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Senseof Place
An ElusiveConcept
That Is Finding a Home in
EcosystemManagement
"Sense
ofplace"
offers
resource
managers
a
way
toidentify
andrespond
totheemotional
and
spiritual
bonds
people
form
withcertain
spaces.
Weexamine
reasons
fortheincreasing
interest
intheconcept
andoffer
fourbroad
recommendations
forapplying
sense
ofplace
toecosystem
management.
Byinitiating
a
discussion
about
sense
ofplace,
managers
can
build
aworking
relationship
with
the
relationship
with citizens
thatreflects
public
thatreflects
thecomplex
web
of
webof lifestyles,
meanunmetchallenges
associated the complex
lifestyles,
meanings,
andsocial
relations
relations
endemic
to a
with ecosystem
management ings,andsocial
endemic
toaplace.
Sense
of placecanbe
is treatingpeopleasa rightfulpartof placeor resource.
language
thateases
discusecosystems.
In manyecosystem
mod- theshared
and problems
els,despiteoccasional
rhetoricto the sionsof salientissues
By Daniel R.Williamsand
undercontrary,thereis still a tendency
to andthataffirmstheprinciples
Susan I. Stewart
treatpeopleasautonomous
individual lyingecosystem
management.
agents
outside
theecosystem,
at besta
Thoughthetermsense
ofplace
resourceof valuesto be incorporated mains elusive,ill defined, and contromanagement
conintodecisions,
at worstagents
of cata- versialasa resource
strophicdisturbance
of an otherwise cept, it is turning up in a surprising
smoothlyrunning system.Many number of academic discussions of
scholarshavemadesuggestions
for ecosystem
management(Grumbine
bringing
social
concepts
andvariables 1992; Samsonand Knopf 1996) as
intoecosystem
models
andassessments
wellasin recentecosystem
assessments
(Driveret al. 1996;ForceandMachlis (USDA 1996). Similarly,in popular
1997). Far fewer have demonstrated mediaanda widerange
of publicpolhow day-to-dayland management icyissues,
Spretnak
(1997)sees
a growof placeandremightchange
whenpeoplearerecog- ing interestin sense
nizedaspartof theecosystem.
latedconcepts,
like community,
place
Sense
ofplace
isa concept
withgreat attachments,
symbolic
meanings,
and
potential
forbridging
thegapbetween spiritual
values.
Forherthissuggests
a
the science
of ecosystems
and their resurgence
of therealityof placethat
management
(Mitchell et al. 1993; haslongbeendenied,
suppressed,
and
Brandenburgand Carroll 1995; devalued
bya mechanistic
viewof naSchroeder
1996).Butironically,
sense ture. At this point, with so many
of placeissometimes
seenasa barrier groups
readytojointhesense-of-place
to sensibleresourcemanagement.parade,we think it is usefulto ask
What is meantby
Managers
who haveheardthe term three questions:
of placein itsvarious
formsand
usedby peopleopposed
to proposed sense
changes
wronglyconclude
that sense guises?
Why is it increasingly
in the
of placeis an argumentfor keeping hearts of citizens and on the minds of
themfromdoingtheirjob.In fact,the landmanagers?
Andfinally,
whatdoes
conceptoffersmanagers
a wayto an- it suggest
aboutmanaging
ecosystems?
ticipate,identify,andrespond
to the
bonds
people
formwithplaces.
Byini- DefiningSenseof Place
tiating a discussion
about senseof
Therearemanydefinitions
anddeplace,managers
canbuilda working scriptions
of sense
of place.Asa geo-
ne
of
the
great
and
largely
18 May 1998
graphicterm,placecommonlyrefers or dimensions
thatcapturethemulti- At Devil'sTower National Monument,
to a centerof meaningandfeltvalue: faceted
natureandcomplexity
of what the NationalParkServiceis caughtbeof place: tween a rock and a holy place:the site
"Whatbegins
asundifferentiated
space wewill referto hereassense
becomes
placewhenweendowit with
ß theemotional
bondsthatpeople is sacred to Native Americans and a
value"(Tuan1977,p. 6). A seemingly formwithplaces
(atvarious
geographic destination of choice for rock climbers.
