Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
From Motor Biking to Public Transportation, What Matters
in Hanoi?
Poh Yen Ng* and Phung Phuong**
The process of urbanisation brings a number of environment and
transportation challenges to fast growing economies such as Vietnam. With
a total number of 6 million registered vehicles (more than 80% are
motorbikes), transportation is one of the biggest issues to deal with in the
cities. Apart from daily traffic congestion and high accident rate, the sources
of air pollution in its capital city, Hanoi have been proven to come mainly
from motorbikes. It is also the most polluted city in South East Asia and is
chosen as the research context. Many developing countries face similar
challenges as a result of urbanisation and they have conducted extensive
efforts in building a more sustainable environment using public
transportation. This paper aims to find out factors influencing road users’
intention to use public transportation in Hanoi. A survey was carried out by
randomly selecting 600 road users. Among the 525 completed
questionnaire, around 83% of the respondents used public transportation
before. However, only 30% of them are frequent users. Result shows that
personal belief on ease of use of public transport and service satisfaction
provided by Hanoi City Bus influenced their intention to use public
transportation. On the other hand, environmental impact caused by the
usage of private vehicle does not draw them to public transportation. The
findings show that Hanoians were less motivated to use public
transportation even they are living in a polluted environment caused by
private vehicles. Policy makers are urged to improve on the accessibility,
reliability, safety and responsiveness of public transportation to encourage
private vehicle users to switch to public transportation. In addition, social
influence was also found to influence the intention to use public
transportation. Though ‘motor biking’ is a deep-rooted culture in Vietnam,
policy makers can create a new culture of using public transportation that
emphasis on social wellbeing to increase the conversion.
Field of research: intention, public transportation, Vietnam
1. Introduction
Vietnam is a developing country with a population of 90 million people as reported by
the National Office for Population and Family Planning. Transportation is one of the
biggest issues to deal with, especially in the two biggest cities: Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh (HCM), with respectively about 7.1 million people and 7.5 million people (Minh
Luan, 2013). The demand for transportation in both cities is huge. Most of the
residents and travellers use private transportation such as motorbikes, cars and
electric bicycles. Currently, there is only one public transportation option available in
the cities: intra cities buses.
*Dr. Poh Yen Ng, Commerce of Centre and Management, RMIT University Vietnam
Email : poh.ng@rmit.edu.vn
**Ms Phung Phuong, Commerce of Centre and Management, RMIT University Vietnam
Email : phuong.phung@rmit.edu.vn
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
The two biggest cities are facing serious transportation problems due to the process
of urbanisation. A large population that includes both permanent residents and
immigrants is going in and out of the cities every day. HCM city experienced the
highest growth of private vehicles as a mode of transportation. Based on AFD
(2008), four households out of five in Hanoi own a motorbike and two out of five own
at least two. There were newly registered 4,238 cars and 82,870 motorbikes in
Quarter 1, 2013 alone. The total number of registered vehicles is 6 million, of which
5.6 motorbikes and 547,606 cars. Those figures do not include about one million
vehicles brought into the city for working purposes by residents of the nearby cities
and provinces (Minh Chau 2013). According to Autonet (2013) more than 37 million
motorbikes (accurately 37,023,078) had already been registered in Vietnam by the
end of the first quarter of 2013. This figure does not include the unregistered which
are common in the country. This number has exceeded the forecasted number of 36
million motorbikes by 2020 determined by the Ministry of Transportation. In the first
quarter of 2013, 2,033,265 automobiles were registered. Similarly, the registration of
private car is also exceeding the initial forecast (Minh Chau 2013).
