketing.
4. Impact of Demographics on Content:
Gender as a topic have been investigated by many academicians in many disciplines
of study like psychology, management, marketing and biology- to name a few
(Ohlott, Ruderman & McCauley, 1994; Putrevu, 2001).Gender has been identified
as an important influence in all marketing decisions. There are differences in the
thinking and responding patterns of men and women. Nonverbal stimuli that are
more elaborative and flowery are more apt for women as compared to men (MeyersLevy & Maheswaran ,1991), as women are more dependent on the left hemisphere
of the brain while male depends on the right hemisphere which makes them more
attracted and allured by pictures (Myers-Levy, 1994).Not only the cognitive, affective
and behavioral patterns of men and women are different for traditional media but
also for internet. The participation and involvement in web activities also varies
across gender.
Apart from gender differences, age differences are also an important determinant for
advertisement formulation and execution. Different media channels have different
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Rehman & Vaish
target groups and each target group has their preferences. For instance, children
consider and follow television as their teacher and even admiring it to the extent of
their parent (Panwar, 2003) while the youth aggressively follows internet. The
cognitive development and shift in children12 can be better understood by the Piget‟s
theory (Roedder, 1999).The choice of various content dimensions will also vary
according to demographic factors. The present study will try to analyze these
changes.
5. Research Methodology:
The purpose of the study was to ascertain the choice of music, emotions and colors
for advertisement across age and gender in a tier II city of India. The study
incorporates random sampling. The questionnaire was administered in Allahabad, a
city of Northern India .The sample size was 436.The table below shows the
demographic distribution of the sample:
Table 2: Demographic Distribution of Sample
Gender
Age
< 25
26-35
36-45
>46
Education
School (12th
Standard)
Graduate
Post Graduate
B.Tech
MBA
Male
Female
Total
246(56.4%)
190(43.6 %)
436 (100%)
57 (13.1%)
76 (17.4%)
67(15.4%)
46 (10.6%)
33 (7.6%)
49(11.2%)
78(17.9%)
30 (6.9%)
90(20.6%)
125 (28.7%)
145 (33.3%)
76(17.4%)
45 (10.3%)
30 (6.9%)
75(17.2%)
65(14.9%)
53(12.2%)
58(13.3%)
25 (5.7%)
31(7.1%)
27(6.2%)
27 (6.2%)
75 (17.2%)
96(22.0%)
80(18.3%)
85 (19.5%)
100(22.9%)
6. Analysis:
H01: There is no significant difference in the choice music, emotions and colors
as content of advertisement between males and females.
12
The theory proposes four main stages of cognitive development: sensory-motor (birth to two years), pre-operational (two to seven years),
concrete operational (seven to 11 years) and formal operational (11 through adulthood). At the pre-operational stage, the children start
developing the symbolic thoughts but are still very focused on the perceptual properties of stimuli
7
Rehman & Vaish
Table 3: Descriptive Statistics
Gender
Music, emotions and Female
colors
Male
N
Mean
190
246
3.8947
3.9559
Std.
Deviation
.57377
.58344
Std. Error
Mean
.04163
.03720
Table 3: Shows the descriptive statistics between males and females. Females have
mean value of 3.8947, standard deviation of 0.57377, while males have mean values
of 3.9559 and standard deviation of 0.58344. The Standard Error Mean was 0.04163
and 0.03720 for females and males respectively.
Table 4: Independent Sample T-Test
Levene's
Test
for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
Music,
Equal
emotions and variances
colors
assumed
F
Sig. t
.069
.793 -1.093 434
Equal
variances not
assumed
df
95%
Confidence
Std.
Interval of the
Sig.
Mean
Error
(2Differen Differen Difference
tailed) ce
ce
Lower Upper
.275
-.06113 .05595
-.17109 .04883
-1.095 409.7 .274
95
-.06113 .05583
-.17087 .04861
Table 4: We have p value as 0.793 for Levene's test where p > 0.05, therefore:
A t test revealed no statistically significant difference, between the mean number of
females (M =3.8947, s =0.57377) and that the males (M =3.9559, s =0.58344), t
(434) = 1.093, p = .275, α = .05, (p > 0.05).
So, we accept the null hypothesis:
H01 : There is no significant difference in the choice of music, colors and
emotions as content of advertisement between males and females.
Hypothesis for choice of content variants (music, emotions and colors) for
advertisement across age groups:
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the choice of non verbal / non visual
content of advertisement with reference to different age groups.
Conducting one way ANOVA for checking the hypothesis:
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Rehman & Vaish
Table 5: Descriptive Statistics
N
< 25
2635
3645
>46
Total
Mean
Std.
Std.
