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ICES C.M. 1994
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Bi~logical Oceanography Co~ttee
.SUSTAiNABILITY, niOMASS YiELDS, AND I-IEALTI-I OF
COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS: AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECfIVE
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Natiormi Marine Fisheries service
Northeast Fisheries SCience Center
. Narragansett Laboratory ,.
Narragansett; RI 02882~1199
ABSTRACf
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Tbe sustainabiIitY, heaIth, and bioinäss yields of marine resources cari ,be eIthanced
by the implementation of a more holiSticand ecologically baSed strategy for aSsessing,
morutonng, and nianaging coastal ecosysiems than haS been generally practiced dui-irig most
of this century. A major milestone waS reached iri advandng toward a more ecologicaIly
based management practice when the majoritY of co3.5tal nationS cif tne world endorsed the
declaration made at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
,(UNCED) in 1992, to prevent, reduce, arid control degradation of the marine environment,
so as to maintain and ,iinprove its life-support and produCiive capacities; develop arid',
increase the potential of marine Iiving resources to meet hum~m nutritional needs, as weIl
as social, econoffiic, and development goals; and promote the integrated mamlgenierit and
sustriiriable development
coastal areaS and the marine erivircirirrient. Marine resource
problems underscored by UNCED are bCing addressed. ' Post-UNCED Iarge marine
ecosystem-scale progr3.ms for advanceriIent toward resotirce sustainabiIity, ecosystem healtn,
and econörilicaIly' viable bioniass yields are now being implemented. Tbe prograins are
being supported by iriternational agencies aS part of an effort to couple recent advances in
ecological monitoririg, management, and' stress mitigaÜon strategies betWeen, developed
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countries, ari~ Iesser develope~ countries ar<?und the margirn of the' ocean basins.
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ECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY
Human intervention and dimate change are sources of additional vaiiabiIit}i in the
natural productivity of coastal marine ecosystems.. "Within the near shore areas and
extending seaward riround the margins of the global huid 'maSses, cOaStal ecosystems -are
being' subjeCted to increased stress from toxic effluents, habitat degradation, excessive
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nutrient loadings, h3.rmful aIgal. blooms, emergent diseases, fallout trom! aerosol
containinants, and episodic losses of living manne resources from pollution effects, and
overeXploitation. Tbe lang-term sustairiability of cOaStal ecosystems as sources for healthy
economies appears to be diritinishing. A groWing awareness that the quality of th.e global
cmistal ecosystt~ms are being adversely impacted by multiple driving forces has acceleräted
cfforts to assess, monitor, and mitigaie coastal stressors froman ecosystem perspeC:tive. The
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commissiori (IOC) of the United l'fations EducationaI,
Scicntific, andCultural Organization (UNESCO) is encouraging coastal nations to establish
national programs for assessing arid riioriitoring coastal ecosystems, so as to enhance the
ability of national and regional management organizations to develop and iinplement
effective remedial programs for irriproving the quality of degraded ecosystemS (IOC, 1992).
This encouragement follows from,thc significant milestone richieved in July 1992 With the
adoption by a majority of cOaStal countries of f611ow-on ac.tions· to the United Nations
Conference on Environment and pevelopment (UNCED). The UNCEDdeclaratioriS on
the OCeall explicitly recommended that nations of thc globe: (1) preVent, reduce, alul control
degradation 01 the manne enviromnent so as to inairitain and iniprove its lile-suppOrl iuul
productive capadties,' (2) develop and increase the potential 01 marine living resources to meet
human nutritional needs, as weil as sodal, economic, and development goals,' und (3) promote
the ititegrated management and sustainable' development 0/ coastal areas iuul the marine
environment. UNCED aIso recognized the general importance of capacity building, as \\Tell
ris' the importrint linkagc betwceri momtoring the changing "states or "h'ealth" of coastal
cco'syst~ins und the achieve~entof marine resmlrce sustainabilit}r and developmentril goals.
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Tlle conceptof sustmnability äS applh~d to marine' resources and ecosystems hris been
the subject' of recent debate. In anärticl~ puhlished in Sde1l:ce, Ludwig et al~ (1993) argue .
that basic research in ecology to be coriducted in support· of the Sustainable Biosphere .
Iri~tiative of the Ecological Socieij of AIrierica (LuDchenco et al., 1991) may. be leäding to
complacency, .as the most pressing issues ,being addressed to avoid further degradation of .
global renewable resources are increasing human populations and excessive use of resources, '
not necessarily more scieritific research. They support their argumerits ,vith dtationS of:
(1) theapparerit faHures infisheries management to' inairitain ecologicaIly balanced stock
viability in the face of increasing fishing ,dfort, and (2) tha~ clainis of sustairiability were
suspect as populations are overexploited because scientific consensus on resource status is
difficult to obtairi. Rosenbcrg et al. (1993) dispute the Ludwig ct al. (1993):assertions and
mairitain that "fisheries management provides positive examples of sustainable resource use
ririd Iessoris fcir future improvemeiits."They arguc that "there is asound, theoretical and
empirical basis, for su'stairiablc' use of marine resources, tliat overexploitatiOIl is not
irieVitable, or the result of inadeqmite scientific advice, and that sustainable: use of
, reriewable resources is an obtainable nmnagement objective." In the development of a
sustainablc harvesting mariagemerit regime, Rosenberg ci a1.(1993) emphasize the need for .
taking into account, erivironmental conditions and exploitation rates by implementirig
appropririic moriitoririg prograrns to, ideritify änd track thc' shirts inpopulaÜon responses.