Given the number above, it is evident that the pollution created by that large number
of private vehicles is substantial and increasing to growing tremendously in the
future. In addition, Nguyen Viet Hung and Le Thi Thanh Huong, two authors from
the University of Public Health, the sources of air pollution in Hanoi have been
proven to come mainly from motorbikes which accounting for 92- 95 % of air
emission from all motor vehicles, with 56 % of NOx emission, 65 % SO2 , 94 % CO
and 86 % PM10 emission. In the same article, the two authors also cited a research
study from Hope, Kohen and colleagues in 2008, who commented that Hanoi was
one of the worst cities in Asia with the highest level of air pollution, and the majority
of the air emission came from transportation vehicles. However, it is difficult for the
government to ban the use of motorbikes in the cities because it has become a part
of Vietnam national culture. According to Luong Hoai Nam (2013), the proposal by
the National Committee for Safe Travel and Transportation to ban motorbikes met
with huge disapproval from the public. As a result, the Ministry of Transportation
announced that it had no plan to ban motorbikes at all. On the other side, according
to Bich Van (2013), there are about 1 million users of buses every day in Hanoi. The
use of city buses is equivalent to the use of about 700,000 motorbikes. This has
significantly helped in reducing pollution in the city. Therefore, there is an urgent
need to encourage more road users to switch from private vehicles to public
transportation.
Given the context as described above, it is important to understand what influences
the choice of the road users to use public transportation. Firstly, the understanding
helps key stakeholders in public transportation sector such as the government, bus
operators and the relevant agencies to encourage the use of public transportation
and to reduce the use of private vehicles such as motorbikes and cars. The change
of transportation option can help to prevent environmental deterioration and improve
the health and wellbeing of the people. Many developing countries (Bhattacharyay,
2011; Leong and Mohd Sadullah 2010) face similar challenges as a result of
urbanisation and they have conducted extensive efforts in building a more
sustainable environment using public transportation. The current literature has
limited information on developing a sustainable public transport system in an
emerging country like Vietnam. In addition, the study enriches the current literature
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
by offering more insights on how to transform a nation that is proud of its ‘motor
biking’ culture to be more environmentally responsible.
2. Literature Review
Riley (2002) comments that population growth has a great impact on the number of
vehicles in developing countries which is also evidenced in Vietnam currently. As a
result, transportation is one of the most important physical infrastructures in urban
areas (Perez, Carrillo and Montoya-Torres 2014). Similarly, developing countries
with raising income influences the personal transport ownership or independence
(Button, Nijkamp, 1997). IEA (2009) reports that the contribution of the transportation
sector to CO2 per-capita emissions are significant in Asian countries. Respiratory
and other diseases related to local air pollution in developing countries contribute to
the premature death of more than half a million people each year, imposing an
economic cost of up to 2 percent of GDP (Gwilliam et al. 2004). Therefore, there is a
strong need in large cities to encourage more usage of public transportation. This is
because public transportation is a good solution to reduce the above impact
(Joireman, 2004) and it is imperative to get the road users aware of the
consequences of using private vehicles.
Results from the CfIT (2001) shows that half of the population in England would
reduce travelling by car if the local bus services were better. In another continent,
The National Household Travel Survey (2003) revealed that more than 50% of the
commuters were dissatisfied with the public transportation in South Africa. The
challenges of public transport are visible in almost all countries of the developing
world (Vilakazl and Govender 2014). Besides, Bonsall, Beale, Paulley and Pedler
(2005) noted that dissatisfaction with the price, safety and reliability of public
transport will affect the preference of types of transport used. In addition, usage of
public transport is affected by the quality of the service provided (staff attitudes),
frequency, availability of seats, cleanliness of vehicles, fast, comfortable, convenient
and affordable services (Gebeyhu and Takano 2007; Eboli and Mazulla 2007). The
brainchild of Parasurama, Zeithaml and Berry (1998), SERVQUAL model is often
used to measure customer perceptions of service quality. There are five dimensions
suggested in their study: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and
empathy. These dimensions are applied in a wide range of research (Tsoukatos and
Rand 2006; Kouthouris and Alexandris 2005).
In addition to the supply factor of public transportation, the demand perspective is
also an important determinant to road users’ intention to use public transportation.
Lai and Chen (2011) note that perceived value on the public transportation impacted
the behavioural intentions of passengers. Similarly, Carrus, Passafaro and Bonnes
(2008) propose that personal attitudes and subjective norms influenced the use of
public transportation. Likewise, Vugt, Meertens and Van Lange (1995) also comment
that social environment and pressure are likely to impact the commuting decision.
