The Untapped
Potential of Sesame
Resilient Livelihoods and Risk-Management Strategies for
Smallholder Farmers in Sudan
Julian Glucroft
Catherine Kelly
Sebastian Insfran Moreno
Ines Sawadogo
12/14/2012
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................... 4
II.
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 6
III.
CONTEXT ................................................................................................................................... 8
1-
The national economy .............................................................................................................. 8
2-
Sudan’s sesame seed production .............................................................................................. 8
3-
Traditional rain-fed sesame production ................................................................................... 9
4IV.
Sudanese Women in Agriculture ............................................................................................. 9
SHOCKS AND LIVELIHOODS............................................................................................... 10
1-
Livelihoods ............................................................................................................................. 10
2-
External Shocks...................................................................................................................... 11
3-
Strategies ................................................................................................................................ 14
V.
SESAME IN LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 15
1-
Cash crop for the poor ............................................................................................................ 15
2-
A resistant crop ...................................................................................................................... 16
3-
The benefits of intercropping ................................................................................................. 16
4-
Nutrition ................................................................................................................................. 17
5-
Sesame and Women’s Resilience .......................................................................................... 17
VI.
THE SESAME MARKET ......................................................................................................... 18
1-
Sudan’s position in the global sesame market ....................................................................... 18
2-
Competition with India .......................................................................................................... 19
3-
Competition with African sesame producers ......................................................................... 19
4-
Sesame-sub Sector ................................................................................................................. 20
VII.
OBSTACLES FOR LINKING SESAME FARMERS WITH MARKET ................................ 21
1-
Rain Variability ...................................................................................................................... 21
2-
Harvest and post-harvest issues ............................................................................................. 22
3-
Farm-gate issues: Quality and Storage .................................................................................. 23
4-
Transportation ........................................................................................................................ 24
5-
Land ........................................................................................................................................ 24
6-
Barriers to Trade .................................................................................................................... 25
VIII.
RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................... 26
1-
Policies ................................................................................................................................... 26
2-
Networks ................................................................................................................................ 29
3-
Behaviors................................................................................................................................ 31
4-
Products .................................................................................................................................. 32
IX.
LIMITATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 33
X.
GAPS IN THE RESEARCH ...................................................................................................... 35
XI.
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 36
3
I.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In the field of food and agriculture, recent investigations demonstrate the close
relationship between food security, resilience, and livelihoods. Food security is best
understood in terms of four pillars: availability, access, and utilization, plus the stability
of these three pillars sustained over time. For vulnerable households, external shocks
often cause one or more pillars of food security to fail. Resilience, as the ability to adapt
to or recover from shocks, is thus embedded in the stability element of the food security
concept. Moreover, livelihoods, which comprise “the capabilities, assets and activities
required for a means of living”, are said to be sustainable when they can cope with and
recover from stresses and shocks. Thus, livelihoods that are sustainable are also resilient.
This research study is focused on one of the most food insecure regions in the
world: the semi-arid regions of Sudan. The country ranks 97 out of 105 on Dupont’s food
security index and 61 out of 79 on the International Food Policy Research Institute’s
global hunger index. Nonetheless, in 2008, agriculture provided 90% of the country’s
food requirements, constituted 80% of non-oil exports, and accounted for 32% of GDP.
Furthermore, in Sudan, 70% of the population lives in rural areas and derives its income
from agriculture; so it is fair to say that the country is eminently agricultural.
The driving forces behind this imbalance of being an agricultural and a food
insecure country lay in Sudan’s history of increasingly prevalent shocks, be they
environmental, political, or economic. These interrelated, repetitive and unpredictable
shocks have especially affected the majority of the country’s population whose
livelihoods are based in agriculture: smallholder farmers. These people have access to a
limited number of strategies to withstand shocks. For example, farmers migrate to seek
employment in urban areas or on large agricultural schemes, or they sell livestock, which
is their main or only capital asset. Nevertheless, each response severely reduces their
livelihoods and, therefore, they struggle to fully recover for the next round of repetitive
and unpredictable shocks.
4
The cultivation of sesame (an under-utilized crop, but one that faces a diverse and
increasing demand around the world) is one of the main components of a diverse
portfolio of livelihood strategies that smallholder farmers use in Sudan. Sesame is a crop
recognized for its nutritional attributes and its adaptability. More interestingly, it is a crop
that is ubiquitous in politically unstable countries. In Sudan, sesame is the main cash
crop, and the country is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters.
Smallholder farmers who grow sesame play an important part in the national
economy. Yet, they receive very little support from the government. The discrepancy
between Sudan’s leading role in the global sesame seed market and the poor living
conditions of the farmers who grow this crop led us to look further into this subject.
Therefore, the main question that guided us was: How can sesame’s role be leveraged to
mitigate the consequences of external shocks for smallholder farmers in Sudan?
Many obstacles restrain the large potential that sesame represents for smallholder
farmers and for the country as a whole. Some of these obstacles are associated with
rainfall variability, land tenure, harvesting and post-harvesting, quality of seeds and weak
links in its value chain. This research study sets forth recommendations divided along
four interrelated strategies: policies, networks, behaviors, and products. The proposed
recommendations will begin to address these obstacles in a sustainable way, so that
sesame in Sudan is a success story rather than a missed opportunity. By doing so, the
research study can provide the basis for policies and projects that will increase the food
security of some of the world’s most vulnerable people. Moreover, the report’s findings
and recommendations could become a model for other regions of the world on how to
build sustainable livelihoods that are more resilient to shocks.
Tagwords: Sudan, sesame, livelihoods, resilience, food security, drought, conflict
5
II.
INTRODUCTION
This research project was conducted for the American University School of
International Service Practicum on Strategies for Managing Risk. Professor Thierry
Van Bastelaer coordinated and led this project, which benefited from consultations with
Comment [TvB1]: van--spelling correctly the
name of your professor helps.
John Lamb, Principal Associate in the International Economic Growth Division at Abt
Associates.
The starting point for our research was the risk and resilience conceptual
framework. We looked at vulnerable communities and households’ resilience to risks and
shocks, as well as the strategies that can be adopted to better manage these. The
framework consists of two dimensions and four types of strategies. The first dimension is
mitigating the consequences of shocks that are beyond human control like drought. The
second dimension is reducing the likelihood of shocks that are preventable like land
Comment [TvB2]: Such as
conflict. Next, the four strategies provide concrete delineations for possible interventions
Comment [TvB3]: Really?
to increase resilience. These are products, networks, behaviors, and policies.
We were tasked with applying this framework to the area of food security, which
is typically defined in terms of availability, access, utilization, and stability. Availability
is the capacity of domestic food production and food imports to meet the food demand.
Access is having the adequate resources to acquire food. Utilization refers to its actual
consumption or use in terms of sanitation and nutrition. Stability is these three pillars
sustained over time. This last pillar was more recently integrated to the definition of food
security. It adopts a holistic approach whereby one pillar’s failure compromises food
security as a whole. For vulnerable households, external shocks often cause one or more
pillars of food security to fail. Resilience, as the ability to adapt to or recover from
shocks, is thus embedded in the stability pillar.
During the early phases of our research, the relationship between food insecurity
and vulnerability to shocks became increasingly evident. Refining our research to a single
topic that would best explore the risk management framework in the context of food
security was less evident. Nevertheless, we decided on researching the role of sesame in
increasing the resilience of smallholder farmers in Sudan. Sudan ranks 97 out of 105 on
Dupont’s food security index and 61 out of 79 on the International Food Policy Research
6
Comment [TvB4]:
Institute’s (IFPRI) global hunger index.1
A host of shocks have also characterized
Sudan’s modern history, be it conflict, drought, or price shocks.
We first became interested in sesame, because it is an under-utilized crop. The
Global Forum on Agricultural Research (GFA) emphasized the potential in their role in
raising incomes for the rural poor.2 Sesame’s nutritional attributes, its adaptability to dry
soils, and the fact that it thrives in politically unstable countries also drew us to this crop.
Furthermore, we found that it is widely grown in Sudan where it is the main cash crop,
and that Sudan is one of the world’s largest producers and exporters.
Smallholder farmers who grow sesame play an important part in the national
economy. Yet, they receive very little support from the government. The discrepancy
between Sudan’s leading role in the global sesame seed market and the poor living
conditions of the farmers who grow this crop led us to look further into this subject. We
asked ourselves: How can we leverage sesame’s role in mitigating the consequences
of external shocks for smallholder farmers in Sudan?
In a first section, we will provide contextual information on the agricultural sector
in Sudan with a particular focus on sesame in terms of where and how it is grown. We
will explore how shocks affect the livelihoods of smallholder farmers growing sesame in
Sudan and what are the strategies being used to cope with these. We will also explore
sesame’s important role within these livelihood systems. In a second section, we will
look at the sesame sub-sector in Sudan and the global market for sesame focusing on the
position of smallholder farmers. We will also explore the many obstacles that are
preventing smallholder farmers from taking advantage of market opportunities for
sesame. In our third section, we will provide recommendations. We use past and current
development approaches to formulate our own interventions based on the four strategies
of the risk management framework. We will evaluate the potential impact of these
interventions and their limitations, as well as identify areas where further research and
analysis is required.