TheY' conclude that sustairiable developrrient marine resources is achievable if sCientific
advice hased on biologieal, social, arid econonllc cörniderätionS is an integraI part of -thc
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development of poÜcies for renewable resource use. This conclusion is in agreemerit with
Mangel et aI. (1993), who afgric that "sustainable use" of rencwable resolJrces is achievable
when humans use living compone#ts of ecosysieins in ways thut allow natural processes to
replace what is used. Under these conditions, the ecosystem "will renew itself indefinitely
and human use \vill be sustainable." ,
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An ecosysterns approach for ecologists interested in contributing toward a
scientifically based· strategy for resource sustainability is giveri by Holling (1993). He
emphasizes the need to recognize that there is
emerging science that is muItidiscipIinary
and focused on populations and ecosystems on large spätial scales tliat incIude
socioeconoffiic considerations in plaiuiing arid iinplementation appropriate to the issue of
resource sustairiability. . Tbe more traditiorial, but nonetheless important, disciplinary
oriented ecological studies can ,coritribute more' to resource sustainability when they are
conducted within a framework of science at ,the level of orgaruzation that is rriultidisciplinriry
and focused on issues affeCting populations ,Within .an ecosysierriS perspective. ,The
international GLOBEC regional programs (Skjoldal ei al., 1993), the International
Geosphere-Biosphere, Program on the Land-Ocearis Interaction in the cciastal Zone
Program (IGBP, 1994) arid Joint Global Ocean FluX Study (IGBP, 1994) are examples of
the newly emerging large-scale multidisciplinary marine ecosystem scierice. Linkages
between these process-oriented studies and the more applied studies that are focused on
supporting the sustainribility of manne resources are being encouraged by national and
international funding agencies concerned with the sustainability ofnatural resources: In this
regard, ' the' .defiriition of süStainabilitY .used by' HoIIing arid' camed forwärd in tbis
perspective fOCuses Oll. ecosystem studies in support of "the social and economic
development· of a region with the goals to invest in the maintenarice and restöration of
critical ecosystem furictioris, to synthesize arid make accessible kiiowledge imd uriderstanding
for economies, and to. develop and communicate the understariding that provides a
foundation of trust for citizens" (HoIIing, 1993).
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,in practice, therefore, it would be important to establish insÜtuticinaJ.arrangements '
for ensudng that äppropriate soeioeconomic consideratiorui are exercised in the application
of science in support of regimes aimeo at the stistainability. öf ,reriewable resources.
Regional exarnples of this approach to ecosystem sustainability can be found in the
objectives of the Coriveniion for the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine Resources
(ScuIly, 1993), and the lniriisterial declarationS for the prcitection of the Black Sea (Hey &
Mce, 1993), and the North Sea (North Sea TaSk Force, 1991). Tbe Black Sea Declaration
refers specifically to the objectives of ,UNCED Agenda 21, .Chapter 17, that. calls for
integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areris, marine enviromriental
protection, sustainable use and conservation of living resources under national jurisdiction;
and the need for addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the. marine
enviroriment and strengtheriing of international arid regional cooperation rind coordiniltion
(Hey & Mee, 1993).' AIi effort to develop a mariagement system for the Barents Sea
Ecosystem that provides stronger linkS between science and socioecononUc considerations
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froin an ecosysteins perSpective is under corisideration (Eikeland, 1992).
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Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Concept
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. All essential component of
ecosystem management regime ·is the inclusion of a
scientifically based sirategy that monitors arid assesses the changing staÜ~s and health of the
ecosystem by tracking key biological and environmenial parameters. From this perspective,
marine ecosystem assessment and monitoring is defined as a component of a management
system that includes: (1) regulaiory, (2) institutional, and (3) decision-makirig Iaspects
relating to marine ecosystems, and therefore, would include a range of activities ne'eded to
provide mamigeinerit information about ecosystem conditions, contaminarits, and resources
at risk. Based on experiences in' North America, Europe, and elsewhere, the core
comp<ment of a comprehensive coastal ecosysteni assessment und momtoring system that
corisists of conceptual and numerical rriodelling capabilit}r, laboratory and field research,
time-series measurements, data analysis, synthesis and interpretation, arid a capacity.. for
initiating the effort with preliminary or scoping studies is most likely to be successful (NRC,
1990). The priricipal characteristie of a corriprehensive ecosysteni assessment arid
monitoring program is the integration and coordiriation of the comporient parts of the effor!
into a total ecosystenis approach designed to produee scientifie information iri support of
coastal resources management. .
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. This strategy is consistent With the conclusion that monitoring efforts at the regional
seale need to be strengthened to improve understanding of broader-seale trends in marine .
ecosystein qualit}'. Several recerit reports that address these issues have been corisulted in
the prejlaration oi this perspective, including the United Nations' report on the status of the
global marine environment (GESAMP, 1990), the IOC's,report on tlie Global.Oeean
Observing System (GOOS) presented to the UNCED in 1992 (IOC, 1992), the reports of
several internatiOIlal commissions; including the. Helsinki Commission (HELCOM), the
Oslo-Paris,Commission (OSPARCOM), the North Sea Task Force (NSTF, 1991), and the
report of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) \Vorking Group
on Environmental Assessments and Moriitoring Strategies (\VGEAMS, 1992),
MÜigating actions' to reduce stress on marine ecosystenis are required to ensure the
long-term sustainability of marine resources. Tbe principles adopted by coastal states under
the terms of the United Nations Converitiori for the Law of tbc Sea (UNCLOS) have,been
inierpreted as supportive of the management of living marine resources and coastal habitats
from an ecosysterns perspeetive (Belsky, 1986, 1989). However, at present
single
internatiorial inStitutioIl has beeri empowered to monitor the changing ecological states of
rriaririe ecosystems arid to reconcile the needs of iridividual nations with .those: of the
communitY of nations in taking appropriate rnitigation actions (IUCN, 1990; Myers~ 1990).
