UNIVERSITY OF PAISLEY
POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA AND
QUALIFICATION IN CAREERS GUIDANCE
SESSION 2004/5
LABOUR MARKET STUDIES PROJECT
‘What factors contribute to the low levels of participation by Scottish
ethnic minorities in Scottish Professional Football and how can this
situation be addressed?’
Stuart Bauld
A full copy of this report is available on request from the Course Tutors. E mail
your request to graham.allan@paisley.ac.uk or janet.moffett@paisley.ac.uk
Abstract:
A study into the causal factors of the very low level of participation
experienced by Scottish ethnic minority groups in relation to Scottish
Professional Football. Encompassing the historical context of Ethnic
minority football in Scotland and the current level of participation.
Research in the form of a survey, questionnaire and ‘desk-based’
study into what factors are inhibiting participation and how it could be
improved, and a discussion of the factors highlighted by the research.
Introduction
The proposed area of study of this project is concerned with the
extremely low levels of participation of Scottish ethnic minorities in
the labour market that constitutes Scottish Professional Football.
Whether as professional sportsmen, or as part of the wider
professional football infrastructure, Scottish ethnic minorities are
under-represented when viewed in terms of their proportion of the
Scottish population. In this study I shall attempt to ascertain what
factors contribute to this status quo and what possible solutions could
be utilised to address this labour market imbalance.
Context
There exists a long and varied history of ethnic minority players being
involved in Scottish Professional football. For example, Andrew
Watson, who was born in Guyana, was capped three times for
Scotland between 1881 and 1882.1 He began his career in 1876 with
Queens Park and is believed to be the first Black footballer to have
become an international. For most of the intervening century,
professional footballers from ethnic minorities were a rare sight in the
Scottish game. This is a situation however that has radically altered in
the last two decades due to three factors. The increasing
globalisation of professional football coupled with the introduction of
the Bosman Ruling, which allowed freedom of movement between
EU members for professional footballers, and the influx to the UK of
families from the commonwealth in the post-war period amongst
whom football was a popular pastime2. The import of ethnic minority
players, such as Mark Walters to Glasgow Rangers and Paul Elliot to
Glasgow Celtic, in the mid-eighties was the beginning of a trend that
has since become commonplace. Some of the most celebrated and
popular players who have been involved with Scottish football in the
last few years, such as Henrik Larsson, have represented ethnic
minority groups. While such players have become relatively
commonplace in a Scottish game that has become increasingly
multicultural, the vast overwhelming majority have been ‘imported’
into this country either on the basis of talent or, in many cases,
because their wage expectations represent value for money for the
professional clubs.
The perturbing scenario present in Scottish football today is that while
ethnic minority players are thriving and contributing greatly to the
game, none of these players have been born and bred in Scotland
and come through the youth development system. They have been
brought in from other countries as ‘the finished article’. As far as I
have been able to ascertain, the only Scottish ethnic minority player
to have achieved a modicum of success in the last few years has
1
http://www.archives.gla.ac.uk/gallery/awatson/default.html
2
Garland, J and Rowe, M. (2001) Racism and Anti-Racism in Football. London:Palgrave
been Kevin Harper who represented Hibernian Football Club and was
a Scottish under-21 international.
According to the 2001 Census, ethnic minorities constitute 2.01% of
the total population of Scotland (see chart below).
Scottish Population by Ethnic Group (2001 Census)
White Scottish
Other White British
White Irish
Any Other White Background
Indian
Pakistan
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Other South Asian
Carribean
African
Black Scottish Of Any Other
Background
Any Mixed Background
Any Other Background
The 2001 census places the population of Scotland at 5,062,011
inhabitants. Therefore, at 2.06% of the total population, there are just
over 100,000 Scottish people from ethnic minorities. Furthermore,
70% of the total ethnic minority population consider themselves to be
of Asian ethnicity (see chart below).3
3
http://www.scotland.gov.uk
Minority Ethnic Group Composition (2001 Census)
Indian
Pakistan
Bangladeshi
Chinese
Other South Asian
Carribean
African
Black Scottish Of Any Other Background
Any Mixed Background
Any Other Background
According to official figures, the size of the minority ethnic population
has increased since the 1991 Census. Whilst the total population
increase between 1991 and 2001 was 1.3%, the minority ethnic
population increased by 62.3%. Therefore, Scotland’s ethnic minority
groups are set to increase in size at a much faster rate than the rest
of the population. The composition of Scotland’s ethnic minority
groups is of relevance to this project as my research was conducted
with Asian footballers who form the majority grouping within the
ethnic minority groups in Scottish society. Although no quantifiable
statistics were available at this time, it can be estimated that there are
at approximately 1000 full-time professional footballers involved in the
Scottish game.4 Hypothetically, in an equitable society you could
presume that ethnicity was not a barrier to participation in
professional football. Using these criteria, you could expect the
percentage of ethnic minority footballers to be an approximation of
their percentage of the population as a whole. If this was the case
then, according to my tenuous calculations, you could expect to find
around twenty footballers from Scottish ethnic minority groups
involved in the game. Of course, in reality Scottish football and
society does not function in this manner but my point is to highlight
the fact that there are currently no professional footballers from
Scottish ethnic minority groups making an impact in the sport.