overtimeandwith familiarity Thefeelingsassociatedwith places
straightforward
approach
to defining scales)
havealwaysbeena part of our relasenseof placeis to think of it asthe with thoseplaces;
tionship
with the natural world but at
collection
of meanings,
beliefs,symß thestrongly
feltvalues,
meanings,
an
intuitive
level-as somethingmany
and
symbols
that
are
hard
to
identify
bols,values,
andfeelings
thatindividualsor groups
associate
witha particu- or know(andhardto quantify),espe- peopleunderstoodbut did not talk
lar locality.In somerecentecosystem ciallyif one is an "outsider"
or unfa- about or name. Awareness of sense of
assessments,
this collection of meanplacehasincreasedin proportionto
miliarwith theplace;
ß thevaluedqualities
of a placethat globalizationand our capacityto make
ingsandfeelings
isreduced
to a single
attributeandviewedasjustanother evenan "insider"may not be con- and remake placesvirtually overnight.
oneof manypotential
attitudes,
values, sciously
awareof untiltheyarethreatandbeliefs
people
mightholdtowarda ened or lost;
of places
andemphasizes
people's
tenresource
(USDA 1996).The problem
ß thesetof placemeanings
thatare dencyto formstrong
emotional
bonds
with theserudimentary
definitions
is activelyandcontinuously
constructed withplaces.
It isworthnotingthatalthey tend to diminishthe holistic, and reconstructed within individual
thoughwe emphasize
theimportance
emotive,
social,
andcontextual
quality minds, shared cultures, and social of recognizing
"local"meanings,
these
should not be limited to residents'
of theidea,robbing
it of theveryrich- practices;
and
ß the awareness
of the cultural, his- sense
nessthatisitsappeal.
ofplace.Manytourists
andreguPlace,
placeattachment,
andsense
of torical, and spatialcontextwithin lar visitors
havestrongattachments
to
placeareusedbyvarious
writersto de- whichmeanings,
It isnotthepossessors
of meanvalues,
andsocial
in- places.
scribe similar but not identical conteractions are formed.
ingsthatarelocal,but the m6anings
cepts.Dra•ing fromthisdiversity
of
Mostpeoplewhointer}ect
sense-of- themselves.
Similarly,"insiders"are
intonaturalresource
is- thosewhoknowwhata placemeans
thought(Tuan 1977; Hester1985; placeconcerns
to
Agnewand Duncan 1989; Shamai sues
probably
havein mindsomething a group.Toooftenplanners
are"out1991; Altman and Low 1992; Groat
akinto oneof thefirstthreeinterpreta- side"the socialcirclesthat assign
1995;Harvey1996;Relph1997),we tions.Senseof place,for mostpeople, meaning
to a placeandtherefore
tend
suggest
several
overlapping
approaches refers
to therichandvariedmeanings to discount them.
Journal
of Forestry 19
of socialprocesses.
Bothecosystemscanbeinvoked
bydiverse
andconflictandplaces
aredynamic,
witha past,a inggroups---local
commodity
haterests
of place is the reason
present,
anda future.
seeking
to maintain
a wayof life,enviSense
of placeisshaped
byincreas- ronmentalists
embracingLeopold's
behind commonly
inglycomplexsocial,economic,
and landethic,NativeAmericans
focusing
political
processes.
At
a
local
level,
on
the
spiritual
or
transcendent
qualiaccepted urban
place
meanings
areless
stable
thanthey tiesinherentin a place,recreation
and
planning tools, such
oncewere,beingbuffeted
byincreas- wilderness
enthusiasts
voicingconinglydistant
anduncontrollable
social cernsaboutnewor nonconforming
as zoning ordinances,
andeconomic
forces.
Meanings
have uses,
andheritage
preservationists
trybecome more individualized and
ing
to
maintain
landscape
character
or
regional tourism
boundaries
havebecome
moreperme- restore
presetdement
ecological
condiable.In addition,
a sense
of placethat tions. Such sentiments are sometimes
marketing authorities,
at one time may havebeenlargely dismissed
asthemerelycosmetic
orroand regulations on
shaped
andmaintained
bycommunity manticconcerns
of designers,
nature
insiders
isnowincreasingly
subject
to lovers,andheritageenthusiasts.