In this regard, the need for a regional approach to implement research, monit6drig, ~ and
stress .mitigation in support of marine resources development and sustairiability at less than .
the global level has been recognized from a strategie perspective (Taylor & Groorrl, 1989;
Malone, 1991; Hey, 1992). Achieveriü~ni of UNCED goals will require the implementaiicin
of a new paradigm aimed at greater integration of the highly sectorized approach to solving .
problems of coastal habitat degradation, marine pollutiori, and, the overexploitaiion of
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nsherü~s than haS been practiced in ocean inonitorIng and management by coastal nations
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dudrig most of this, centUIY~, It Will
require a working partnership betWeen the
developed and developing nations of the world. Such an approach; if aided by external
ftinding sources and based on principles of ecology and sustairiable development would
represent a significant advance to efforts of limited scope rind application presently aimed
in this dircction in developing countfies.
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An ecological framework that may be useftil iri a~hieving the UNCED objectives is
the large marine ecosystem concept (LME).. LMEs are areas which are being subjeeted to
increasing stress fram growing exploitation of fish and other renewable resourees, eOaStal
zone damage, habitat losses, river bashi runoff, dumping of urban \vasies, and fallout from
aerosol contaminarits.. The LMEs are regions of ocean space encompässing coastal areas
from river basins and estuaries on out to the sea\vard boundary of continental sheIves and
the seaward margins of coastal crirrent systems. Tbey are relatively large ocean regions
characterized by distind, bathymetry, hydrography, productivity, and trophically dependent .
populations. (Tbe theory, measurement, arid modelling relevant to monitonng the changing
states of LMEs are imbedded in reports On ecosystemS With multiple steady states, rind on
the pattern formation arid spatial diffusion withinecosystems (Hollirig, 1973, 1986, 1993;
Piilun; 1984; AAAS, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993; Beddington, 1986; Mangel, 1991; LeViri,
1993).
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From the ecologieaI perspective, the concept that 'critical processes controlling the
structure and function of biologicäI coirnitimities can best be 'addressed on a regional basis '
(Rieklefs, 1987) has been applied to ocean space in the utilizatiori of marine ecosysterns as
distirict global UIuts for marine research, monitoring, and management. Tbe coricept of
monitoring and inanaging reriewable resources from an LME perspective has beeri the topiC
of a senes of national rind international syrilposia and \vorkShops initiated iri 1984, wherein
the geographic extent of each region is defined on the basis of ecologieal cdteria (Table 1).
Tbe spawning and feeding migrations of fish communities within the LMEs have evolved
in response to the distinct bathymetry, hydrography, productivitJ, and trophodynamies of the
system. As the spatial dimension of biologieal and physicril processes directly infltiencing
the success of populatiori renewals within the regions lmder consideration are,large, the
term large marine ecosystem iS used to characterize thein. Several LMEs are semi-enclosed,
. including the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Mediterrrinean Sea, and the Criribbeari Seä.
\Vithin the extent of LMEs, domairis 01- subsystems cari be characterized. Forexample, the
Adriritic Sea is a subsystem 0[. the Mediterranean Sea LME. In other LMEs geographie
limits are defined by the scope of continental shelves. Among these are the U.S. NortheäSt
Continental Shelf arid its four subsystems-the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, Southern New
England, and the Mid-Atlantie Bight (Sherman et al., 1988), the Icelandie Shelf arid the
Northwestern Australian Shelf. For LMEs with narrow shelf areas and well-defined
, currents, the seaward b01.indaries are limited to the areas affeeted bycoastal currents, rather
thari relying on the 200-mile EXclusive Economie Zone (EEZ) limits. Aniorig the coastriI
current LMEs are the Hriinboldt CUrrent, California Current, Calmry CUrrent, Kuroshio
Current, and Benguela Currerit. It the cOaStal ecosystems adjacent to the land niasses tliat
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are being stressed from, habitat degradation, pollution, and overeXpI?itation of 'manne
resources. Nearly 95% of the usable annual global biomaSs )rield of fish and other living
marine resources is produced in 49 LMEs identified within, and in same cases ex~ending
beyond, the boundaries of the EEZs of coastal nationS located arourid the margins of the
ocean basins (Figiire 1).'
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. Levels of primary productiori are persistently higher around the margins of the ocean .
basins than for the open-ocean pelagic areas of the globe. It is \vithin niese coastal ocean
areas that polltition has its greatest impact on natural prodtictivity cycles~ incltiding
eutfophication from high nitrogen and phosphorus effluent froin estuaries; The presence
of toxins in poorly treated sewage discharge, harmful algaI blooms, ririd lass of wetland
nursery areas. to coastal development. are also ecosystem-Ievel problems that need to oe
addressed (GESAMP, 1990). Within several of the coastal LMEs;overfishing has,catised
biomriss flips rimong the dominant pelagie componerits of fish coriunimities resultirig in
multimillion metrie ton lasses in potential biomass )rield (Fogarty et al:, 1991). The oiomass
flip, wherein adaminant species rapidly drops to a lciw level to be succeeded by another ..
species, can generate caseading effects ~miong other important components of the ecosystem,
including marine birds (Powers· & Brown, 1987), manne mammals, and zooplankton.
(Overholtz & Nicohis, 1979; Payrie et al.; 1990). Recent studies implicate climate .arid
naturaI environmental changes ris prime dfiving forces of variability in fish populatiori levels
(Kawasaki et al., 1991; Bakun, 1993; Alheit & Bemal, 1993). The growing awareriess that
biomass yields are being influeneed bymultiple drivirig forces in marine ecosystenis arourid
the globe has. accelerated effoftS to broaden riloriitoring strategies ta encompass food cham
dynamies and the effects of enViionrnental perturbations and pollution on living marine'
resources from an ecosystem perspective.