Although Scottish football, at least on the playing side, is meritocratic
in nature, you could still reasonably expect at least some
representation from the ethnic minority segment of the Scottish
population in some capacity. The fact that this has rarely been
achieved suggests that there are some form of barriers preventing a
higher level of participation. What these barriers may be and how
they could possibly be eroded will be ascertained in this project. Now
that the context for this study has been established, I shall elaborate
on the research methodology I utilised in an attempt to evaluate the
causal factors of this apparent under-representation of ethnic
minorities in what is considered to be the national game.
Research Methodology
The research methodology that I have utilised to facilitate this project
encapsulates three components:
• Quantitive research in the form of a sample survey.
• Qualitative research in the form of a questionnaire.
• ‘Desk-based’ research by using the Internet and available
literature.
4
This figure was calculated on a presumption of an average squad size of 18 full-time professionals for the
30 teams represented by the Scottish Football League added to the 437 players currently employed by the
12 teams that constitute the SPL. It has to be taken into account that it may be fairly inaccurate due to the
fact that many Football league teams are semi-professional in nature and squad sizes are anything but
uniform.
The quantitive research was comprised of a matrix-based survey
(appendix 1) that was distributed to Asian footballers that regularly
train at the Firhill Football Complex in Glasgow. Some of the players
surveyed were affiliated to S.A.S.A, the Scottish Asian Sports
Association, which recently organised the finals of the U.K Asian
Football Championships, which were held at Ibrox Stadium last year.
The statements that I utilised in the survey were as follows:
1. Scottish footballers from a minority ethnic group face cultural
barriers that limit their participation.
2. Scottish footballers from a minority ethnic group face structural
barriers that limit their participation.
3. I have experienced negativity associated with my ethnicity
when playing football in Scotland.
4. Scottish professionally football is inherently racist.
5. Racism is still prevalent among some Scottish football fans.
6. I have witnessed racial abuse when attending a Scottish.
football match.
7. A successful Scottish player from a minority ethnic group will
encourage others.
8. More Scottish ethnic minorities involved in the infrastructure of
Scottish football will encourage greater participation.
I used the above statements in the belief that they would be able to
provide me with a general picture of what grassroots ethnic minority
footballers perceived as being factors influencing their participation in
the game. The survey that was carried out was only a sample of 10
and thus must be treated as only a marginal indicator of views that
are currently held by Scottish ethnic minorities involved in the lower
echelons of Scottish football.
I attempted to gather qualitative research for this project by way of an
e-mailed questionnaire (appendix2) but only received two replies out
of a total of ten sent out. The rationale behind this was to gather the
views on the low levels of participation in Scottish Professional
football by ethnic minorities from people involved in the game in some
sort of professional capacity. The responses that I did receive were
from Stuart Rafferty, a Football Development Officer based in
Inverclyde who is jointly employed by Inverclyde Council and the
SFA. His remit is to promote football at a community level and
encourage greater participation in the game among young people. I
also received a response from Prem Singh, secretary of the Scottish
Asian Sports Association, whose remit is to widen the participation of
Scottish ethnic minorities in sporting and leisure activities. The final
element of my research in this study was to utilise information from
written and electronic sources in order to inform my viewpoint and
contribute to an evaluation of the issues at hand.
Data Analysis and Findings
I shall first analyse the data that was collected via the matrix survey
of Scottish ethnic minority footballers5:
In response to the statement ‘Scottish footballers from a minority
ethnic group face cultural barriers that limit their participation’, 20% of
the survey very strongly agreed while 80% strongly agreed.
In response to the statement ‘Scottish footballers from a minority
ethnic group face structural barriers that limit their participation’, 40%
of the survey strongly agreed while 60% agreed.