1
2
See appendix 1 for a world map on food security index.
“GFAR and International Cooperation on Commodity Chains,” (Paper presented at the GFAR-2000
Conference, Dresden, Germany, May 21-23 May 2000). http://www.egfar.org/documents/02_Meetings/Conferences/GFAR_2000/Session_2/gfar1902.PDF (accessed Sept. 9, 2012).
7
Comment [TvB5]: ?
III.
CONTEXT
This section provides contextual information on agriculture’s place in the national
economy, production systems for sesame, and the role of women in the agricultural sector
in Sudan.
1- The national economy
Sudan’s economy remains essentially agricultural. 70% of the population lives in
Comment [TvB6]: Awkward placing
rural areas and derives its income from agriculture. In 2008, agriculture provided 90% of
the country’s food requirements, constituted 80% of non-oil exports, and accounted for
32% of GDP. Unfortunately, for the rural population in Sudan, the state’s heavy reliance
on oil exports for foreign exchange earnings has led to a disinterest in the promotion of
agricultural exports. Since the oil discovery in 1990, the share of agricultural exports
decreased from 90% to 8%. Now that the South has succeeded from the North, the
Comment [TvB7]: seceded
agricultural sector will need to play a more important role. Agricultural exports include
livestock, sesame, cotton, and gum Arabic. The low productivity of agriculture combined
with the recent appreciation of the Sudanese currency has contributed to a diminished
competitiveness of Sudanese agricultural products.3
2- Sudan’s sesame seed production
The major sesame growing areas in the Sudan are located in the Kordofan, Sinnar,
Kassala, and Blue Nile provinces, which are between 10 and 15 degrees from the
Equator.4 The climate is semi-arid. Precipitation occurs from April to October, with
unpredictable variability, from 470 mm to 750 mm per year. There are three types of
agricultural production: irrigated, mechanized rain-fed and traditional rain-fed. The
irrigated sub-sector has received the most public investment. Sesame is grown entirely
under rain fed conditions under the traditional and the mechanized systems. The vast
majority of sesame fields (about 80%) are about 2 hectares in area. In these fields, sesame
is grown under the traditional farming system with little or no use of machinery or
modern inputs.5
3
“Supporting the Small-Scale Traditional Rainfed Producers in Sinnar State (Sustain)," The International
Fund for Agricultural Development, 2010,
http://www.ifad.org/operations/projects/design/101/sudan_sustain.pdf (accessed Sept. 15, 2012).
4
See Map in Appendix 2 for Maps of Sudan - Regions, Agriculture, Climate and Migration
5
Khalid El-Jack Salih and Ali Gadoum El Ghali, “Sesame Growing Problems in the Sudan,” Oil Crops:
Sunflower, Linseed, and Sesame” (proceedings of the Fourth Oil Crops Network Workshop, Njoro, Kenya,
January 25-29, 1988.)
8
Comment [TvB8]: one or two words?
3- Traditional rain-fed sesame production
In the traditional sub-sector, farmers are both nomadic and sedentary, and often
own farm animals. Seventy-five percent of Sudanese farmers own livestock. Out of the
country’s total agricultural production, the rainfed traditional sector contributes to millet
(90%), groundnuts (48%), sesame (38%), sorghum (11%), and most of the gum Arabic. 6
Sesame is intercropped with other crops, usually millet or sorghum, depending on the
region.
A Sudanese farmer prepares his land for agriculture on the banks of River Nile
November 11, 2009. (Mohamed Nureldin Abdallah/Courtesy Reuters)
4- Sudanese Women in Agriculture
According to the United Nations, nearly two thirds of African women are
employed in the agricultural sector, producing about 90% of the food consumed on the
African continent. Like elsewhere in Africa, Sudanese women’s contribution to
agricultural production is paramount. Around 87% of Sudanese women are active in the
traditional farming sector in Sudan, producing 60-70% of the food.7 They also play an
important role for household food security. A study in 2009 showed that in Sudan,
women’s incomes were lower than men, but that they tend to allocate a larger share
http://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/2870/1/35067.pdf (accessed Oct. 7, 2012).
6 Rajaa Hassan Mustafa, “Risk Management in the Rainfed Sector of Sudan: Case Study Gedaref Area of
Eastern Sudan,” Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, University of Gezira, Sudan, May 2006, http://geb.unigiessen.de/geb/volltexte/2006/3679/pdf/HassanMustafaRajaa-2006-09-01.pdf (accessed Oct. 26, 2012).
7
Fatma Osman Ibnouf, “The Role of Women in Providing and Improving Household Food Security in
Sudan: Implications for Reducing Hunger and Malnutrition,” International Women’s Studies 10, no. 4
(May 2009),
http://www.bridgew.edu/soas/jiws/May09/SudanFoodSecurity.pdf (accessed Dec. 9, 2012).
9
towards food items.8 The number of female-headed households has increased in Sudan,
because of conflict and male migration in search of off farm employment.9 In waraffected areas, female households represent 70% of total households. 10 They are involved
at different phases including production, processing, post-harvest, and marketing. So, as
we look at resilience to shocks of smallholder sesame growers in Sudan, it is important to
keep the gender component in mind.
IV.
SHOCKS AND LIVELIHOODS
1- Livelihoods
Chambers and Conway state that a “livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets,
and activities required for a means of living.”11 They add: “a livelihood is sustainable
when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks.”12 Thus, livelihoods that are
sustainable are also resilient. The International Fund for Agriculture Development’s
(IFAD) Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is a guide to gain a better
understanding of the livelihoods of poor people by drawing on the factors that influence
these people’s livelihoods and the relationship between these factors.13
The SLA is a holistic approach. It recognizes that livelihoods are complex, as it
includes different interrelated actors such as families, neighbors, local traders, local
authorities as well as different strategies that people use to manage risk. Batterbury
explains that the SLA’s holistic feature helps researchers to question vulnerabilities and
human capabilities in rural development situations, and practitioners to identify entry
points for livelihood support to improve local resilience. 14 The SLA identifies the main
8
Ibid.
Ibnouf, The Role of Women in Providing and Improving Household Food Security in Sudan: Implications
for Reducing Hunger and Malnutrition.
10
Ibid.
11 Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway, "Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st
century," IDS Discussion Paper 296. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies, 1991,
http://www.ids.ac.uk/idspublication/sustainable-rural-livelihoods-practical-concepts-for-the-21st-century
(accessed Sept. 8, 2012).
12 Ibid.
13 “The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach”, IFAD, http://www.ifad.org/sla/index.htm (accessed September
6, 2012).
14 Simon Batterbury, “Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches: Past, present and... future?” Highlights,
Research Findings for Development Policy makers and Practitioners (June 2011)
9
10
constraints and opportunities in access and use of livelihood assets, which include natural
resources, technologies, skills, knowledge and capacity, access to health and education,
access to credit, and social support networks.15 The SLA approach also stresses micromacro links. It looks at the influence of policies and institutions on livelihood options,
and advocates policies that are based on local-level insights and priorities. 16
This study focuses on the livelihoods of smallholder sesame farmers in Sudan.
These are self-employed farmers working in the traditional farming sector. They can be
sedentary or semi-nomadic (i.e., agro-pastoralists.). They can also migrate to other areas
to work as wage laborers on rain-fed mechanized agricultural schemes. Sesame seed
production is one main component of a diverse portfolio of livelihood strategies. It is also
important to remember that farmers who grow sesame usually grow other crops as well.
2- External Shocks
According to an FAO report, Sudan is 1 of 22 countries considered to be in
protracted crisis. In this report, protracted crises are defined as “those environments in
which a significant proportion of the population is acutely vulnerable to death, disease
and disruption of livelihoods over a prolonged period of time.”17 In Sudan, the crises, or
shocks, affecting smallholder farmers are repetitive but hardly predictable. We divide
these into environmental, political, and economic shocks recognizing that they are
interrelated and mutually reinforcing.
a) Environmental shocks
Environmental shocks disrupt natural farming cycles and processes. These include
climate change-related shocks, such as floods, droughts and rainfall variability; and pests
and other crop-related diseases, such as locust swarms, birds, plagues, and stem rust.
Climate change-related shocks have deeply impacted Sudanese agriculture and will
continue to do so. Combined with growing socioeconomic pressures, climate variability
is likely to intensify the desertification of arable areas.
http://www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/1/document/1107/5731%20IDS%20Highlight%20Leaflet.pdf (accessed
Oct. 7, 2012).
15 Ibid.
16 IFAD, The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach.
17“The State of Food Insecurity in the World: Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises”, FAO
(2010) http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1683e/i1683e.pdf (accessed Sept. 3, 2012).