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PERTURBATIONS AND DRIVING FORCES IN LMEs
The LMEs that tagether produ~e approxiniately.95% cif theannual global fisheries .
biomass yield are listed in Table 2. Although the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) world fishery statistics have shown an upward trend in annual bioIriass
yields for the past three decades (1960 through 1990), it is largely the C!upeoids that are
increasing in abundance (FAO, 1?92). A large number of stockS have been and continüe
to be fished at levels aoove ,lang-term sustllinability. The variations in abimdarice levels
among the species constittiting the annual global biomass yields are iridicative of chänging
..regional ecosystem states ca~sed by natural environrnental perturbationS, overexploitation,
arid pollution. Although the sp~itial dimensions of LMEs. preclude a strletly eontrolled
eXperimental approach to ,their study, they are perfectly anienable to the comparative
method o'f science as described by Bakuri (1993).
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An effort was initiated in 1984 to convene aseries of symposia and coriferences to
provide an internatiorial forum for bringing forWard the results of multidisciplinary syniheses
of available information on the principal driving forees of. change in biomass yields for
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selected LMEs.', Sirice 1984, case studies investigating t~e major causes of large-scale
perturbations in biomass yields of 29 LMEs have been completed (Table 1). Tbe principal
driving forces for biomass changes .vary among ecosystems. Results of the ease stridies,
including generalizations on principal, secoridary, arid tertiary driving forces, are given iri five
volumes published in cooperation with the American ASsociation for the Advanceinerit of
Science. A list of the priricipal investigators and contributors to the volumes is given iri
Table 1. In same systems, natural, erivirorimental perturbation is the principal driver of
charige in fisheries biorriass production (e.g.; Oyashio, Kuroshio, ßeriguela, and Humboldt
Current Ecosystems)." In'several shelf ecosystems, overexploitation is the principal ~;ource
of changes in the stmcture of the fish community and biomass yields (e.g., Gulf of Thailand,
Nürtheast Shelf of the U.S., Yellow Sea Ecosysterns). And iri other ecosystems, the
pfincipal cause for· structural change in the fish coriimunity is the, effect of coastal
eutrophication (e.g., ßlack Sea, riorthwest AdriatiC Sea EcosYstems).· For several other
systems, the evidence for causes of obserVed chäriges in biomass )rieId are inconclusive (e.g.,
East ßering Sen, Nofth Sea EcosystemS).
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CORE ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING MODULES FOR LMEs
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Considerati~n sh~uld be given" to the use of standard and intercalibrated protocols
for measuring changing ecological states of the watersheds, bays, estuaries, coastal waters
arid biomass yields of· LMEs. Long-term historical time series data on living maririe
resources (some up tri 40 years), coupled with nieasured or inferred long-terrii pollutarit
loading histones, have proven useful for relating the results of intensive monitoring to the
quaritification of "cause and effect meehanisins affecting the ehanging ecological staies of
LMEs. Tempor3.1· and spaHal seales influencing biological. production . arid changing
ecological sÜltes in marine ecosystems have been the topic of a nuffiber of theoretical and
empirical studies.' The selectiori of seale in any study is reläted to the proeesses urider ...
investigation. An excellent treatment of this topic ean be found in Steele (1988). He
indieates thai in relatiori to general ecology of the sen, the best krioWn work iri imiriiie
population dynairiics iricludes' studies by, Schaefer (1954), and Beverton & Holt (1957),
folIoWing the earlier pioneering approach ofLindemann (1942). Hriwever, Us noted by
models is unsuitable for, eonsideration oftemporal or spatial
. Steele (1988), this array
variability iIi the rieeari~' A heuristic projeetion waS produeed by Steele (1988) to illustrate
seales of irriportance in monitoring pelagic components of the ecosystem iricluding
phytoplarikton; zooplaOkton,fish, frontal processes, and short-term but hirge-area episodic
effects (Figure 2). Tbe LME approach defines a spatial domain based on ecologic3.1 .
prindples arid, thereby, proVides a basis for focused temporal rind spathil scieritific research
and morutoring efforts in support of management aimed at the long:term productivit}r and
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A inonitoi-irig strategy for measuring the changing states of· LMEs sUitable for .
impleinentaticiri on the coasts of. developing countries was recominended by a pane.l·Of
international experts that met at Cornell University iri July 1991 (Sherinan & Laughlin;
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1992). Tbe strategy included: (1) f(~gular trawling using a straiiried random shmpling
design to' measure ehanges in the fish coriUnunity; (2) plankton suiveys to meaSure
biofeedback 'to perturbations at the phiriktonic trophic level;,and (3) measurements on the
cffccts of pollution.
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Changes i~' the biodlversity, abundance, rind distribution of the fish populdticins of
thc North Sea arid the Northeast Coritinental Shelf of the United States havc beeri assessed
using tra\vling techniques for several decades (AZarovitz & GrossIein, 1987). Tbc' surveys
have beeil eondueted by relatively large research vessels. However, staridardized sampling ,
procedures, wheri deployed from srriall ,:calibrated trawlers, ean provide important
information on diverse chariges in fish species. Tbe fish catch proVides biological sampies
for population demographics arid irophic interaciionS involving studies of age arid growth,
fecundity, and predator-prey dynamics (leES, 1991), data and the eollection of sampies to
monitor coastal pollution. Sampies of trawl-caught fish can be used iri studies of
contamiriant burdens and to monitor pathologieal eonditioris that may be associated with
coasial pollution. Tbe trawlers ean also be used ri.s platfofmS for obtriining water, sediment,
and benthic sampies for monitoring han11fu1 algal bloomS, virus vecicirs of disease,
eutrophicati?nj anoXia, arid changes in benthic community studies.