Beirao and Cabral (2007) argue that attitude towards transport is an important
determinant for mode choice. However, their study found that environmental concern
about car use is not important in the travel mode choices of respondents. Building on
the Theory of Planned Behavior, Heath and Gifford (2002) suggested normal norms
and environmental concerns influenced commuters’ intention to use public
transportation. They further separated the environmental concern to world and local
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
perspective. Apart from the polluted environment that question the sustainable
development in Vietnam, the country also faced alarming growth rate of traffic
accident in the recent years (Anh, Dao, Anh 2005). Currently, there is only one public
transportation available in Hanoi which is the city bus, Hence, this study aimed to
answer two research questions: 1) What are the influences of environment impacts,
social influence, personal belief and service satisfaction on decisions to use public
bus? 2) What are the main dimensions in SERVQUAL that influence the service
satisfaction provided by public bus? To answer the questions, a research framework
is proposed as shown in Figure 1. Five hypotheses are proposed as follow:
H1: Tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance and empathy dimensions
contributed to the service satisfaction of public bus users.
H2: Service satisfaction influences road users’ intention to use public buses.
H3: Personal belief influences road users’ intention to use public buses
H4: Social influence influences road users’ intention to use public buses
H5: World environment influences road user’s intention to use public buses
H6: Local environment influences road users’ intention to use public buses.
Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework
Personal Belief
H3
SERVQUAL
Tangibles
Reliability
Assurance
Responsiveness
Empathy
Social Influence
H1
Service Satisfaction
H4
Intention to use
Public Bus
H2
H5
World Environment
H6
Local Environment
3. Methodology
Quantitative research was conducted to examine the factors that influence road
users’ decision to use public transportation. Hanoi, the most polluted city in South
East Asia (Thanh Nien News, 2012) is chosen as the research context. Referring to
the conceptual framework in Figure 1, there are a number of research used
SERQUAL framework to examine the intention of user behaviour (Kouthouris and
Alexandris 2005; Ott 2008). In addition, this research also aimed to provide a
platform for road users to comment on the current public bus system by using the
service quality model. A survey instrument were developed incorporating items for
measuring the factors and outcomes of the use of public bus as well as demographic
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
questions. The items used to measure the factors were compiled from the literature
review and adapted to Vietnam context. Questionnaire was translated into
Vietnamese language and validated by conducting a pilot study with 50 participants.
The items were assessed on a seven-point Likert scale. (1 for strongly disagree to 7
for strongly agree).
The subject of this research was the road users in Hanoi, including those who use
and do not use public bus to go to work or school. Malhotra (1999) suggested that
the minimum sampling size for problem solving research is 200 samples. Thus, this
study randomly selected 600 road users in Hanoi, where most of them were assisted
by research associates in answering the questionnaires. After eliminating some
incomplete questionnaires, a total number of 525 questionnaires were used in the
analysis. The descriptive statistics for each item were checked against any violations
of statistical assumptions (e.g., multicollinearity, outliers, normality). Factor analysis
was conducted using principal component method with varimax rotation to determine
the validity of the items. Multiple regression analyses were run in the subsequent
stage to answer the hypotheses.
4. Findings and Discussions
The fieldwork which was carried out by two trained research associates at public
places such as recreation park, community centre and bus terminal in Hanoi,
generated a response rate of 87.5%. There were 75 copies of incomplete
questionnaire as approached participants did not agree to take part or complete the
questionnaire. Field work ran for two months (July and August 2014). One-way
Anova test and independent T-test (for gender) were used to see if there was a
difference between the intentions to use public bus in particular demographic
characteristics. The results are shown in Table 1. The table also showed the
frequencies and percentages breakdown on each demographic characteristic. There
were significant difference in the categories of mode of transport, income level,
occupation and travel distance in their intention to use public bus, while gender, age
group and education level showed no significance. Results showed that current
private car and motorbike users had lower intention to use the city bus compared to
the other group of users. It is also found that respondents earning lower income and
working in manual/low skilled position have higher intention to take public bus, while
those respondents with higher income, self-employed or work as a professional have
lower intention. Finally, those travel at least 15km daily have higher intention to take
public bus. Based on results, it is not surprising that public transportation are more
appealing to those who currently do not own a private vehicle, who are mostly in
lower economic status and living far from their workplace. In another word, Vietnam
government needs to have a comprehensive plan to encourage private vehicle
owners who are enjoying middle or higher income to use public transportation
regardless of their travel distance.