11
Records show that average rainfall has decreased and become more variable over
the last 60 years, with the most serious rainfall deficits found in parts of Blue Nile,
Gedaref, Kassala, Sennar, and South Kordofan, which are the main sesame producing
states.18 Declining precipitation levels accelerate the southward shift of the desert area
that has already shifted an estimated 50 to 200 km since rainfall and vegetation records
were first recorded in the 1930s19. It is estimated that drought threatened approximately
Comment [TvB9]: reverse
12 million hectares of rainfed land, particularly in the Kordofan and Darfur states, and
that, between 1971 and 2001; it affected over ten million people in Sudan. 20
Along with having the most variable and least amount of rainfall even relative to
other African countries, rainfall is increasingly unpredictable. The coefficient of rainfall
Comment [TvB10]: awkward
variability (or the percentage deviation from the norm) is 190% in the North and less than
15% in the South.21 The increase of the Northern levels of variability makes it more
challenging for farmers to predict weather patterns. The effects of climate change are
particularly severe, as 70% of Sudanese population depends on rain-fed agricultural
livelihoods. Indeed, a 10% decline in rainfall is associated with a 5% drop in national
food production.22
b) Political Shocks
In Sudan, the main political shock is the civil and ethnic conflict that has
characterized Sudan’s modern history. No one is immune to its effects, but poor rural
people are most vulnerable. In Darfur, in 2003, the conflict devastated livelihoods as
many people were displaced. They suffered the loss of land, livestock, agricultural tools,
shelter, and the lives of their friends and families. 23 Conflict in the Nuba Mountains, in
central Sudan, which started in 1985 and escalated in the 1990s, also destroyed livelihood
systems. It resulted in large-scale internal displacement and chronic food insecurity.
18
Ibid.
Unpredictability of the rain in the sesame growing region: Example: The rainy season started 30 days
late in the east and central ‘grain baskets’ areas of Sudan (August instead of June/July) in 2011 and the
total accumulative as of early October of that year was 25-70 per cent of average, with the most serious
rainfall deficits in parts of Blue Nile, Gedaref, Kassala, Sennar, and South Kordofan states.
20 FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World.
21 “Sudan: Climate Risk Finance for Sustainable and Climate Resilient Rain-fed Farming and Pastoral
Systems,” Global Environmental Facility (2012) http://www.thegef.org/gef/content/climate-risk-financesustainable-and-climate-resilient-rainfed-farming-and-pastoral-systems (accessed September 14, 2012).
22 Joachim von Braun, “A Policy Agenda for Famine Prevention in Africa: Food Policy Report”, IFPRI,
(1991), http://www.ifpri.org/publication/policy-agenda-famine-prevention-africa (accessed Nov. 2, 2012).
23 FAO, The state of Food Insecurity in the World.
19
12
Comment [TvB11]: decide how to spell this
Insecurity in the plains drove many Nuba to flee to the rocky hilltops, abandoning the
productive clay soils that they traditionally cultivated. Harvest yields dropped to
approximately one-tenth of previous levels in several areas, and livestock
productivity plunged due to the lack of access to pasture and water points on the
plains. Many cattle were looted in conflict areas and the lack of access to veterinary
drugs exacerbated the decline in livestock holdings.24
Although the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in 2005 ended the Second
Sudanese War and South Sudan became an independent state in 2011, conflict is still a
reality within the country. The persistent state of internal struggle is a major threat to
livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Sudan. Intense fighting between Sudanese Armed
Forces and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North in some of the main
production areas in South Kordofan and Blue Nile forced farmers to flee their farms
during cultivation exacerbating poor crop development. It is estimated that recent
conflicts have cause approximately 400,000 to 500,000 displaced people in Blue Nile
State and about 300,000 to 400,000 displaced people in South Kordofan. As a
consequence, less than 60 per cent of the typical area was planted during the 2011/2012
season.25
c) Economic Shocks
One of the major economic-related shocks for smallholder farmers is the sharp
price increase of imported goods. Smallholder farmers allocate a large share of their
income to purchase food, basic consumer goods, and farm inputs that are often imported.
While being an economic shock, the source is both political and economic. Indeed, the
macroeconomic situation in the country is especially unstable and precarious due to the
recent separation of South Sudan. Over 70 per cent of the crude oil that was produced in
Sudan before separation was derived from South Sudan, and oil revenues were shared
equally. 26 Following separation, Sudan lost over 70 per cent of oil production and the
remaining 25 to 30% can only meet domestic consumption, leaving nothing to
export. The result is a decline in foreign currency reserves and a devaluation of the local
Ibid.
“Sudan Food Security Outlook: October 2011 to March 2012,” USAID East Africa: Famine Early
Warning Systems Network (2012), http://eastafrica.usaid.gov/en/USAID/Partner/1070/Famine, (accessed
Oct 15, 2012).
26 Ibid.
24
25
13
currency. This worsens the situation of smallholder farmers in Sudan because, as the
value of the Sudanese pound falls, prices for locally produced and imported food and
non‐food items increase in local currency terms.27 The reduced ability to purchase these
goods deals a great blow to rural livelihoods.
3- Strategies
Small-scale farmers in Sudan have strategies to respond to these shocks. Common
strategies are migrating or selling livestock. Given the constraints, rural people are
compelled to find innovative strategies.
a) Migration Strategies
Often, in order to escape a drought, a conflict, or a famine, smallholder farmers
resort to migration.28 Traveling by road is a risky enterprise and traders need to adapt to
risky conditions. For instance, livestock traders in Darfur altered their trade routes to
avoid areas of insecurity, in one case even resorting to air-freighting sheep from the far
west of Darfur to Khartoum, a strategy that considerably raise the costs of transporting
goods.29
However, the often dire circumstances lead to strategies and adaptations that are
harmful or unsustainable. In Darfur, shocks fueled migration to urban areas. Increased
competition for work in a saturated labor market created dependency on the collection
and sale of natural resources, especially firewood, and on brick making. This led to
devastating environmental degradation in ever-widening rings around Darfur’s main
towns.30 Also, migration means that farmers abandon the resources and assets that
sustained their livelihoods. They often lose the right to their land, which increases their
vulnerability to future shocks.31
b) Informal Networks
The strategies mentioned above are short-term reactions to severe shocks.
However, in Sudan, informal networks are used as a more long-term strategy to
managing risk. Like in other developing countries, Sudan has a long story of social
27
Ibid.
See Appendix 3 for a Map showing migration trends of smallholder farmers in semi-arid and
central Sudan
29 FAO, The state of Food Insecurity in the World.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
28
14
Comment [TvB12]:
capital formation through informal cooperation. For instance, the katta or sunduk are
traditional rotating saving and credit associations, widespread in rural and urban areas.
The fazaa is the practice of providing help and assistance to neighbors during
catastrophes and emergencies.
Nafir, or work party, is the main social custom of mutual help during cultivation
seasons.32 In this practice, neighbors, friends, and relatives coordinate the weeding of
each other’s fields. Due to growing poverty, the majority of farmers can no longer afford
to provide the customary food required to host the nafir.33 Therefore, the custom of
communal work has declined, and poor smallholder farmers’ families are left drudging
on their own.34
Smallholder farmers in Sudan have strategies to manage risk, but they reduce
their ability to cope with future shocks, which in Sudan are frequent. More resilient
strategies are necessary to prevent the looming threat of food insecurity and hunger. Our
research has found that sesame is central to these agriculturally based livelihood systems.
V.
SESAME IN LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS
1- Cash crop for the poor
Sesame is one of the major cash crops for export and domestic use in Sudan.
Besides being the country's major oilseed crop, sesame is also used for many traditional
dishes as well as feed for livestock. A large share of smallholder farmers own farm
animals, which are used for agricultural production (e.g. tilling the land or manure as
Salah Mahdi, “Cooperative’s weakness for attracting consumers in Sudan,” (paper presented at the ICA
Research Conference: Co-operatives Contributions to a Plural Economy, in Lyon, France, 2-4 September,
2010), http://www.cress-rhone-alpes.org/cress/IMG/pdf/Mahdi_pap.pdf (accessed Oct. 15, 2012).
33 Elke Grawert, “Making a living in rural Sudan: Food production of women, labour migration of men,
and policies for peasants' needs,” (Basingstoke/London/New York,1998) 39,
http://www.bicc.de/fileadmin/Dateien/Publications/other_publications/other71/GRAWERT_Making_a_livi
ng_Chap1_2 (accessed, Oct. 15, 2012).
34 Social networks formation has also been undermined in Sudan as a consequence of the disincentives that
the government has caused in terms of formal cooperation. Given the Sudanese government’s role as the
main economic actor, for a long time cooperatives, associations and unions were established by the
government itself as channels to locally distribute goods, credit and subsidized agricultural inputs. This topdown approach created opportunities for rent-seeking and these institutions were prone to political
polarization. Therefore, elite capture by large farmers and political influential personnel exclude a better
access to these formal institutions to smallholder farmers. Consequently, these types of government's
agricultural policies have not completely benefited localities (Grawert, 1998).
32
15
fertilizer). Therefore, there is a strong and diverse local demand for sesame. Sesame does
not require many inputs. Sesame uses less water than cotton, sorghum, millet, corn or
peanuts.35 Not requiring expensive machinery, poor farmers lacking assets can grow and
Comment [TvB13]: are farmers not requiring
machinery, or sesame?
earn an income from sesame. This is certainly true for single Sudanese mothers.