Yet
architectural styles.
more distantmarket and political evenwhatplanners
andscientists
put
forces.
forward
asa data-driven
description
of
Thelasttwodimensions,
emphasiz- Forexample,
tourism,urbanflight, a placein theformof a scientific
ashagthesocial
processes
thatcreate
and retirement
migration,andeconomic sessment
is itselfanothercompeting
transform
places,
describe
aspects
often development
increasingly
challenge
or sense
of thatplace.
overlooked in natural resource mancontest
traditional
meanings
of many
Within forestplanningdebates
agement.
Theyexpandsense
of place communities.
Forlong-timeresidents those various sentiments whether
beyondits commonconception
asa thisoftenmeans
thatanidentitybased localornonlocal
in origin,
neworlong
hard-to-defineattitude,value,or belief onagriculture,
forestry,
or ranchhag
is established---are
all legitimate,real,
to include the social and historical
beingchallenged
by newerresidents and stronglyfelt and an important
processes
by whichplacemeanings
are andoutsiders'
meanings
andusesof source
ofpolitical
conflict.
Competing
constructed,
negotiated,
andpolitically surrounding
naturallandscapes.
As placemeanings
shouldnot be discontested.
Understood
assomething theydevelop
theirownsense
of place, missed
because
theydonotconform
to
sociallyproduced,
sense
of placebe- thenewcomers
maybecome
strongly someexpert's
technical
sense
of place.
to thenaturallandscape
of an Rathertheymustbeacknowledged,
comesanalogous
to conceptions
of attached
if
ecosystems
as dynamicand open- areawithoutbeingsocially
andhistor- not embraced,
for resource
manageended.That is,justasecosystems
are icallyrootedin theplaceor commu- ment to succeed.
constituted
bybioecological
processes,nity(McCoolandMartin1994).
Giventhemanydimensions
of the The Popularity of Place
soplaces
arecreated
andtakeon particularformsandmeanings
asa result concept,
competing
senses
of a place
Whyin anageofscientific
managementhassucha seemingly
nonscientificconcept
become
a popularrefrain
in environmental
disputes?
Though
thetermsense
ofplacehasbeenwidely
usedin geography
and architecture
since
thecarly1970s,thegrowing
emphasison ecosystem
management
seems
tohaveamplified
theinterest
in
theconcept.
Onereason
foritspresent
appealisthatit captures
therichvariety of humanrelationships
to resources,
lands,landscapes,
andecosys-
Protecting a sense
Is Mount
t
Rushmore a monument
Americandemocracyand Manifest
Destinyor a symbolof the colonization
and oppressionof indigenouspeoples?
In suchstronglyfelt values,meanings,
and symbols,we are discovering
a way
to expressour senseof this placeor
that communityin languagewe canall
share and understand.
20 May 1998
to
names
thathavemeaning
only
temsthat multiple-use
utilitarianism orderto studythemleavemanypeo- utopian
marketing
specialist.
with a sense to thedeveloper's
andotherearlierapproaches
to man- ple,layandprofessional,
Multiplenames
forsingleplaces-agement
failedto include.In essence, thatthelargerwhole,theplaceitself,
datingfromearliereventsor uses,or
theshiftto ecosystem
management
has has somehow been lost. This reaction
to a largeror smaller
area-broughta corresponding
shiftaway was described in the Forest Service's referring
from economic definitions of humanowncritiqueof thefirstroundof forest reflectthemanymeanings
theyhave.
environmentrelationshipstoward planning
(Larson
etal. 1990).Though Decidingwhichnameismostappromoreholisticperspectives
oftenem- ecosystem management attempts to priatein a givencontextrequires
some
is apbodiedin thetermsense
of place.
put silvicultural
and forestmanage- thought.Not everyplace-name
intoa broader
spatial
and propriate
A sociological
explanation
for the mentscience
in everysituation,
asa Forest
context,it hasnot fullyad- Servicedistrictrangerstationedin
appearance
of senseof placecanbe historical
Alaska once learned.
foundin globalization
andtheacceler- dressed the richness of human meanatingpaceof changein society.