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
Table 1: Key Demographic Characteristics
Profile
Category
Frequency
(%)
Mode of
Private motorbike
307 (58.5%)
transport
Hanoi city bus
157 (29.9%)
Private car
31 (5.9%)
Taxi
4 (0.8%)
Motorbike taxi
7 (1.3%)
Others
19 (3.6%)
Gender
Male
260 (49.5%)
Female
265 (50.5%)
Age group
18-25 years old
262 (49.9%)
26-35 years old
188 (35.8%)
35-45 years old
38 (7.2%)
46-55 years old
13(2.5%)
Above 55 years old
24 (4.6%)
Education level Secondary school
5 (1%)
certificate
123 (23.4%)
High school certificate
311 (59.2%)
Bachelor degree
86 (16.4%)
Postgraduate degree
Income Level
Below 3 million VND
208 (39.7%)
3-4.49 million VND
119 (22.7%)
4.5-6.49 million VND
81 (15.4%)
6.5-13.49 million VND
65 (12.4%)
13.5-25 million VND
31 (5.9%)
More than 25 million VND
21 (4.0%)
Occupation
Student
177 (33.7%)
Office/Professional
360 (49.5%)
worker
12 (2.3%)
Manual worker
54 (10.3%)
Self-employed
22 (4.2%)
Others
Travel Distance Less than 5 kilometer
162 (30.9%)
5-9.9km
210 (40%)
10-14.9km
76 (14.5%)
15-25km
47 (9%)
More than 25km
30 (5.7%)
F ratio,
Significance
F(5,519)=49.197
p= 0.000***
0.299
F(4,519) =0.830
p=0.507
F(3,519) = 1.518
p=0.209
F(5,519)=9.298
p=0.000***
F(4,519)=3.393,
p=0.000***
F(4,519)=3.655
p=0.006**
Before running the regression analysis, it is important to confirm the reliability of
items used in this survey. As most of the items used were based on instruments
developed in previous studies, all the variables generated more than 0.60 in their
Cronbach’s alpha value. According to Byrne (2010), the variables are all acceptable
and reliable. Results are shown in Table 2. The number of items related to each
variable is shown in bracket.
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
Table 2 Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability
Variables
Cronbach’s Alpha
Service Quality Dimension
Assurance (3 items)
0.697
Reliability (4 items)
0.817
Tangible (3 items)
0.740
Empathy (4 items)
0.810
Responsiveness (3 items)
0.797
Service Satisfaction (2 items)
0.845
Personal Belief (3 items)
0.826
Social Influence(4 items)
0.832
World environment impact (3 items)
0.881
Local environment impact (5 items)
0.874
Intention to use public transportation (3 items
0.901
The survey requested respondents to rate their perception of public bus service
quality and their overall satisfaction level. Regression analysis was conducted to
evaluate the effects on each service quality (SERVQUAL) dimension on satisfaction.
Results showed in Table 3 implied that four dimensions which are assurance,
reliability, tangible and responsiveness had a significant relationship with service
satisfaction. However, empathy dimension was not considered to be significant in
determining service satisfaction in this case. The findings are similar to what have
been found by Vilakazi and Govender (2014) where they conclude that reliability,
comfort, service and safety are important dimensions in determining the service
quality of public bus service in South Africa. The empathy dimension was left out in
this context but it was found significant in another study conducted in India by
Randheer and AL-Motawa (2011). As such, H1 is only partially supported because
one of the SERQUAL dimensions was not significant in this study. The results may
indicate that Vietnamese users have low concern on whether the public transport
providers are giving caring and individualised attention to them. This revelation
suggests that public transport providers could emphasised on the four dimensions
especially being more responsive and assuring to improve customer’s satisfaction.