Smallholder farmers also derive income from sesame when they migrate to work on
mechanized schemes. The income from the sesame production is used to finance farm
operations and repay debts. In addition, farmers use income from sesame production to
purchase food and basic consumer goods. Often, income from sorghum is not sufficient
to cover its costs, but sesame is profitable enough to cover these losses and give farmers a
small profit margin.
2- A resistant crop
Sesame is one the most drought tolerant crops in the world. It will succeed where
there is as little as 400 mm of rain during the growing season. 36 Sesame handles intense
heat well. It has thrived on the pure Kordofan sands outside El Obeid in Sudan.37 It does
relatively well on poor soils and excels at adaptation to stressful physical environments. 38
It requires sufficient water during the early stages of growth, but once the plant has
emerged it is tolerant to dry weather conditions and soils. It is a trap crop to the parasitic
purple witchweed, Striga Hemonthica. 39
3- The benefits of intercropping
In the semi-arid zones of Sudan, sesame is often intercropped with sorghum and
millet, which are staple crops of Sudan. Intercropping sesame with staple crops allows
farmers to diversify their production and hedge their risks. This method obviates the use
of pesticides and fertilizer inputs, which lead to environmental degradation especially
given the fragility of the soils. Sesame is an excellent soil builder, because sesame roots
have as much mass as the visible part of the plant. In addition, stalks break down quickly
and dissolve into the soil adding natural nutrients and moisture improving the soil tilth. 40
35
Ray Langham et al., “Sesame Grower Guide,” May 2008,www.sesaco.net (accessed November 18, 2012).
Dorothea Bedigian, The Genus Sesamum (Baca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2011), 20.
37
Ibid, 21.
38
Ibid, 23.
39
“Quasi Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Sudan,” FAO (2012),
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/sifsia/docs/Sudan%20Quasi%20Crop%20and%20Food%20Sup
ply%20Assessment%20Report-Jan%202012.pdf (accessed Nov.1, 2012).
40
“Sesame and Cotton,” American Sesame Growers,
http://www.sesamegrowers.org/sesame%20and%20cotton.htm (accessed Oct. 30, 2012).
36
16
Comment [TvB14]: Necessary?
Sesame also fixes nitrogen into the soil. Therefore, it is a crucial way for farmers to
manage soil and water needs. Intercropping is also a time and money saving technique.
4- Nutrition
In Sudan, sesame is a staple food. Sesame is made into cooking oil, which is
commonly consumed. It is also used to make a paste blended with sugar called Taheena,
which is an ingredient in sauces, and eaten with other staple food such as sorghum, rice,
and corn flour. The shoots and young leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Before being a cash
Comment [TvB15]: Why here? Flow problem.
crop, sesame was a subsistence crop in these areas of Sudan.
Several studies highlight its health promoting properties of
sesame.41
The seeds
are a source of high quality protein as well as oil, which is exceptionally stable. It is a
healthy food containing a high percentage of polyunsaturated fat. Sesame hull contains a
high level of phenolic compounds, a powerful antioxidant, a useful substance to fight
degenerative diseases and cancer. It is also a good source of calcium, phosphorous, and
iron.42
5- Sesame and Women’s Resilience
Sesame is particularly important for women’s livelihood strategies. In Sudan,
during the rainy season, single women cultivate only 5-10 feddans of land, which is
considerably less than men.43 However, women are able to generate income from the sale
of sesame, groundnuts, and half of the production of their home gardens. 44 Women use
sesame seeds and millet to brew a beer called marissa for daily consumption or for
special occasions.45 The sale of this product is another sesame-derived source of income.
41
Fereidoon Shahidi, Chandrika M. Liyana-Pathirana, and Dana Wall, “Antioxidant activity of white and
black sesame seeds and their hull fractions,” Food Chemistry 99, (2006): 478,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814605006801 (accessed Oct. 12, 2012).
42
Mohamed Elleuch, “Quality characteristics of sesame seeds and by-products,” Food Chemistry 103,
(2007), 641-642, www.sciencedirect.com (accessed Oct. 3, 2012).
43
One feddan equals 0.42 hectare.
44
“Republic of the Sudan: Supporting the small-scale traditional rainfed producers in Sinnar State,”
International Fund for Agricultural Development, 97,
http://www.ifad.org/operations/projects/design/101/sudan_sustain.pdf (accessed Nov. 2, 2021).
45
“Women in Sudan, ” http://www.sudanupdate.org/REPORTS/WOMEN/WOMEN.HTM (accessed Dec.
9, 2012).
17
Comment [TvB16]:
A women weeds a sesame crop field in Sudan, Credit: Charlton Doki/IPS
VI.
THE SESAME MARKET
In this section, we turn to Sudan’s position in the global sesame market and the
sesame sub-sector in Sudan.
1- Sudan’s position in the global sesame market
Sudan exports about 2/3 of its sesame production, and is among the eight main
exporters of sesame seeds worldwide.46 This group includes India, Ethiopia, Nigeria,
Sudan, China, Paraguay, Myanmar, and Mexico. In 2004, Sudan was the world-leading
exporter with about 210 tons of sesame seeds exported.47 Sudan ranks second after India
in area cultivated, but Sudanese sesame yields are lower than any of the above-mentioned
countries.48 Its production levels are highly variable due to its reliance on rain-fed
production, and consistently receive a lower price compared to neighboring Ethiopia. 49
Nevertheless, sesame exports represent on average 20% of the Sudanese total agricultural
exports. Leveraging sesame exports to receive a better price could translate into higher
incomes for the smallholder farmers responsible for its production.
46
See Appendix 4 for Production and Exports of Sesame seeds in Sudan, 1961-2010
“Sudan Post-conflict assessment: Agriculture and the Environment,”
http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/sudan/08_agriculture.pdf (accessed Oct. 3, 2012).
48 Hala Elamin, “Sudan Trade Point, Sesame”, Report 18, http://www.atfp.org.ae/English/studies/Sudantp/sdntp-sesame2011.pdf (accessed Sept. 25, 2012).
49 Elamin, Sudan Trade Point, Sesame
47
18
There is a strong and diverse global demand for sesame. In 2009, the top sesame
importers were Japan, South Korea and China. 50 The main importers of Sudanese Sesame
Comment [TvB17]: s
51
are Japan (44%) and China (25%). Japan will continue to be a major importer, because
of its high levels of consumption and its absence of domestic production. China will also
remain a significant importer, because of its rising population, high consumption, and
steadily decreasing yield. In fact, an FAO report show that sesame yields have decreased
in China for the period 1961-2007, whereas they have increased everywhere else in the
developing world, including in Sudan. 52
In addition, in 2008, Sudan exported sesame seeds to Greece (9%), Jordan (4%),
Turkey (3.5%), Taiwan (1.5%), and the Netherlands (1.4%). The Netherlands is an
exporter of fair trade and organic sesame oil. It does not produce sesame. Rather, it buys
the raw product from developing countries like Sudan and processes it to create a highervalue product. Less than 1% of Sudanese sesame is exported to Germany. 53 Both
Germany and The Netherlands represent higher-value niche markets (organic and/or fair
trade) that Sudan could pursue. In 2009, some Sudanese sesame exports to the European
Union were certified organic.54
Comment [TvB18]: halting flow
2- Competition with India
In 2007, India produced around 19% of the sesame traded in the world, which is
more than Sudan (5.9%), Uganda (4.9%), and Ethiopia (4.7%) combined. 55 India has
invested in R&D and has bred high yielding cultivars made available to farmers. India
serves the same markets as Sudan including Turkey, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Kuwait, and has considered expanding to Egypt where there is a high
demand. Sudan’s advantage for these countries is its price and India’s advantage is its
quality. Despite India’s more favorable position, it has yet to export to Japan. This could
be a threat for Sudan in the future.
Comment [TvB19]: No titles at page bottom
3- Competition with African sesame producers
50
Bedigian, 442.
See Appendix 5 for a chart of the major sesame seeds importers and exporters in quantity (Bedigian, Fig.
25.5)
52
Bedigian, 439.
53
Ibid, 443.
54
“Certificate of Conformity for E.U. Third Country Organic Products.” ECOCERT, SA,
http://www.bleuets-mistassini.com/File/BFortin%20Ecocert%20CEE%20A.pdf (accessed Dec. 2, 2012).
55 Pyram Vadatiwari, “Sesame” ADEPA Agri Exchange,
http://agriexchange.adepa.gov.in/Market%20Profile/MOA/Product/Sesame.pdf (accessed Oct. 7, 2012).