Deviation Error
90
3.8127 .62898
125 4.0389 .61722
95%
Minimum Maximum
Confidence
Interval
for
Mean
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
.06630 3.6810 3.9444 2.14
5.00
.05521 3.9296 4.1481 2.14
5.00
145 3.9064 .53223
.04420 3.8190
3.9938
2.71
5.00
76
3.9305 .51613
436 3.9292 .57938
.05920 3.8125
.02775 3.8747
4.0484
3.9838
2.71
2.14
4.86
5.00
Table 5: Shows the descriptive statistics including the mean, standard deviation at a
confidence level of 95% with respect to different age groups.
Table 6: Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene
Statistic
df1
df2
Sig.
1.787
3
432
.149
Table 6: Levene's F Statistic has a significance value of 0.149 which is greater than
0.05 ,therefore the assumption of homogeneity of variance is met and we can check
the ANOVA table below:
Table 7: ANOVA
Sum
of
Squares
df
Between
2.800
Groups
Within Groups 143.220
Total
146.020
Mean
Square
F
Sig.
3
.933
2.815
.039
432
435
.332
Table 7: The above table shows the result of ANOVA. The p value is 0.039, at 0.05
(95% significance level). So, we can say that there exist statistically significant
difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F (3,432) =2.815, p =
.039).
Hence, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis:
H02: There is statistical significant difference in the choice of music, emotions
and colors as content of advertisement between different age groups.
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Rehman & Vaish
7. Conclusion:
Every media has their own preferences on content choices like pictures, color,
music, animation and emotions. The content should be blended with the media
requirement in a way that it is able to induce purchase intentions in the viewers. The
study proposed that all content variants are not viewed positively by the viewers
therefore advertisers should try to incorporate only those content variants in their
advertising campaign which yields fruitful results. For instance, print media bears
significant impact with pictures, words, emotions and color – thus giving the
advertisers deep insight into the formulation of advertisement in newspaper and
magazines. Print media has been since past considered to be effective mode of
advertisement- with the proper blend of content variants the pictures of
advertisement can be made more appealing , engrossing and mesmerizing for the its
readers. Internet or the new age technology driven advertising media have an
inclination towards content variants like pictures, animation, words and emotions.
Just like print media, internet too is read and explored by the users only at their will –
thus the advertisement has to be quite informative and alluring to be impactful. An
added content variants – animation is been used by the advertisers for online
advertisement.
The media channels used for advertising have touched new horizons. Internet
advertisement is embedded with the function of interactivity – which so far traditional
media channels have not been able to tap, but on the contrary traditional channels,
too, have their own advantages which cannot be overlooked (Rehman &
Vaish,2011).So each of these media channels require their own content variants for
capturing the audience attention. But the content dimensions of one channel cannot
be used by the other – it needs some modifications and improvements. The study
showed that there is significant difference in the choice of advertisement with music,
emotions and colors among different age groups for a small town consumer while
there no difference in their choices across genders. These findings can help the
advertiser to choose media channels affectively.
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Rehman & Vaish
End notes
2
Pepsi's historic "Pepsi-Cola hits the spot" jingle became a jukebox hit in 1941. Nike paid
$500,000 for the use of The Beatles' song "Revolution" are just instances of the musical
advertisement popularity.
3
Emotions are evoked “at a significant juncture of a plan…typically….when the evaluations
(conscious or unconscious) of the likely success of the plan is likely to change.” (Oatley &
Johnson Laird,1987)
4
There are at least five arousal systems in the brain contributing complexly to emotional
experiences. Four of these are in the regions of the brain stem and the fifth one is in the
forebrain (Le Doux ,1996).
5
Differential Emotions Theory: Based on several key assumptions. First, ten fundamental
emotions (7 negative, 2 positive, and 1 neutral) constitute the human motivational system.
Second, fundamental emotions function for the survival of human beings. Third, these
emotions interact with each other.
6
Three dimensional PAD of pleasure- displeasure, arousal-nonarousal, and dominancesubmissiveness was developed which characterized all emotional states. It indicated that all
dimensions are bipolar, indicating that the presence of pleasure excludes the possibility of
displeasure.
7
A structural model describing the interrelations among emotions, there are 8 primary
emotions (4 negative, 2 positive, and 2 neutral). All other emotions are mixtures of the
primary emotions
8
Developed 52 item scale.
9
Developed 94 item scale which was later reduced to 34 item scale.
10
PANAS stands for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule which stated that positive
and negative affects are the two primary emotional dimensions and are mutually
independent.
11
Sixteen clusters of emotions were identified each measured by 2 to 8 indicators-Anger,
discontent, worry, sadness, fear , shame, envy, loneliness, romantic love, love,
peacefulness, contentment, optimism, joy, excitement and surprise.
12
The theory proposes four main stages of cognitive development: sensory-motor (birth to
two years), pre-operational (two to seven years), concrete operational (seven to 11 years)
and formal operational (11 through adulthood). At the pre-operational stage, the children
start developing the symbolic thoughts but are still very focused on the perceptual properties
of stimuli.
11
Rehman & Vaish
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