In response to the statement ‘I have experienced negativity
associated with my ethnicity when playing football in Scotland’, 90%
very strongly agreed while 10% strongly agreed.
In response to the statement ‘Scottish Professional Football is
inherently racist’, 10% agreed while 90% disagreed.
In response to the statement ‘racism is still prevalent among some
Scottish football fans’, 100% very strongly agreed.
In response to the statement ‘I have witnessed racial abuse when
attending a Scottish football match’, 50% strongly agreed, 40%
agreed and 10% disagreed.
5
It has to be noted that the participants in the survey were entirely of an Asian ethnic background.
In response to the statement ‘a successful Scottish player from a
minority ethnic group will encourage others’, 90% very strongly
agreed and 10% strongly agreed.
In response to the statement ‘more Scottish ethnic minorities involved
in the infrastructure of Scottish football will encourage greater
participation’, 70% very strongly agreed, 20% strongly agreed and
10% agreed.
While the exceptionally limited nature of this survey and the
conditions under which it was enacted have to be taken into account,
it raises some interesting questions as to how Scottish football is
viewed by ethnic minorities in this country. The participants
overwhelmingly believe that there are cultural barriers that need to be
overcome in order for ethnic minorities to fully participate in Scottish
football. What these barriers may be will be discussed later in this
report. The participants are also of the opinion, although feelings are
not quite so strong on this matter, that there are structural elements
to Scottish football that limit the potential participation of ethnic
minorities. Alarmingly, 90% of the participants responded very
strongly that they had experienced some form of negativity in relation
to their ethnicity whilst actually playing football in Scotland. Again
while stressing the limited scope of this survey, this provides a
worrying indication of discrimination in the lower echelons of Scottish
football. I included the next statement ‘Scottish football is inherently
racist’ as a qualifier to attempt to judge the level to which the
participants believe Scottish football is racially discriminatory in
nature. The fact that 90% of the participants disagreed with this
indicates that, while they have experienced racism, they do not
believe this to be true. The fact that racism is probably still an issue in
Scottish football is again highlighted by the opinion of the totality of
the participants that racism is still prevalent among some people who
like to think of themselves as fans of Scottish football. Again the issue
of racism in Scottish football is highlighted by the responses to the
question of whether the participants had witnessed racial abuse while
attending a Scottish football match. The varied responses received
however indicate that the experience had not been uniform and could
be dependant on a number of factors such as the number and nature
of games attended. The participants are almost unanimously of the
very strong belief that a successful Scottish ethnic minority footballer
could provide a positive role model and encourage others into the
game. Similarly, they are of the strong opinion that an increase in the
numbers of ethnic minorities involved in the infrastructure of the game
could help to encourage and increase the participation levels of
ethnic minorities in terms of those actually engaging in it at a higher
level.
I shall now summarise the qualitative data that I received from the
professionals who responded to my questionnaire:
1. What barriers, if any, do you believe to be causal factors in
inhibiting the participation of Scottish ethnic minorities in
professional football?
Barriers indicated by the responders included cultural elements such
as an interest in other sports and parental influences. Prem Singh
indicated that academic attainment was often a priority with Asian
parents who placed little or no value on sporting achievement and
were more concerned with there children finding suitable
employment. Other factors highlighted were a lack of positive role
models from similar backgrounds who had succeeded in the game or
established a role in the football fraternity. While, ethnic minorities
were commonplace in Scottish football, no one had really broken
through at grassroots level to the professional game. Stuart Rafferty
stated that ‘as yet no one has been able to come through the system
and set a precedent that others can follow’. Both responders also
mentioned lingering elements of racism as a causal factor that could
prove to be an inhibiting factor on ethnic minority participation.
2. Do you think that racism is still prevalent in the professional
game?
Both responders were of the opinion that while racism was not
prevalent in the professional game, a minority of idiotic fans
continued to ensure that it had not been altogether banished. Stuart
Rafferty elaborated on the fact that ethnic minority players were an
easy target for moronic opposing fans to abuse and that sectarian
abuse was still a shameful part of Scottish football. Prem Singh
acknowledged that covert racism could be in effect in the professional
game, arising as a lack of understanding or ignorance of cultural
differences and an unfamiliarity with ethnic minorities.
3. What measures can be taken to increase the participation and
success of Scottish Ethnic minorities in professional football?