51
19
The sesame value chain in Ethiopia is more consolidated. Large-scale farmers
Comment [TvB20]: than?
with strong linkages to exporters produce most of the sesame.56 In addition, Ethiopia’s
sesame has developed a good track record in fulfilling the quality requirements of
importers. However, Sudan’s access to a seaport is an advantage over Ethiopia. Although
these two countries are relatively equal in terms of total production, they serve different
markets with the exception of China.57
Uganda is also an important producer of sesame. Along with Sudan, Uganda is
the only African country with in-country sesame processing plants.58 Uganda is also a
pioneer in the export of organic sesame seeds. As early as 1995, SIDA (Swedish
International Development Agency) initiated the EPOPA program (Export Promotion of
Organic Products from Africa) with Uganda and the production and export of sesame as a
pilot project.59 SIDA/EPOPA provided extension agents to improve harvesting and postharvesting techniques. Sesame was chosen over coffee, cotton and cocoa, because if
exported in large enough volume, it could generate enough income for the growers and
the exporters to balance the costs of field staff and organic certification60. Better access
to organic markets is one avenue for increasing value at the producer level. Given the
minimal utilization of chemical fertilizers in traditional rain-fed agriculture in Sudan, the
sesame produced is non-certified organic sesame (“organic by default”), and can
therefore easily meet the requirements for organic sesame.61
4- Sesame-sub Sector
56
Kindie Aysheshm, “Sesame Market Chain Analysis: The Case of Metema Woreda, North Gondar Zone.
Amhara National Regional State” (PhD diss., Haramaya University, 2007), 17, http://www.ipmsethipia.org/content/files/Documents/publications/MscTheses/FinalThesis_KindieAysheshm.pdf (accessed
Oct. 12, 2012).
57
See appendix 6 for a comparison of sesame production across top exporters.
58
“Seeds for Growth, Sesame” in Spore,
http://spore.cta.int/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&lang=en&id=1829&catid=8 (accessed
Dec. 10, 2012).
59
Bo van Elzakker and Mark Leijdens, “Not Aid, but Trade: Exports of Organic Products from Africa”
commissioned by SIDA-INEC, Executed by Agro Eco,
http://www.ifoam.org/growing_organic/7_training/training_pdf/other_training_materials/economics_marke
ts_trade/export_org_products_africa.pdf, (accessed De. 10, 2012).
60
The premium paid to the farmers, the payment of field staff and the cost of certification are earned back
by exporting the product with an organic premium. Producers and exporters earn a higher margin on the
organic exports than on the conventional one (Elzakker & Leijdens)
61
Olowe et al.,“Sesame: the Underexploited Organic Oilseed Crop,” http://www.unepunctad.org/cbtf/events/kampala5/day2/23-Sesame%20The%20underexploited%20organic%20oil%20seed%20crop%20paper%20Ol.pdf (accessed Oct.12, 2012).
20
Comment [TvB21]: Which one?
The majority of sesame growers sell their seeds within two or three weeks after
harvest to an assembler or village collector who is also often a trader. 62 A small portion
of sesame growers wait for better prices, and in that case, the seeds go to temporary
storage facilities. The village collector then sells to local processors of tahania, sweet
sesame paste, or to traditional local oil processors.63 The rest of the sesame seeds are
delivered to auction markets where traders, transport entrepreneurs, intermediate buyers,
and well-off farmers mingle.64 Wholesalers then buy the seeds to sell to the export
market, local oil and paste processors, or producers of livestock cake.
The processed products are then sold to wholesalers of sesame products, who
dispatch the finished products to the retailers before reaching domestic consumers.65
According to the sesame value chain in the Kordofan region, livestock cakes are the only
transformed products that reach the export market. Other sources have shown that oil and
paste are exported to the Middle East, but the quantity is negligible. 66 Local processors
(asarat) and conventional or modern types of processors that cater to local needs are
found in different regions and states. The rural population usually prefers the sesame oil
from local sesame processors, because of its higher quality.
VII.
OBSTACLES FOR LINKING SESAME FARMERS WITH
MARKET
1- Rain Variability
As mentioned above, sesame is a rained fed crop and contributes to approximately
38 percent of sesame production in Sudan. However, the fluctuation in rainfall both in
terms of quantity and distribution is characteristic of the sesame growing regions. Output
depends heavily on the amount of rainfall. For instance, due to inadequate rainfall, 47%
less of what was harvested in the previous year is expected to grow in the 2011/2012
Ali Shawgi et al., “Policy Strategies Interventions and the Way Forward for Sesame Crop: A case study
of Kordofan region, Sudan,” (Third RUFORUM Biennal Meeting, September 28, 2012, Uganda)
www.ruforum.org/system/files/shawgi%20987.pdf (accessed Nov 14, 2012)
63 Ibid
64 Rajaa Hassan Mustafa, “Risk Management in the Rainfed Sector of Sudan: Case Study. Gedaref Area of
Eastern Sudan,” Ed. Werner Doppler and Siegfried Bauer, in Farming & Rural Systems Economic, e-book,
http://shop.margraf-publishers.net/uploads/tx_ttproducts/datasheet/1491.pdf (accessed Oct. 30, 2012).
65 Shawgi, 991.
66 See Appendix 7, for a flowchart of the sesame crop value chain in the Kordofan region, Sudan.
62
21
season.67 Additionally, sesame is particularly sensitive to excess water (water-logging).68
Flash floods have been known to occur in the sesame growing regions.
2- Harvest and post-harvest issues
Sesame is harvested manually in the traditional rain fed sector and is very
sensitive to sowing and harvesting dates. Late planting of sesame seeds returns lower
yields than seeds planted early in the rainy season. 69 Harvesting sesame is particularly
onerous requiring a large amount of timely labor. The seeds need to be harvested within a
ten-day window, because when ripe, the pods containing the seeds shatter. If the pods are
not cut off before they shatter the sesame seeds are exposed and ruined causing major
crop losses.70 This is particularly challenging for farmers who lack the money to pay
wage laborers, but who have expansive fields.
Sesame is vulnerable to several diseases and pests; the latter being more of an
issue than the former. The most threatening pest in Sudan is the sesame seed bug also
called “kaook” by locals. It attacks the seep seeds and sucks the oil out. It can ruin the
crop in a matter of days. In addition, local birds and grasshoppers are common nuisances
for all crops.71
67
Alemu Asfaw, “Quasi Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission,” FAO-SIFSIA-N, January 2012,
http://www.techtalk-international.com/documents/SudanCFSAMJan2012.pdf (accessed Nov 3, 2012).
68
Helena Larsson, Relationships between rainfall and sorghum, millet and sesame in the Kassala Province,
Eastern Sudan,” Journal of Arid Environments 32 (1996) 211–223,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014019639690018X (accessed Nov. 4, 2012).
69
Jean-Paul Egonyu et al., “Review of Pests and Diseases of Sesame in Uganda,” (paper presented at the
Uganda, African Crop Science Conference, 2005)
http://www.acss.ws/Upload/XML/Research/673.pdf (accessed October 2, 2012).
70
Abdelkarim Abba, “Primitive Capital Accumulation in Sudan,” Frank Cass, 1992:97,
http://books.google.com/books?id=Pjso2dTDlUAC&pg=PP8&lpg=PP8&dq=Abdelkarim+Abba,+Primitive
+Capital+Accumulation+in+Sudan&source=bl&ots=20LQ1MC9Qr&sig=lsINXecDc7YPQFfPK3G27jc1QY&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TTbKUKnyOqqW0QHotoCQDQ&ved=0CDcQ6AEwA
g (accessed Sept. 10, 2012).
71
Asfaw.
22
A farmer poses next to his harvest of sesame in a church-run community garden in Sudan.
Credit: Charlie Shifflet
3- Farm-gate issues: Quality and Storage
To maintain high quality sesame seeds should be properly sterilized and stored in
a cool and dry environment to avoid the risk of being infested by pests and diseases. 72
Sesame’s powerful antioxidant agents allow it to be stored safely for up to a year after
harvest, provided there are adequate storage conditions. However, there is a deficiency in
these facilities. A field survey conducted in the Gedaref province shows that 62% of
sesame growers sell their crop within a month of harvest.73 Farmers sell their seeds
quickly after harvest to pay off debts and laborers, as well as to cover the costs of
planting and harvesting the next sorghum and millet crops. Farmers tend to all sell at the
same time, which brings down the price that they receive. Only 11% farmers were able to
store their seeds for more than two months.74 If farmers waited three or six months to
sell their crop, they would increase their return by 45% and 55% respectively. 75
Lack of consistent quality in sesame production is largely due to the seeds that are
used. There are many benefits associated with procuring seeds through commercial seed
companies.76 However, in these regions, farmers tend get their seeds through informal
72
“Sesame Seeds,” Occidental International Foods, LLC,
http://www.occidentalfoods.com/sesameseeds.html (accessed Dec. 3, 2012).
73
Mustafa, 66.
74
Ibid.
75
Ibid, 67.
76
In commercial agriculture in general, farmers have the opportunity to purchase their seeds through
commercial seed companies, which are part of the formal seed sector. With this type of established
network, farmers are able to learn what seeds are best suitable for the planting season and sometimes are
even allowed a trial period. Also, commercial companies establish standards that ensure quality of seeds in
terms of varietal integrity. If farmers are not satisfied with the quality of their seeds, they can resort to law
and obtain some type of compensation.