Plankton Module
" The plankton ofLMEseun be measured by deployirig Continuous Plarikton Recorder
(CPR) systems from commercial vessels' of opportullitY (Glover, 1967).The advanced
plankton recorders can be fitied with sensors for temperatilre" salinity, chlorophyll,
nitrate/nitrite, petroleum hydrocarbcins, light, bioluminescence, und prirriary productivity
(Aiken, 1981; Aiken & Bellan, 1990; 'Villiains & Aiken, 1990; UNESCO, 1992; \VilIiams,
1993), providing the means to monitor changes in phytoplankton, zooplailkion, pdmary'
productivity, species corriposition and dominance, and long-term changes in the physical and
nutrient characterisiics of the LME, as well as longer te'rm changes relating to the
biofeedback of the plankton to the stress of climate change (Colebrook, 1986;,. DiekSon et
aL, 1988; Jossi & Smith, 1990; Hayes et aL, 1993; Jossi & Goulet, 1993; Williams, 1993).
Plankton monitoring using the CPR system is at preserit eXpanding in the North Atlriritic '
(Colebrook ei al., 1991).
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Polltition arid Ecosystem Health Effeets Module
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. The i~~i~~entationof the protocols for International Mussei \Vateh, Status rind
Trends of Contaminant Loading in Fish Tissues rind Sediments (White arid Robertson, in
press), and methods for monitoring the frequency and extent of harrIlful algal blooms
(Smayda, 1991; IGC, 1993a) arid emergerit veetors of diseuse (Epstein; 1993) provides the
ecosystem health module of the balanced LME cOre" monitoring effort. .
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,SOCIOECONOMIC COMPONENTS
A distiriguishing feature of, the LME approacll is its emphasis on practical
applications of its scientific findings .in managing the LME and,on the explicit integratiori _
of economic analysis witll the scientific research to assure that prospective management
-measures rirecost-effective~ Economists rind policy analysts will need to work closely with '
ecologists and other scientists to identify and evaluate management options that are both
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scientifically credible and economically practical.
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TheeconomIc and mariagement information is to be closely integrated with the
endosed science throughorit, and is designed to respond ridaptively to enhanced scientific
information. This component of the LME approachto manne resources management,
developed by James Broadus~ Director, of the Marine Policy Center, \Voods Hole
Oceanographic Institution. It consists of six interrelated elements:
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(1) Humanforcingfwlctions--The natural stärÜng poirit is ageneraÜzed
cllaracterization of the ways iri which human activities affect the natural
marine system rind the exPected sensitivity of these forcing functions to various
types and levels of human activitY. Population dynamics, cOaStal development,
and land-use practices in the system's drainage basin are clear examples.
Workintegraiing the efforts ofnatural and social scientists should concentrate
further on resolving apparent effects (such as eutrophicatioil-associated red
tide events oi changing fish popuhition structures) that are confounded by
Cyc1es oi- complex dynamics in the natural system itself. Progress is possible,
too, in achieving better characterizations of the way in which human forcing
. is rilediated ,by alternate management optionS. Emphasis should be on
isolatirig and quantifying those forcing activities (sewage discllarge, agriculturaI
runoff, fishing effort) likely to be expressed most prominently in effectS on the
natural system.
.
- (2) 'A;sessing Impacts-Another natural ,element in the systemIc
approach is to estirilate imd even predict the ecoriomic impacts of unrnanaged
degradation in the natural system rind, obversely, the expected beriefits of
management ineaSures. Such assessment is a form of standard benefit-cost
analysis, but it requires scientific information to describe the effects of human
forcirig so they may be quantified in econoniic termS. lriitial analysis should
focus on the social and econorriic. sectors likely to experience the largest
impacts: .fishing, aquaculture, public health, recr~ation, an~ tourism~ ,', '
.
(3) Feedbackr-7Collaborative effort should' aiso :be . devoted to
identifying and estimating the feedbackS of economic impacts into the human
forcing funetion: Extensive coastal eutrophication, for example, associated
'with cOuStal development and runoff, might reduce the süitability of coastal
rireas. for aquaculture prodtiction arid increase its exposure to red tide
,
.
I
I
10
damage, thereby putting a premium on capture fishery and increasing pressur~
on wild stocks. .SiriUlar feedbackS, both negative arid positive, should be
adrlressed and expressed in eeo~omie terms ror all the major seetors; .
I
. "
. (4) Ecosystem Service/I'lze Value ojBioqiversity--Special eonsideration
should be given to improved knowledge of hmv the natural system generates
economic values. Many valuable services provided by natural systems are not
traded in markets or included iri plannirig evaluations, so extra eare must be
made to assure that they are not sacrifieed through ignorance. The serVices
provided by eoastal wetlands as nurseries for fisheries, natural pollution filters~ .'
.. and storm Duffers is a well-known example that has partieiI1ar relevance to
coastal reclarimtion activities. Other examples' are more subtIe, iricluding the
. , importance' of predator-prey, relationships and the possibilitj' of 105ing
unrecognized "keystone" species in a valuable ecosystem. Experienee suggests
that gro\ving eeonomicvalues on aesthetie and reereational/tourism amenities
inay be, expeeted in the LME setting ris .weIl. A variety of sourees of
econonlle value ririsingfrom the natural diversity of the LME should be
identified and assessed in regard to existing uses and potential manageineIlt·
innovations.. . '
.. ' (5) Environmental Economies--Many of theelerrients deseribed in this
section eomprisetopics in Environmental Economics. SpecialistS in that field
'attempt to estimate the econoriUe values (both use and iion-use) assoda.ted
with' environmental resourees and to identify the coriditionS aSsociated with
. their optimal management (to derive the greatest net benefitS for society). Ari
'important elem~nt is' the collaboration betWeen scholars from developing.
riations and those from the developed countries to transfer and adapt to the
, needs and techniques of Environmental Economics.