The responders elaborated on a number of factors which could
increase the participation, and therefore, potential for success of
Scottish ethnic minorities in professional football. Stuart Rafferty
emphasised the importance of the Scottish Football Association’s
focus on community coaching which is an inclusive programme to
encourage participation from both young people and all other areas of
society who would not have previously become engaged in the sport.
He also highlighted initiatives such as the Show Racism the Red
Card campaign that looks to tackle racism, and therefore widen
participation, by working with school children and football clubs and
promoting ethnic minority football stars as positive role models. Prem
Singh also highlighted the work that S.A.S.A is doing, in terms of
holding events like the U.K Asian Football Championships, to raise
awareness and increase participation in the game. Both responders
were of the opinion that educating the youth and raising their
awareness of issues such as racism was the key to eventually
increasing the participation of ethnic minorities in the professional
game.
Discussion of Factors Inhibiting Participation
My research, although limited, has led me to ascertain that there are
a complex number of factors, often inter-related, that are causing the
current low level of participation in Scottish professional football by
Scottish ethnic minority groups. Cultural barriers to participation in
football are a real issue among Scotland’s Asian population. Parental
influence and pressure in this culture is perhaps stronger than most
and thus, parental attitudes towards football have a bearing on
participation levels. Many Asian parents are more concerned with
their offspring doing well and securing a respectable career as
opposed to what they may view as wasting their time playing a game.
Many parents do not envisage sporting activities, which they see as
‘a casually organised pastime’6 as matching the aspirations they have
for their children.
Racism, no matter what its form, remains a considerable causal
factor that inhibits the potential for a higher level of participation by
Scottish ethnic minorities in the professional game. Racism by fans at
football matches is abhorrent and would likely deter young fans from
ethnic minorities from ever returning or considering a future in the
sport. As Roddy McNulty, Scottish co-ordinator for the Show Racism
the Red Card Campaign, has stated:
‘Over the last few seasons incidents of racist abuse have occurred at
Scottish football grounds - both large and small. This abuse, directed
at ethnic minority players, is both completely unacceptable and
illegal. Racism at and around stadiums is not only intimidating for the
players themselves, but also for fellow supporters who come from
ethnic minorities. No person should ever feel discouraged from
attending games through fear or hatred. Particularly at this time of
financial crisis for Scottish football, our clubs must ensure that no
person should feel discouraged from attending games through fear of
hatred.’7
As has been pointed out earlier however, overt racism by moronic
fans is only one form of discrimination affecting ethnic minorities
attempting to participate in Scottish football. Racial stereotypes also
have there part to play as this report on Asian football in England
States:
‘The problems which we have identified in professional football clubs
on this issue have stemmed from an ignorance and a lack of
understanding or regard for the Asian population. This constitutes a
conventional form of institutionalised racism. We have evidence to
support our assertion that such ignorance, such a lack of
understanding has perpetuated and reinforced a series of myths held
of Asians generally, and of Asian footballers specifically. This is
6
7
SportScotland(2004). Sport and Ethnic Minority Communities: Aiming at Social Inclusion
Amnesty International (Scotland) (2004). Football in Context
particularly borne out in comments by clubs on levels of interest and
participation in football amongst Asians. The fact that so many
professional football clubs, quite confidently assert that interest and
participation levels in football amongst British Asians is low is just one
example of the way in which false assumptions are made of Asian
footballers. The other overriding obsession amongst professional
football clubs seems to be that Asians generally do not conform to the
physical specifications required of professional footballers.’8
Covert racism in this form can be as equally detrimental to the
participation levels of ethnic minorities in football as the more overt
forms of discrimination. Similarly, the methodology of becoming a
professional footballer in Scotland tends to discriminate against
Scottish ethnic minority players. Systems of scouting and recruiting
young players are well established in this country and are completely
focused on non-ethnic communities. Clubs usually spot potential
players at a very young age with tried and tested scouting and feeder
networks. If a player is outside of these networks then he faces the
risk of being passed by. Even if an ethnic minority player is spotted at
a young age, their journey through the ranks will be more traumatic
than most due to their probable cultural isolation and lack of familiar
reference points and connections.
The lack of successful Scottish ethnic minorities who have come
through the Scottish football system creates a potential problem in
terms of participation. Until someone from a minority group truly
succeeds, there is a lack of a positive role model to encourage young
people. At present, it is too easy for young ethnic minority footballers
with potential to become apathetic and believe that success is
unattainable. What ethnic minority football in Scotland really needs is
a trailblazer to encourage others and show an example of what can
be achieved. Distressingly, the current status quo in Scotland is that
ethnic minority football is becoming increasingly separate and
unequal from the mainstream.