23
networks.77 In fact, the majority of smallholder farmers use their own saved seeds for
planting. When farmers do not own saved seeds, they use other methods of acquisition
such as begging from friends and relatives, getting a loan to purchase the seeds from local
Comment [TvB22]: Really?
markets or from traders who often get the seeds from other sources like humanitarian
agencies or neighboring countries. The result is quality that does not meet requirements
of export markets. These requirements are the absence of foreign matter; immature,
damaged, or discolored seeds; and mixture of different varieties and colors. 78
Comment [TvB23]: Is this a requirement?
4- Transportation
Sudanese farmers’ access to markets is mostly limited to local informal rural
markets. Long distances, poor quality of roads, and high transportation costs due to the
high level of insecurity on the roads, prevent farmers’ access to urban markets. Therefore,
rural farms are dependent on local collectors, transporters and traders to link them to
these urban markets. The transportation deficiency maintains farmers’ ignorance to prices
in the urban markets. Their dependency and ignorance in this regard give them little
bargaining power with the other actors in the value chain.
5- Land
Competition over land and natural resources has long been a source of tension
between different groups in Sudan. There is a long history of land conflict amongst
pastoralists and between pastoralists and farmers. Land is a central issue for both rural
and urban communities in Sudan. It is not just a means of livelihood and basic survival,
but also has profound cultural and socio-political dimensions. Local level conflicts over
access to natural resources, often in a context of environmental degradation, have
characterized the interaction of different groups in Sudan.
Issues of governance and administration have precipitated these conflicts and
magnified their impact to a national scale. In the name of modernization and
development, the government expropriated land to set up large mechanized agricultural
schemes. It legitimized these actions with the Unregistered Lands Act (1970), which
states:
77
Richard Jones et al., “The need to look beyond the production and provision of relief seed: Experience
from Southern Sudan,” Disasters, 2002, 26 (4),: 303 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12518507
(accessed, Sept. 8, 2012)
78
Vadatiwari, Sesame.
24
“All land of any kind whether waste, forest, occupied or unoccupied, which is not
registered before the commencement of this Act shall, on such commencement, be
the property of the Government and shall be deemed to have been registered as
such, as if the provisions of the Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, have
been duly complied with.79
Comment [TvB24]: Closing quote
However, rural Sudanese access land through traditional and customary rights and
principles, which are not legally recognized. Farmers do not have the knowledge or
resources to register their land. The land they depended on was assimilated into
mechanized farming schemes or simply registered in someone else’s name. Disruption of
grazing routes and displacement has created more pressure on productive land. The result
is severe environmental degradation and land conflict often between rival ethnic groups.
6- Barriers to Trade
Sudan applied for membership to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995,
but only has observer status. In addition, in 1997, the US imposed comprehensive
economic, trade, and financial sanctions against Sudan in response to its alleged
connection to terror networks and its human right abuses. These sanctions were renewed
last month (November 1, 2012) in spite of, according to Foreign Ministry of Khartoum,
“Washington’s repeated acknowledgements that Khartoum fulfilled the conditions for
lifting the sanctions.”80 Although the government introduced several measures to
liberalize trade, including a new currency in 1997, Sudan still suffers from several tariff
and non-tariff barriers. Stringent standards and tariff-escalation restrict its access to
certain markets. In particular, discriminatory taxes and non-transparent regulations are
still some of the factors impeding Sudanese trade.81
79
Quoted in Galal el-Din el-Tayeb, “Land Issues and Peace in Sudan,” Sudanese Environment
Conservation Society, Sudan (2006), www.sd.undp.org/publications/RBC%20land.pdf (accessed Nov. 8,
2012).
80
“Sudan Makes Fresh Push to Normalize Ties With U.S.”, Sudan Tribune, November 12, 2012.
http://allafrica.com/stories/201211120340.html (accessed November 15, 2012)
81
Sudan Trade, Exports and Imports, Economy Watch, 8 Apr. 2010.
http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/sudan/export-import.html (accessed, Oct. 3, 2012)
25
Comment [TvB25]: Sudan
VIII.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the 1970s, the state has managed to be politically and financially insulated
from the rural poor.82 Especially with the loss of oil revenue from the succession of South
Sudan, there is an urgent need for government policies to better integrate smallholder
farmers into the national economy and create an enabling environment for sesamespecific initiatives. Based on the challenges identified and past and current development
approaches, we set forth a series of recommendations to improve smallholder sesame
farmers’ access to markets as a means of increasing their resilience and food security.
Recommendations are divided in terms of the four strategies: policies, networks,
behaviors, and products.
1- Policies
In this section, we will look at land and resource management policies and
public investment as the two main areas that need to be addressed.
a) Land policies
Land policy in Sudan has benefited urban elites and foreign investors often at the
expense of rural people. Land security is a precondition for food security when
agricultural and livestock productions are the dominant livelihood strategies.
Furthermore, without land security farmers have little incentive to mobilize productive
investments, which are the impetus for higher returns making them less vulnerable to
shocks.
A first step is to impose a moratorium on new mechanized rain-fed agriculture
schemes (UNEP). These have interfered with pastoralists’ grazing routes and have
sometimes taken over the land of smallholder farmers. Increased pressure on the land
leads to conflict over resources and environmental degradation, thus also increasing the
likelihood of future shocks. This is an urgent issue to address, because recently attempts
to set up mechanized agricultural lands on smallholder farms and grazing routes have
been reported in Eastern Sudan and South Kordofan. 83 Mechanized schemes are not
82
“Empowering the rural poor under volatile policy environments in the Near East and North Africa
Region Case study Sudan”, IFPRI, 2006 www.ifad.org/events/nrp/case/sudan.pdf (accessed Sept. 10,
2012).
83
Sarah Pantuliano, “The Land Question: Sudan’s Peace Nemesis,” Humanitarian Policy Groups, Overseas
Development Institute, 2007, http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinionfiles/4166.pdf (accessed Nov. 3, 2012).
26
inherently bad. However, in the absence of institutions upholding smallholder farmers’
customary land rights, these schemes are not justifiable.
The national government needs to take ownership of the land reform process so
that policies are clearly defined and predictable. Projects to alleviate rural poverty often
fail, because the economic and policy environment shifts in unpredictable ways. 84
National leadership and ownership should be achieved through the establishment of the
National Land Commission. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005) requires the
creation of a National Land Commission that is “mandated to arbitrate between willing
contending parties on land claims, enforce the application of the law, assess appropriate
land compensation, and advise relevant levels of government regarding of land reform
policies and recognition of customary land rights of law.” Despite this mandate and
strong international support, the commission is yet to be realized. Ad hoc responses to
the land problem could exacerbate persistent tensions over land and resources. 85 Given
these tensions’ historical role in sparking large-scale conflicts in the past, the
commission’s leadership in land reform is urgently needed.
In addition to national leadership, state-level entities will be entrusted to carry
out the national mandate. If ever there is disagreement between states and the central
government, the matter is to be taken to the Constitutional Court for adjudication.86 This
autonomy is needed so that state commissions can be more responsive to local needs and
can actively engage civil society groups. International NGOs have an important role
in facilitating this process given the magnitude of challenges. Groups like Oxfam, SOS
Sahel, Acord, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have been
active in documenting different customary land traditions. 87 With the government’s
approval, INGOs should mediate between rural people and state land commissions. This
will raise the commissions’ awareness of customary land tenure systems and areas of
contention. By the same token, INGOs can educate rural people on procedures related to
registering land or settling disputes. Past donor-sponsored development projects have
84
IFPRI, 2006
Pantuliano.
86
Liz Willy, “Making peace impossible? Failure to honor the land obligations of the comprehensive Peace
Agreement in Central Sudan,” http://www.cmi.no/sudan/doc/?id=1305 (accessed Oct. 8, 2012).
87
Pantuliano, 2007
85
27
increased women’s public voice by increasing their participation in village committees. 88
A more important role of INGOs in this regard could increase women’s and other
disadvantaged groups’ integration in the process.
The long-term outcomes of this process are twofold. First, “customary
legitimacy” will be granted “formal legality”.89 Indeed, land laws need to work in
concert with customary systems, rather than attempt to replace them. This legality will
allow localized arrangements to be recognized and integrated into national land laws.
Second, land and resource management and dispute resolution will be under the
purview of local authorities with both government officials and traditional leaders
represented.90
b) The potential of public investment
Next, we will look at how public investment can promote better market
opportunities that are accessible to smallholder farmers. The rain-fed sector, despite
its important contribution to the national economy, receives minimal public
investment.91,92 Studies show that without the provision of adequate credit and
infrastructure and public investment, aggregate agricultural supply’s response to
increased price incentives will be minimal. 93 Thus, public investment enables farmers to
respond to price incentives and take advantage of emerging market opportunities.
First, market information is necessary for farmers to be able to respond to
incentives. Prices of the previous season are one of the main factors in farmers’ decision
IFPRI, 2006
Ibid.
90
A functional land and resource management system is even more urgent for internally displaced people,
refugees, and rural people with no codified title to land. It will ease tensions over land in these post-conflict
contexts where land disputes are still a source of conflict (Pantuliano, 2007).