' ,
.
.
'
,
(6) Integrated AsseSslnent--The ultimate objective is the integration of .
aIl the results achieved above, With scientifie characterizations of the LME,
into a comprehensive analytie framework (decision support enviroriment) that
will permit integrated. rissessment of human praetices,. effeets, and
management optionS in the region. ,Such work is at the forefrorit of recent
research on the human dimensions of globalerivironmental change as weIl as '
research on human interactions with natural coastal/marine systems.' ',' ;
s;ste~ appro~ch
män~gement' LME~ de~i~ted
Th~
A
to the
of
is
in Table3.
LMEs
represent the link between loeal events (e.g.~ fishing, pollution, environmental disturbance)
oCcUri-ing on the daily-to-seaSonal temporal scale and tbeir effects on living marine resources
arid the more ubiquitous global effectS ofclimate ehanges,on the multideeadal timescaIe.
,The regional and temporal foeus of season io decade is eonsistent wiih the, evolved spawrnng
rind feedirig migrations of thc fishes. ,These migrations are seasonal and oCcUr over
hundreds to thousands of kilometers within tbe unique physieal and biological eharaet'eristies
,I
I
l
I,
•
..
.~
11
of the regional LME to ,which,they have adapted. As'the fisheries repres~ni most cif the
usable. biomass yiel~ ?f the LMEs and fish populations cornist of several age classes, it
follows that measiIres of variability in .growth, recruitment, and mortality should be
conducted over multiyear timescales. Similarly, changes in populations of marine mammals
rind marine bird spedes will require multiple-year iime-series observations. Consideration
of ihe naturally occurring enviranmental events and. the human-induced perturbations,
iriduding coastal pollution, affecting demography of the populations within the ecosystem
is riecessaiy. Based on sch~ritific iriferences of the principal causes of variability in
abundance arid with due consideration to socioeconomic needs, mariagemerit options fram
an ecosysterris perspective can be considered for implementation. Tbe final elemeilt in the
, system, with regard. to the concept of resource maintenance and sustairied yield, is the
feedback loop that allows for evaluation of the effects of management actionS that consider'
both fisheries and ecosystem health.
PRESENT AND FUTURE ECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY EFFORTS
Tbe "core;' assessment and ritonitodng approach to LME research arid moriitoring
pravides a conceptual framework for collaboration in process-oi-iented studies coriducted by .
the National Science Foundation (NSF)-NOAA sponsored GLOBal acean ECosysteins
dyriamics (GLOBEC) program in. the United States arid, the Iriternational GLOBEC
Prograin. Developing LME rrionitaring strategies are. cairijmtible With the proposed Global .
Ocean Observing System (GOOS) of the IOC arid those modules to be focused on liVing
marine resources and ecosystein health (IOC, 1993b).
•
Efforts are underway to place greater foeus on the lirikage betWeen scientific arid
societal .rieeds and the utility of lang-term, broad-area cOaStal' ocean aSsessment and
monitoring studies aimed at enhancing the lang-term sustairiability of madne resources. If
the proposition for tiine-series monitoririg of changing ecosysteni staÜ~s is to be realized in
this period of shrinking budgets, it would be in the best iriterests of scierice and socio~.
economic interests to be. tightly liriked in the erideavar. The basis for the lirikage
eniphasi~ed not orily iri the UNCED declaratiorn on the oceariS, but also iri aseries of
recent developments revolving around: (1) global climate change; (2) legal precedent for
intenüitional cooperation implicit in the Law of the Sea; (3) a grawing interest in nüuine
ecosystems as regional units for marine research, monitoring, and management; (4) the
effort of the IOC to encourage the implementation of a GOOS; arid (5) rene~.ved national
iriterestS in improVing the health of degraded cOaStal ecosystems. In the United Stätes, this
interest has resulted iri the enactinent of recerit legishition mandating the establishment of .
a naticinal coastal monitoring program for assessing the changing states of "coastal ecosystem
health" and reporting the findings to the U.S. Congress a recurring biannuiU resporiSibilitY.
NOAA arid EPA (NCMA; 1992).
was·
as
of
I
A more holistic approach to cOaSt~l ecosystems assessment arid inonltodrig ris a
means far fostering international cooperaticin in achieving sustainabilÜy objectives for
iI
I
12
I
marine resOlirces between the more developed and less developed countries is presently
underway; The 49 hirge marine ecosystems that have been identified for comparaÜve
sustainabiIit)r stiIdies are located around the margins of the ocean basins and extend over
the coastlines of several countries. Theyare in regions of the wodd ocean most affected by
overexj>loitation, polhition, and habitat degradation, and collectively represent target areas
for Il1itigation effort, particularly in the stressed coastal ecosystems adjacent to centers of
population de~ities in developing countries. The, Global Environment Facility (qEF) of
the \Vorld Bank, in collaboration \vith NOAA, IOC, UNEP, FAO, Natural Environment
Research Council (NERC), the Sir Alister I-Iardy Fouridation for Ocean Science, and
scientists from nationai marine resource agencies cif severaI of the more developed couritries
(e.g., Belgium, Cririada, Denmark, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway,and the
United Kirigdoin). are prepared to assist developing nations in impleinenting coastal
ecosystem assessment, monitonng, and mitigation, programs aimed at providing a scientific
basis for improving the prospects for the long-term sustainable development of marine
resources (Shenrian et al., 1992). Two of these programs are iri the advanced planning
stage, one for the Gulf of Guinea Ecosystem, that brings together into a single program
effort five coririiries of the region--Ivory Coast; Ghana, Nigeria; Benin, and Cameroon. Tbe
other prograIl1 is being developed jointly by marine specialists from China rind Korea for
the Yellow Sea large marine ecosystem (\Vu & Qiu, 1993). Tbe first of these projects is
scheduled to be implemerited in the Gulf of Guinea LME in summer, 1994.