The ingsandrelationships
to thelandthat
The rangerwentto thevillageof
look and layoutof mostAmerican peopleexpress
andwantto seerepre- Kake, a Native Alaskanvillageon
Island,to talkwithvillagers
communities
haveundergone
rapid sentedin theplanningprocess.
Sense Kuprenof
actionwithimplicachange
in recentdecades.
Concern
for of place,in contrast,
canencompass abouta proposed
sense
of placehasrisenin proportion bothnaturalandsocialhistory.
tionsfor Saginaw
Bay.Althoughthe
to thespread
of mass
cultureandconproposal
wasa modest
onewithlittle
sumption
throughentertainment
and In Day-to-Day Management
potentialimpact,themeetingturned
retail goliathslike Toshiba,Time
Ourrecommendations
forapplying intoa long,hostile
event.Neartheend
Warner, and Wal-Mart. Think about
senseof placein ecosystem
manage- of theday,a villagemanapproached
howWal-Martalonehasrearranged mentarenot reallynew.Most canbe the rangerandofferedto tell him a
theretaillandscapes
of Americain the characterized
ascommonknowledge story.The rangerdeclined,having
past10 years.The social,technologi- amongexperienced
managers,
espe- spentthe daybearingthe brunt of
cal,andeconomic
forces
of globaliza- ciallythosewhoareknownas"good much criticismand animosityfrom
tion have weakened local distinctivepeople-persons."
What is new is the meetingparticipants.
The man perness,many people say, and with unifyingthemeof sense
of place--the sisted,however,and told the ranger
cheaper
transportation
andnewinfor- ideathatplaces
havemeaningto peo- that no one had ever referred to their
Bayuntilthegunship
mation technologies
we experience ple. We believethat by puttingthe bayasSaginaw
morepartsof theworldthrough
inter- human bond with nature in the foreSaginaw
anchored
therein the late
nationaltrade,travel,and the media.
Kake,killingmany
ground,
ratherthantreating
it asanin- 1800sandshelled
he said,callit Foul
Ironically,
thoseforces
of homoge- teresting
but insignificant
featureof people.Villagers,
nization
havemadeplacemoreimpor- thebackground
forresource
planning, DogBay,a reference
to thechum,or
tant, not less(Harvey1996;Mander managers
canbeginto givethe rela- "fouldog,"salmon
run.The ranger's
and Goldsmith 1996). What were tionship
between
peopleandtheland repeated
reference
to Saginaw
Bayhad
attentionit re- setvillagers
mostly taken-for-granted,
subcon- thecareful,systematic
on edgeandsouredthe
scious
meanings
of a placecometo the quiresanddeserves.
meeting.
Knowing
andusingcommon
surface
andseemthreatened
by nearly
place-names
in conjunc1. Knowandusethevarietyoflocal or traditional
everyproposed
changeto the local place-names.
Virtuallyeveryplacehasa tionwith formalnamesandlegaldelandscape.
Effortsto introducenew name,whethera roadside
especially
in communicasignpro- scriptions,
landuses whether
themeparks,pris- claimsit or not. Namingthings-- tionswiththepublic,signals
thatmanons,wildlifepreserves,
timberharvests, Adam's
task-•isourwayof organizing agers
respect
thetiespeoplehaveto a
landexchanges,
or shopping
malls-- thoughts
abouttheworldaroundus, place.
become
symbols
of external
threatsto and anyonewho knowsan areaand
2. Communicate
management
plans
the localsenseof place(Appleyard talks to others about it has a name for in locally
recognized,
place-specific
terms.
1979).Suchplansexpress
thesense
of it. Arbitrarilychanging
a place-name Usinglocalplace-names
haspractical
placedefinedby an outsider--the
sci- canbeasoffensive
value.The spatial
aschanging
theap- aswell assymbolic
of thelandscape.