91
Nasredi Elamin and Elsheikh Mak, “Adjustment programmes and agricultural incentives in Sudan: A
comparative study,” (paper presented at the African Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi, Kenya,
November 1997). www.aercafrica.org/documents/rp63.pdf (accessed Oct. 17, 2012).
92
Public funds towards agriculture in Sudan mostly benefit the irrigated sub-sector, because it is believed
to be the engine of political and economic stability and development. Therefore, a broad spectrum of
incentives (modern input supply, credit, and extension services) is allocated to this sector (MEPD, 2003)
while the rain-fed sub-sector, despite its great importance; is neglected in terms of development funds
allocation and also in terms of other public expenditures (infrastructure and services). This neglect over the
last decades has translated in negative growth rates during the 1990’s in the traditional sub-sector. The area
of crops harvested declined by 2.4% per annum and yield declined even more (5.1% per annum) (IDRIS,
2004).
93
Elamin.
88
89
28
to invest in sesame production.94 However, prices can vary greatly from year to year, so
this strategy creates missed opportunities and inefficiencies. The government should
invest in better intelligence gathering and dissemination of timely market information to
rural communities.95 Mobile phone penetration is increasing in Sudan and could be a
possible avenue for this information.
Quality standards need to be accessible to smallholder farmers. Sudanese
Standards and Metrology Organization (SSMO) established in 1992 has a scientific
supervisory role in national standardization issues, inter alia, protecting consumers
against deceitful practices and health threats, providing quality control services to
exported and imported commodities.96 Stronger coordination with other related national
bodies and consolidation of overlapping responsibilities is needed for the SSMO to play
an effective role in communicating international quality standards to local organizations
that can influence smallholder-farming practices.
Investments in physical infrastructure are also required. Storage facilities at
the production stage as well as further up the value chain will reduce losses and increase
farmer prices. Moreover, rural feeder roads give farmers better access to local markets
providing them with an incentive to produce a marketable surplus or invest in or adopt
new technologies. Also, easier access to local urban centers decreases their dependency
on collectors.
Other areas warranting increased public investment are support to communitylevel organizations and agro-processing. Through collective action, individual farmers
are more able to take advantage of market opportunities. Also, agro-processing already
represents a large share of Sudan’s manufactures, but mostly for sugarcane. 97 Handoperated machineries allow households to process crops into higher value products.
Additionally, larger processing plants can contribute to local employment.
2- Networks
94
Mustafa, 2006
Panos Konandreas, “Assessing Sudan’s Export Diversification Potential in Agricultural Products,”
Maxwell Stamp PLC, 2009: www.konandreas.com/SudanExportDiversification.pdf (accessed Oct. 12,
2012).
96
Ibid.
97
“Integrated Programme in Sudan: An Industrial Agenda for Poverty Relief and Transition to Sustainable
Development,” UNIDO Evaluation Group, 2010,
www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/EVA/eBook_IP_Sudan.pdf (accessed Nov. 20, 2012).
95
29
In this section, we advocate for market-led networks that increase the linkages
between farmers and other actors in the sesame market. We focused on the providers of
agricultural services that are crucial to improving farm productivity. Since a little over a
decade ago, there has been a shift in development thinking on how business development
services, in this case extension services, should be provided to the world’s poor. The new
approach focuses on developing the market for these services rather than having the
government of the international organization donate them to farmers.
Sudan’s agricultural research and development (R&D) has not benefited
smallholder sesame farmers.98 We found that local government officials of the
agriculture-related ministries do not actually provide extension services, but rather collect
rents and certify lands.99 We recommend that Sudanese and international agricultural
R&D staff with the appropriate expertise train local extension workers on how to train
farmers in these services.100 Local extension workers would constitute a small farmer
agricultural services company that is publicly funded, but privately operated to ensure its
autonomy in decision-making and its ability to recover at least its operating costs through
the efficient provision of services to small farmers. 101
For this intervention to work, it is also important that the prices of these services
be attainable to farmers. Favorable payment methods will be embedded in the service.
Two possible options to pursue are group payment plans and trial periods. In the
former, farmers can take advantage of informal networks to access these services at a
lower cost to the individual farmer. The latter would allow farmers to access these
services for free for one planting season. If satisfied, farmers can then choose to buy-in
for the next season. While being removed from the transaction, donor agencies should
remain active as facilitators. They can monitor and showcase results from farmers who
98
Compared to other Sub-Saharan African countries, Sudan has fairly high research and development
resources. For instance, it ranks third in the number of full-time equivalent research staff (Beintema &
Raija, 2011). However, the local R&D and extension institutions are newer and lack resources and
expertise. Additionally, despite sesame’s importance to the national economy it is not deemed a major crop
meaning that less than 5% of R&D staff address it.
99
IFAD, Supporting the small-scale traditional rain-fed producers in Sinnar State
100
The importance of training of trainers (TOT) as a way to increase the impact and sustainability of inputs
is gaining traction in international development program design. In fact, the USAID Food, Agribusiness,
and Rural Markets (FARM) Project in South Sudan includes an ambitious training plan in order to
complement the improved inputs (Abt Associates, 2012).
101
IFPRI, 2006
30
have adopted the services and conduct market assessments in order to connect the supply
with the demand.
3- Behaviors
In the above section, we looked at networks in terms of their capacity to provide
much needed extension services to smallholder sesame farmers. In this section we will
look at some of the improved farming practices (behaviors) that can boost sesame yields
and reverse land degradation.
Fertilizer micro-dosing involves the application of small and affordable
quantities of fertilizer with the seed at planting time or as top dressing 3 to 4 weeks after
emergence.102 The amount of fertilizer required is about one twentieth of what is used for
corn production in the U.S. In similar climates in West Africa, 25,000 farmers have
adopted this technique with positive outcomes. Sorghum and millet yields increased 44%
to 120 % and family incomes rose 50% to 130%.103
Example of Fertilizer micro-dosing (www.theplanetfixer.org)
Field experiments in the Northern Kordofan region of Sudan have shown the
positive effects of fertilizer micro-dosing on sesame yields. 104 The same study shows that
102
“Fertilizer Micro-dosing: Boosting Production in Unproductive Lands”, ICRISAT, 2009:
http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/icrisat-is-fertilizer-microdosing.pdf (accessed Nov. 2, 2012)
103
Ibid.
104
Abdelrahman Ousman and Jen B. Aune, “Effect of Seed Priming and Micro-Dosing of Fertilizer on
Groundnut, Sesame and Cowpea in Western Sudan,” Experimental Agriculture 47 no.3, (July 2011), 431443. journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0014479711000068 (accessed Nov. 20, 2012).
31
the best results were attained when this practice was coupled with seed priming. This
practice consists in soaking the seeds in water for several hours before sowing. It is
particularly effective in improving crop establishment, which is a constant issue in the
dry lands of the sesame growing regions in Sudan. It also increases the efficiency of
small doses of fertilizer and facilitates plant emergence. Like micro-dosing, it is an easily
adoptable and low-cost practice that reduces dependency on expensive fertilizers.
Other practices that have been proven to improve the performance of the sesame
crop without relying on expensive technologies include using organic-waste compost to
improve soil quality105, seed pelletting,106 and the use of animal manure as fertilizer. The
latter is particularly interesting given the importance of the livestock sector in these
regions of Sudan
4- Products
Improved farming practices can improve yields and the quality of harvested
sesame. However, the constant threat of weather-related shocks decreases the likelihood
that farmers will invest in these practices despite their positive effect on productivity and
household incomes.107 Weather-based index insurance (WII) grants farmers a financial
buffer that would make farmers more willing to invest in their lands.
Increased weather-related shocks and lack of government and donor relief funds
leads to little or no compensation for damages. There is an unmet demand for financial
mechanisms for climate risk management.108 Commercial insurance companies are not
willing or able to serve these areas because of high administrative costs, farmers’ lack of
understanding of the insurance industry, and the physical distance that exists between the
insurers and the farms.109 Also, conventional crop or livestock insurance relies on direct
Ousman & Aune.
Dogan & Zeybek, “Improving the Traditional Sesame Seed Planting with Seed Pelleting” African
Journal of Biotechnology 8 no.22, (Nov. 16, 2009), 6120-6126.
http://www.academicjournals.org/ajb/PDF/pdf2009/16Nov/Dogan%20and%20Zeybek.pdf (accessed Nov.
3, 2012).
107 “Weather Index-based Insurance in agricultural development: A technical guide” WFP & IFAD, 2011,
https://www.wfp.org/content/weather-index-based-insurance-agricultural-development-technical-guide,
(accessed Dec. 10, 2012)
108
“Sudan: Climate Risk Finance for Sustainable and Climate Resilient Rainfed Farming and Pastoral
Systems,” Global Environmental Facility (2012), Project Identification Form, p. 7
http://www.thegef.org/gef/sites/thegef.org/files/documents/document/9-1312%20ID4958%20%20Council%20Letter.pdf (accessed Nov. 12, 2012)
109
“Weather Insurance,” Oxfam-America (n. d.), http://www.oxfamaIerica.org/issues/private-sectorengagement/weather-insurance (accessed Nov. 12, 2012)
105
106
32
measurement of the loss or damage suffered. Due to the large number of small-scale
farmers and their geographic isolation, field loss assessments are too costly and difficult
to complete.110
Furthermore, ex-post funding is insufficient, inefficient, poorly targeted, and
slow, and it provides no incentives for proactive risk reduction measures like improved
collection, analysis and communication of climate risk, and early warning information.