\
•
•
c
l
·
.'
A cOIl1prehensive regional project to assess, monitor, and Initigatestresses on the
Black Sea Ecosystem is being supported by the GEF (Mee, 1992). 1t appears,that marine
resource managers and scientists are being responsive to implementing mitigaticin actions
for marine resources at risk from overexploitation and habitat degradation arid that
initiatives iri support of a more comprehenSive systems approach for ensudng thc long-term
sustainability.of madne resoufces are likely to be underway in marine ecosysteIlls of Mrica,
.
and A S i a . ·
The growing partnership . among. funding agencies, marine ecologists, and
socicieconomic interests marks an important step toward realizrition of the UNCED
dedaration aimed at reversing the declining condition of coastal ecosystems, and enhancing
thc long-term sustainability of marine resources.
.
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\Vii, B.; 'and J. Qiu. i993.' Yellow Sea Fisheries: From singl~ arid multi-species
management towards ecosysteins managemerit. J. Oeeanogr. Huanghai and Bohai
Seas 11(1):13-17.
.
•
19
Table 1. List of 29 Large Marine Ecosystems and sub-syst~r.ns for which syntheses relatirig'
to principal, secondary, or tertiary driving forces controlling variability in biomass yields have
been completed by February 1993.
Large Marine Ecosystem
V.S. Northeast Continental Shelf
D.S. Southeast Contiriental Shelf
Gulf of Mexico
California Current
e
Eastern Bering Shelf
\Vest Greenland Shelf
Norwegian Sea
Barents Sea
Volume No.*
1
4
4
2
4
1
4
5
1
3
3
2
4
'.
North Sea
Baltic Sea
Iberian Coastal
Mediterranean-Adriatic Sea
Canary Current
Gulf of Guinea
Benguela Current
Patagonian Shelf
Caribbean Sea
South China Sea-Gulf of Thailand
Yellow Sea
Sea of Okhotsk
Humboldt Current
Indonesia Seas-Banda Sea
Bay of Bengal
Antarctic Marine
Weddell Sea
Kuroshio Current
Oyashio Current
Great Barder Reef
South China Sea
1
1
2
5
5
5
2
5
3
2
2
5
5
3
5
1&5
3
2
2
2
5
5
Authors
M. Sissenwine
P. Falko\vski
J. Yoder
W~ J. Richards and M. F. McGowan
B. E. Brown et aI.
A MacCaIl
M.MuIIin
D. Bottom
L. Incze and J. D. Schumacher
H. Hovgaard and E. Buch
B. EIIertsen et al.
H. R. Skjoldal and F. Rey
V~ Borisov
N. Daan
G. KuIIenberg
T. Wyatt and G. Perez-Gandaras
G. Bombace
C. Bas
D. Binet and E. Marchal
RJ.M. CraWford et al.
A Bakun
W. J. Richards arid J. A Bohnsack
T. Piyakarnchana
Q. Tang
V. V. Kusnetsov
J. Alheit and P. Bemal
J. J. Zijlstra and M. A Baars
S. N. Dwivedi
R. T. Scully et al. ,
G. Hempel
M. Terazaki
T. Minoda
R. H~ Bradbury and C. N. Mundy
G. Kelleher
D. Pauly and V. Christensen
·Vol.l, Variability and Management ofLarge Manne Ecosystems, AAAS Seieeted Symposium 99, Westview Press. Boulder,
1986. 319 pp.
Vol. 2,.Biomass Yields and Geography oC Large Marine Ecosystems, AAAS Seleeted Symposium 111, Westview Press,
Doulder, CO, 1989. 493 pp.
' "
•
Vol. 3, Large Marine Ecosystems: Patterns, ProcesSeS. and Yields, AAAS Symposium, AAAS Press, w8shin&ton, Oe. 1990. '
242 pp.
,
'.
,'"
, '
"
Vol. 4, Food Chains, Yields, Models, and Management oe Large Marine Ecosystems, AAAS Symposium, Westview Press,
Boulder, CO. 1991.320 pp.
:
Vol. 5, Stress, Mitigation, and Sustainability oe Large Marine Ecosystems, AAAS Press, Washington, oe, 1993. 376 pp.
20
Table 2. Contributions by countryt and large marine ecosystem (LME) representing 95 percent of
the annual global catch in 1990.
I
Country
Percentage of"
world marine
nominal catch
LMEs producing
annual biomass
yield
Japan
12.25
Oyashio Current, Kuroshio Current;
Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow
Sea, East China Sea, W. Bering Sea,
E. Bering Sea, and Scotia Sea
USSR
11.37
Sea of Okhotsk, Barents Sea, Norwegian
Shelf, W. Bering Sea, E. Bering Sea, and
Scotia Sea
China
8.28
W. Bering Sea, Yellow Sea, E. China
Sea, and S. China Sea
Peru
8.27
Humboldt Current
USA
6.76
Northeast US Shelf, Southeast US Shelf,
Gulf of Mexico t California Current,
Gulf of Alaska, and E. Bering Sea
Chile
5.98
Humboldt Current
Cumulative
percentages
52.91
-----_.----------------.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Korea Republic
3.28F*
Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, E. China
Sea, and Kuroshio Current
Thailand
2.96F
South China Sea, and Indonesian Seas
India
2.78
Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea
Indonesia
2.76
Indonesian Seas
Norway
2.11
Norwegian Shelf and Barents Sea
Korea D. P. Rep.