The name units usedfor resourceanalysisand
entist,government
official,corporate pearance
developer,
or special
interest
group-- itselfisa powerful
linkbetween
people planningrarelyfollowsocialboundand thusrepresent
the powerof the andplace,symbolizing
thehistoryand aries(e.g.,counties,
townships).
Inoutsider over the local.
meaningof the place.When a new stead,biophysical
characteristics
guide
Another reason for the interest in
owneror managerchanges
a place- definitionof boundaries,
resulting
in
sense
of placeis themechanistic
view name, the communitymay assume plansthatreferto management
areas
of nature that dominates our technothatmanyotherchanges
willfollowin by number,ratherthan to placesby
logicalsociety
(Spretnak
1997).Treat- itswake.Housing
developers
invokea name.The human-createdfeatures,the
and incredulity landscape,
its socialhistory,scenic
ingnatureasa collection
of products mix of apprehension
or commodities to be sold and isolatfromlocalresidents
whenovernight, beauty,communityidentity,family
ing properties
of the environment
in places
arerenamed,
oftenwith exotic, heritage,
andspiritualvalues--allare
Journalof Forestry
When
natural
resource
scientistsand planners
prepare a sciencebased assessment
of
a forest, their plan is
itself a sense of that
place--a sense no
less valid than
the
meanings ascribed to
the same forest by
residents
and tourists.
an abstract
setof resources
with many
potentialuses.Instead,peopletendto
focustheirconcerns
onthefateof specificplaces.
The dangerof thinking
andplanningin abstract
termsis the
possibility
thatthese
place-specific
featureswill beoverlooked.
Forexample,
whenclearcutting
isproposed
andobjectionsareraised,thereis almostalwaysreference
to whattheclearcut
is
next to, where it can be seenfrom, or
why that particularstandis not like
any otherstandin the forest.All of
thesearesocial,place-specific
characteristics
thatmightnotbeevident
from
biophysical
maps.Forthisreason,
it is
imperative
thatmanagers
writeplans
and conveymanagement
ideasin
termsof notonlywhatcouldbedone,
but where.
been citizen involvement in land and
resourcedecisions,but the successof
recentgrassroots
politicalactionhas
given many individuals,especially
thosewho speakas local residents
concerned about their local commu-
nity,newpowerandlegitimacy.
4. Payclose
attentiontoplacesthat
havespecial
butdif•rentmeanings
to
di•rent groups.
Localpolitics
isnever
morecomplexthanwhenmorethan
onegroupclaimsto be representing
localinterests.
People
become
attached
to particular
places
foravarietyof reasons,
including
scenic
beauty,
spiritual
meaning,andpersonalor socialhistory. Peopleand groupscan be attachedto the sameplacebut for differentreasons.
Overlapping
meanings
createspecialchallenges,
even for
managers
who are sensitive
to place
meanings.
The recentcontroversy
overDevil's
TowerNationalMonumentis a good
example
of a publicsitewith incompatiblemeanings
to different
groups.
stripped
awayto simplifybiophysical 3. Understand
thepolitics
ofplaces.
analysis.
At somepoint,managers
need The adage"allpoliticsis local"is anto putthesehumanfeatures
backinto otherwayof sayingthatwhatis pertheirplans
tomakethemrecognizable,sonal,local,andimmediate
to people
familiar, and real.
iswhattheycareabout,acton,andexComputermappingoffersman- pectothersto act on. The extentto
agersa new,powerfulway to show whichpolicies
andactions
arecontro- There is no inherent conflict between
plansin a place-specific
format.With versialvariesfromplaceto place.If a the Native Americans who treasure
computers,
mapscanbeconstructed
in placeis especially
scenic
or spiritually promontories
for theirsacred
signifilayers,
orsetsof spatially
specific
infor- significant
or wasthesiteof an event cance in oral tradition and the rock
mation.Anycombination
of theselay- thathasdeepmeaning
to thecommu- climbers
wholovechallenging
climberscanbedisplayed,
including
a layer nity,anyproposed
change
or manage- ing routes--untilboth groupsfind
scrutinized. theirvalues
that represents
placemeanings.