Therefore, there is a need for an alternative product that would reduce the vulnerability of
livelihoods to increasing rainfall variability and drought. 111
The essential feature of WII is that the insurance contract responds to an objective
parameter, for example measurement of rainfall or temperature, at a defined weather
station, during an agreed time period. Contract parameters are set to correspond, as
accurately as possible, with the loss of a specific crop type suffered by the policyholder.
All policyholders within a defined area receive payouts based on the same contract and
measurement at the same station, eliminating the need for on-field assessment. The
reduction of administrative costs allows these insurances to serve people who were
previously deemed too risky.
The conditions of smallholder sesame farmers play to the attributes of the
weather-based index insurance. Indeed, it is best suited to weather hazards that are well
correlated over a widespread area and where there is a close correlation between weather
and crop yield. The strongest relationships typically involve a single crop, a marked rainy
season and no irrigation. To date, most WII efforts have focused on the risk of rainfall
deficit drought.112
IX.
LIMITATIONS
The fact that we are only focusing on sesame may lead to potential undesired
outcomes. First, strengthening the economic potential of one crop could lead to monocropping. Although smallholder farmers in Sudan usually grow more than one crop, the
possibility of shifting towards mono-cropping should not be ignored. This type of
110
Weather Index-based Insurance.
Ibid.
112 Ibid.
111
33
Comment [TvB26]: ?
agriculture would make farmers more dependent on a single market and more vulnerable
to pests. Second, farmers increased productivity could lead to an increase in sesame
supply in the domestic markets with a corresponding decrease in prices, which will be
detrimental for sesame growers.113
Moreover, we have not extensively dealt with the micropolitics of the
interventions recommended. Sudan is not only one of the largest country in Africa, but it
is also one of the most politically, socially and culturally heterogeneous countries in
Africa and in the world.114 Therefore, elite-capture or resistance from high-power highinterest stakeholders could be a major issue.
Additionally, our recommendations are country-specific for all smallholders
farmers growing sesame. We are not considering the dissimilarities in terms of
infrastructure, populations, and agricultural systems among the different regions where
sesame is grown. Livelihoods and shocks that affect sesame growers in the traditional
subsector are similar enough all over the country to allow generalization, but we admit
that the recommendations might be more effective if they are community-specific. This
suggests that a field study is recommended to bridge that gap.
In terms of land and resource management policies proposed, a moratorium on
large rain-fed mechanized agricultural schemes could decrease the number of
employment opportunities for rural people. However, we suspect that this tradeoff might
be worthwhile. We also advocate the legal recognition of customary land tenure rights.
However, customary tenure is not necessarily equitable. In these areas of Sudan, ethnicity
and descent are determinants of an individual’s access to land, and women are often
prevented from owning land.
In addition, we assume that because of women’s important role in sesame
production, targeting this crop will benefit women, particularly if they engage in certified
organic processing and trade geared toward exports. Nonetheless, it is possible that
because of newly perceived benefits associated with sesame, men become more engaged
in its production.
113
114
John Lamb Personal Communication (Abt Associates, November 2012)
Approximately 19 ethnic groups with 597 subgroups were identified in Sudan (Grawert)
34
Comment [TvB27]: ‘
In terms of public investment policies, we argue that rural feeder roads reduce
transaction costs for farmers and decrease their dependency on collectors. Yet, if the
government is funding roads improvements, it may also increase taxes on transportation
and therefore decrease the impact of this policy. Also, in regions where conflict is a
constant threat, rural feeder roads may facilitate the mobility of armed factions and make
isolated populations less protected to these threats.115
In terms of improved farming practices, fertilizer micro-dosing is time consuming
and it is difficult to ensure each plant gets the right dose of fertilizer. Nonetheless,
ICRISAT is developing technology to make its application less onerous.
Finally, for weather-based index insurance, weather historical data and the
associated loss of a specific crop are determinants in the calculation of the insurance’s
contract parameters. This means that an improvement of institutional and technical
capacity for climate observation and forecasting in Sudan is a prerequisite for the
implementation of this product. The investments needed on those capacities might
represent a constraint for the introduction of weather-based index insurance in the short
term.
X.
GAPS IN THE RESEARCH
Our research relies only on secondary data through an extensive literature review.
The impossibility of travelling to Sudan restrained us to get more relevant qualitative data
to further complement and inform our research. Additionally, the use of other qualitative
tools such as a stakeholder analysis and social assessment could have accompanied our
research and analysis, as they would have given more nuances on the viability of the
proposed interventions.
Moreover, we realize that we also have some gaps in the data collected. For
instance, although we know that traditional farmers in Sudan practice intercropping, we
were not able to find how the ratio of sesame compared to other crops. Additionally, in
terms of smallholder sesame farmers’ livelihoods, there are some important factors that
could be analyzed in further depth. For example, we only briefly addressed the unique
situation of Internally Displaced People (IDPs). Furthermore, we could not find
115
John Lamb Personal Communication (Abt Associates, November 2012)
35
information classifying local consumption by type of sesame products (paste, oil, seeds,
etc.) in Sudan.
Finally, when we charted our value chain analysis, we found information of the
route that follows sesame between producers and sellers, but no indication on local prices
or quantities exchanged. Moreover, it was difficult to identify who are the main actors in
the sesame sub-sector both for domestic and international markets, and their relationship
with smallholder farmers. Finally, some specific information on processing capacity and
transportation was lacking. We did not find information on the quantity of sesame seeds
processed and on the value added in this process.
Most our data constraints was due to a lack of information on the Sudanese
ministries’ websites. Even when it was in Arabic, we asked peers to read over and
identify if there was any mention of sesame. We found little there. Finally, the
Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC), a main R&D institution in Sudan, had very
little information on sesame. Not one edition since 1998 of its Sudan Journal of
Agricultural Science specifically addresses sesame.
These gaps on the data could have been of much utility to assess with more clarity
the potential of sesame in Sudan. We are convinced that there is potential in sesame
production to improve the resilience of smallholder farmers in Sudan. Further research
would expose a better understanding of this potential.
XI.
CONCLUSION
Risk mitigation strategies are embedded in rural livelihoods. However, these are
often disproportionate to the magnitude of experienced shocks. We have identified
sesame as a strategic crop in the Sudan. It plays an important protective role for the
livelihood systems in the traditional farming sector of Sudan. Additionally, there is a
strong and diverse demand for this commodity that Sudan is in a position to take
advantage of. Yet, we have identified a host of obstacles that prevent the link between
these two levels to be made and we set forth recommendations that will begin to address
these in a sustainable way so that sesame in Sudan is a success story, rather than a missed
opportunity. We hope that our research can provide the basis for policies and projects that
will increase the food security of some of the world’s most vulnerable people. Finally, it
36
is our hope that if such an approach were to achieve the desired impact, that it could
become a model for other regions of the world on how to build sustainable livelihoods
that are more resilient to life threatening shocks.
37
APPENDIXES
Appendix 1: World Map of Food Security Risk Index (2013)
This map shows the results of evaluating the availability, access and stability of food
supplies in 197 countries, as well as the nutritional and health status of their populations:
Source: Maplecroft (2012). “Food Security Risk Index 2013.” Retrieved from <http://www.guardian.co.uk/globaldevelopment/graphic/2012/oct/10/food-security-risk-index-map> Accessed on December 13, 2012
38
Appendix 2: Maps of Sudan – Regions, Agriculture, Climate and Migration
1- Sudan States Boundaries
39
2- Farming systems in Sudan.
3- Climate Patterns in Sudan
40
Appendix 3 - Migration trends of smallholder farmers in the semi-arid and central
parts of Sudan
This map provides the most common migration flows of smallholder farmers in Sudan
Source: IFPRI (1991), “A Policy Agenda for Famine Prevention in Africa:
Food Policy Report”
41
Appendix 4: Production and Exports of Sesame Seeds and Sesame Oil (1961-2010)
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2012). FAOSTAT. Retrieved September 25,
2012, from http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). (2012). FAOSTAT. Retrieved September 25,
2012, from http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html
42
Appendix 5 - Major Sesame Seeds Importers and Exporters in Quantity
*Note: The left column "Importers" is actually the list of major exporters of sesame
Source: Deborah Bedigian XXX
43
Appendix 6 - Sesame production across top exporters (FAO STAT 2010)
44
Appendix 7 : Sesame Market Chain Analysis Diagram
Source: Shawgi, A., Dekha, S., & Ali, M. (2012). “Policy strategies interventions and the way forward for sesame
crop: A case study of Kordofan region, Sudan,” Third RUFORUM Biennial Meeting 24 - 28 September 2012,
Entebbe, Uganda, p. 991.
45
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