8
Bains, J and Patel, R.(1996) Asians Can’t Play Football. Birmingham:D-Zine
Discussion of Solutions to Increase Participation
As outlined earlier, there are many initiatives and changes underway
to make Scottish football a more equal and inclusive sport. The 42
Scottish league clubs have recently adopted UEFA’s Ten Point Plan
that sets out protocols that national associations and clubs should
adopt as the framework for action to challenge racism:
1. Issue a statement saying the club will not tolerate racism,
spelling out action it will take against those engaged in racist
chanting. The statement should be printed in all match
programmes and displayed permanently and prominently
around the ground;
2. Make public address announcements condemning racist
chanting at matches;
3. Make it a condition for season ticket holders that they do not
take part in racist abuse;
4. Take action to prevent the sale of racist literature inside and
around the ground;
5. Take disciplinary action against players who engage in racist
abuse;
6. Contact other clubs to make sure they understand the club’s
policy on racism;
7. Encourage a common strategy between stewards and police for
dealing with racist abuse;
8. Remove all racist graffiti from the ground as a matter of
urgency;
9. Adopt an equal opportunities policy in relation to employment
and service provision;
10.
Work with all the other groups and agencies, such as the
players’ union, supporters, schools, voluntary organisations,
youth clubs sponsors, local authorities, local businesses and
police, to develop pro-active programmes and make progress
to raise awareness of campaign to eliminate racial abuse and
discrimination. (Uefa 2005)
This framework should eventually help to erode any vestiges of
discrimination left in the Scottish game at a National and Club level. It
is up to bodies such as the SFA to ensure this doctrine is adhered to
whilst doing everything that it can to promote participation levels in
the game in ethnic minority communities. Football Clubs should also
be doing as much work as possible to promote Scottish ethnic
minorities participation in football. An example of good practise, and
something that can be built upon, is the sponsoring of the U.K Asian
Football Championships by Glasgow Celtic and Glasgow Rangers.
This type of event helps to raise the awareness of ethnic minority
football and can only result in increased participation in the future.
The current Show Racism the Red Card Campaign and others like it
should further increase the likelihood in the future of Scottish ethnic
minorities becoming more active in Scottish professional football. Its
programme to spotlight racism, provide positive ethnic role models
and educate the young should help to eliminate discrimination and
make future football success for Scottish ethnic minorities a more
realistic outcome. The awareness and acceptance of cultural
differences that these programs promote are designed to have an
impact on broader Scottish society. It is only when they start having
the desired effect that we will see a positive change on the
participation levels of Scottish ethnic minorities in football. The
catalyst that could really accelerate the process would be the
emergence of a Scottish ethnic minority player at the very pinnacle of
the professional game.
Conclusions
In this labour market study I have attempted to ascertain the causal
factors behind the low levels of participation experienced by Scottish
ethnic minorities in the context of Scottish Professional football. I
started out by outlining the historical context of Scottish ethnic
minority footballers and evidenced the almost total lack of
participation at this current time. I then evidenced my research
methodology and elaborated on my limited findings. Subsequently, I
utilised my research to attempt to elaborate on what factors were
inhibiting Scottish ethnic minority involvement with Scottish
professional football and attempted to ascertain what measures are
being taken to improve the current situation. In conclusion, for
Scottish football to live up to its moniker as ‘The National Game’, it
needs to continue the progress being made and ensure that every
group that resides within this nation is able to participate effectively
and equally.
Appendix 2
E-mailed questionnaire utilised to elicit qualitative data.
What barriers, if any, do you believe to be causal factors in
inhibiting the participation of Scottish ethnic minorities in
professional football?
Do you think that racism is still prevalent in the professional game?
What measures can be taken to increase the participation and
success of Scottish Ethnic minorities in professional football?
References
Garland, J and Rowe, M. (2001) Racism and Anti-Racism in Football.
London:Palgrave
SportScotland(2004). Sport and Ethnic Minority Communities: Aiming
at Social Inclusion
Amnesty International (Scotland) (2004). Football in Context
Bains, J and Patel, R.(1996) Asians Can’t Play Football.
Birmingham:D-Zine
Black, L. (2001). The Changing Face Of Football. Oxford: Berg
Websites
http://www.archives.gla.ac.uk/gallery/awatson/default.html
http://www.scotland.gov.uk
www.uefa.com
www.scottishfa.co.uk
www.scotprem.com
http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/home.htm