Table 3 Effects of Service Quality Dimension on Satisfaction
Dimension
Standardised β
significance
Assurance
0.193
0.000**
Reliability
0.130
0.007*
Tangibles
0.104
0.021*
Empathy
0.050
0.331ns
Responsiveness
0.438
0.000**
2
R
0.635
Adjusted R2
0.631
*p<0.05; **p<001; ns=non-significant
Table 4 showed the regression results on factors influencing intention to use public
bus. Service satisfaction, personal belief and social influence were found to have
significant impact on road users’ intention to use public bus, while world and local
impact had no significant relationship with their intentions. As such, only H2, H3 and
H4 are fully supported while H5 and H6 are rejected. The findings suggest that
Vietnamese road users are more likely to use public transportation if they believe
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
that it is easy and simple to use, people around them encourage them to use and
they are satisfied with the service of public transport. This concur the findings of Jain,
Aggarwal, Kumar, Singhal and Sharma (2014) where they also found Indian
commuters are willing to shift to public transport if major criteria of services are
fulfilled. It is surprise to see that negative impacts of private vehicle on world and
local environment do not affect Vietnamese’s intention to use public transport. The
findings showed that they are less motivated to use public transportation even they
are living in a polluted environment caused by private vehicles. Nevertheless, Heath
and Gifford (2002) found private vehicle usage problem awareness influenced
Canadian intention to take bus. The difference in the findings probably attributed to
the different development phases of the countries. Vietnam is a developing country
with emerging economies while Canada is a developed country with much higher
literacy and income level. Therefore, the usage of private vehicles that brings
negative impact on world and local environment seems to be more alarming in a
more advanced country.
Table 4 Factors influencing Intention to use Public Transportation
Dimension
Service Satisfaction
Personal Belief
Social Influence
World Environment Impact
Local Environment Impact
R2
Adjusted R2
**p<001; ns=non-significant
Standardised β
0.227
0.210
0.409
0.036
0.012
0.500
0.494
significance
0.000**
0.000**
0.000**
0.510ns
0.826ns
The empirical results provide several implications to the policy makers and public
transport providers. First of all, road users who currently owned a private vehicle are
not keen to use public buses. They have low intention to switch from their ‘motor
biking’ lifestyle. Therefore, more efforts should be put in place to convert these
groups of users to use public bus. The government should ensure a convenient
public transportation system and road users are aware of its advantages over private
vehicles. This can affect their personal belief on the ease of use and increase their
intention to use public transportation. Secondly, social influence is an important
determinant on Vietnamese’s intention to use public bus. Hence, there should be
more campaigns or educational programs to encourage more Vietnamese to see the
‘cool’ factor in using public buses. By getting more people aware of the benefits of
taking public buses, it can improve their personal belief and create more social
influences.
The missing link between transportation mode and sustainable
environment is a big concern in a highly polluted city like Hanoi. If there is no control
of the private vehicle emission rate and traffic congestion in the city, it will threaten
the urban development in the near future. Vietnamese government ought to
introduce the concept of sustainable transportation and to encourage usage of public
transportation to protect the deteriorating environment. Finally, public transport
providers such as Hanoi City Bus should focus on improving their service quality,
especially the four dimensions identified: reliability, assurance, responsiveness and
tangibles. It is suggests that they have to make sure their buses run on schedule,
vehicles are well maintained, staff are courteous and responsive. An efficient
Proceedings of Annual Shanghai Business, Economics and Finance Conference
3 - 4 November 2014, Shanghai University of International Business and Economics, Shanghai, China
ISBN: 978-1-922069-63-4
planning and scheduling of services is very critical to improve their customers’
satisfaction thus attract more users in the near future.
5. Conclusion
Based on the findings and discussion, it is obvious that Vietnamese has low
awareness and motivation on having a transportation mode that is sustainable and
able to improve their quality of life. The research subjects are living in one of the
most polluted cities in Asia, yet the environment impacts had no significant
relationship with their intention to use public transportation. It could be reasoned that
Vietnamese do not consider switching to public buses could help to improve their
living environment. Likewise, their decision to use public transportation is highly
depending on the service satisfaction on the provider, their personal belief on the
ease of use and influences from their social environment. Hence, it is still a long
journey to swift the deep rooted motor biking culture unless there will be radical
improvement on their public transportation infrastructure that would attract more road
users.
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