Fea- mentactionwill beclosely
in thesameplace.
turessuchasspecialplaces,spiritual To knowthepoliticsof an issue,one
Suchconflictsarenot alwayscenmeanings,
traditionalgathering
areas, mustknowthepolitics
of theplace.
teredonuseversus
symbolism.
Mount
and communities of interest have been
In the environmentalism of the
Rushmore
hasrichsymbolic
meaning
mapped.Eventhe human-builtand 1990s,thereisa growing
tendency
for for both Native Americans,who seeit
human-used
featuresfound on any peopleto claimownership
of anyissue asa symbolof colonization
andoproadmaphelpshowthesocialcontext thataffects
them,whetheror notleg- pression,
andthosewhorevereit asa
withinwhichlandmanagement
is oc- islatures,
corporations,
courts,
orgov- shrineto theAmerican
experiment
in
curring.Therearecertainlyresource ernmentagencies
wouldtraditionally constitutionaldemocracy.Conflicts
management
areaswherea map of havegiventhempowerto influence overplacemeanings
highlightthefuhuman influencewould be nearly outcomes(Williams and Methany tility of tryingto formulateresource
blank;butthat,too,tellsussomething 1995).The often-expressed
sentiment plansarmedonlywith theutilizationaboutthe land and the relationship "not in my backyard"
simplyreem- maximizing
principles
of resource
subpeoplehavewith it. Mapsarefunda- phasizes
thecentrality
of placein pol- stitutionandallocative
efficiency.
mentallysocialandhuman.If people itics.Theenvironmental
justice
moveThe relativescarcityof natural
are included in our consideration of
mentisa primeexample
of thegrow- places,
andthe feelingthat theyget
howbestto manage
theland,theirim- ingpowerof placemeanings
everyyear,addsto theinin Amer- morescarce
print on the landneedsto be repre- icanpolitics.Low-income
andminor- tensityof debates
surrounding
their
sented
onmaps.
ity residents,
tiredof bearing
a dispro- management
and use.Someof the
An emphasison place-specificportionateshareof pollution and sameurgency
seenin thequestto prothinkingis perhapsmostimportant other environmental costs,have suc- tectendangered
species
is manifested
when communicating
with others ceeded
in changing
thegovernment'sin debates
overmanaging
special,
rare
about managementplans (Dean rulesforsitinga noxious
facility(Har- places.
Bothstemfroma fearof irrev1994). Many peoplewho careabout vey 1996). The changes
effectively ocable
loss.In planningandmanagethe future of the forest do not feel
givethe powerto definetheir spaces ment,rareplaces
aresometimes
inforcomfortable
treatingtheecosystem
as backto residents.
There hasalways mally flaggedfor specialattention,
May 1998
justastheEndangered
Species
Actrequiresidentification
andinventoryof
threatened
andendangered
species.
A
moreformaleffort to identifyand
monitor rare places,in particular
thosehighlyvaluedbyseveral
groups,
would be useful.
8:381-98.
support
sense-of-place
considerations. andNaturalResources
DDa,•,
D.J.1994.
Computerized
tools
forparticipatory
naBecause
sense
ofplaceisnotthesole
tional
forest
planning.
Journal
ofForestry
92(2):3740.
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ofanyonegroup,interest,
or DRIVER,B.L., C.J.MANNING,andG.L. PETERSON.
philosophy,
it doesnotnecessarily
give
1996.Toward
better
integration
ofthesocial
andbiocomponents
ofecosystems
management.
In
thosewhodislikea proposed
change physical
Natural
resource
management:
The
human
dimension,
new powerto stopit (althoughthe
ed.A. Ewert,109-27. Boulder,CO: WestviewPress.
powerof language
cannotbedenied). FORCE,
J.E.,andG. M•CHLIS.
1997.Thehumaneco-
Environmental activists who advocate
The Context
system
partII: Social
indicators
in ecosystem
man-
of Resources
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theappearance
of a placeto
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L.,
ed.
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Giving
places
meaning:
Readings
in
Sense
of placeandecosystem
man- restore
ecosystem
healthmaydojustas
environmentalpsychology.
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Academic
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agement
havemuchin commonasre- muchto violate
people's
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Places
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for thesakeof enhancing
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