1.98F
Sea of Japan and Yellow Sea
Philippines
1.96
S. China Sea, Sulu-Celebes Sea
Canada
1.90
Scotian Shelf, Northeast U.S.
Shelf, Newfoundland Shelf
IPercentages based on fish catch statistics from FAO 1990 Yearbookt vol. 70, FAOt 1992. Söme
fraction of the catch made by fishing operations of long-distance trawlers may be actually caught
in other LMEs.
*F = Percentage calculated using FAO estimate from available sources of information.
•
21
Table 2 continued.
Country
•
Percentage of
world marine
nominal catch
LMEs producing
annual biomass
yield
Cumulative
percentages
Ieeland
1.82
Icelandic Shelf
Denmark
2.07
Baltic Sea and North Sea
Spain
1.73
Iberian Coastal Current and Canary Current
Mexico
1.46
Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico,
and California Current
France
1.03F
North Sea, Biscay-Celtic Shelf,
Mediterranean Sea
Viet Nam
0.74
South China Sea
Myanmar
0.72
Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea
Brazil
O.71F
Patagonian Shelf and Brazil Current
Malaysia
0.71F
Gulf of Thailand, Andaman Sea,
Indonesian Seas, and S. China Sea
UK-Scotland
0.70
North Sea
New Zealand
0.68
New Zealand Shelf Ecosystem
Morocco
0.68
Canary Current
Argentina
0.66
Patagonian Shelf
Italy
0.57
Mediterranean Sea
Netherlands
0.52
North Sea
Poland
0.52
Baltic Sea
Ecuador
0.47
Humboldt Current
Pakistan
0.44
Bay of Bengal
76.25
80.47
!Percentages based on fish catch statistics from FAD 1990 Yearbook, vol. 70, FAD, 1992. Same
fraction oi the catch made by fishing operations of long-distance trawlers may be actually caught
in other LMEs.
*F = Percentage calculated using FAD estimate from available sources of information.
22
Table 2 continued.
Country
Turkey
Percentage of
world marine
nominal catch
0.41
Germany (F.R. and N.L.) 0.41
LMEs producing
annual biomass
yield
Cumulative
percentages
Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea
Baltic Sea and Scotia Sea
Ghana
0.40
Gulf of Guinea
Portugal
0.39
Iberian Shelf and Canary Current
Venezuela
0.38
Caribbean Sea
Namibia
0.35
Benguela Current
Faeroe Islands
0.34
Faeroe Plateau
Senegal
0.34
Gulf of Guinea and Canary Current
Sweden
0.31
Baltic Sea
Bangladesh
031
Bay of Bengal
Ireland
0.28
Biscay-Celtic Shelf
Hong Kong
0.28
S. China Sea
Nigeria
0.26
Gulf of Guinea
Australia
0.25
N. Australian Shelf and Great Barrier Reef
Iran, I.R.
0.24F
Arabian Sea
UK Eng., Wales
0.21
North Sea
Cuba
0.20
Caribbean Sea
Panama
0.19
California Current and Caribbean Sea
Greenland
0.17
East Greenland Shelf, West Greenland Shelf
90.20
IPercentages based on fish catch statistics from FAO 1990 Yearbook, vol. 70, FAO, 1992. Same
fraction of the catch made by flShing operations of long-distance trawlers may be actually caught
in other LMEs.
*F = Percentage calculated using FAO estimate from available sources of information.
•
23
Table 2 continued.
Country
e
Percentage ofl
world marine
nominal catch
LMEs producing
annual biomass
yield
Sri Lanka
0.19
Bay of Bengal
Greece
0.16
Mediterranean Sea
Oman
0.15
Arabian Sea
Angola
0.12
Guinea Current, Angola Basin
United Arab Ern.
0.11
Arabian Sea
Cumulative
percentages
95.01
Ipercentages based on fish catch statistics from FAO 1990 Yearbook, vol. 70 FAO, 1992. Some
fraction of the catch made by fishing operations of long-distance trawlers may be actually caught
in other LMEs.
*F = Percentage calculated using FAO estimate from available sources of information.
24
Table 3. Key spatial and temporal scales and principal elements of a systems approach to the
research and management of large marine ecosystems.
1.
Spatial-Temporal Scales
SpatiaI
2.
3.
4.
Temporal
Millennia-Decadal
1.1
Global
(World Ocean)
1.2
Regional
Decadal-Seasonal
(Exclusive Economic Zones)
Large Marine Ecosystems
1.3
Local
Subsystems
SeasonaI-Daily
Pelagic Biogeographie
Research Elements
2.1
Spawning Strategies
2.2
Feeding Strategies
2.3
Productivity, Trophodynamics
2.4
Stock FluctuationsfRecruitmentfMortality
2.5
Natural Variability
(Hydrography, Currents, Water Masses, Weather)
2.6
Human Perturbations
(Fishing, Waste Disposal, Petrogenic Hydrocarbon Impacts; Toxic Effects,
Aerosol Contaminants, Eutrophication Effects, Pollution Effects, Viral Disease
Vectors)
Management Elements--Options and Advice--International, National, Local
3.1
Bioenvironmental and Socioeconomic Models
3.2
Management to Optimize Sustainable Fisheries Yields
3.3.
Mitigation of Pollution Stress; Improvement of Ecosystem "HeaIth"
Feedback Loop
4.1
Evaluation of Ecosystem "HeaIth"
4.2
Evaluation of Fisheries Status
4.3
Evaluation of Management Practices
•
25
".
40
"SOUlh Pacific OCC4n
SOIlIIi. .:t,{a",ic
Oc,o"
WORLD MAP OF LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS "
1.
2.
, .. ,
e
Eastem Bering Sea
Gulf o(Alaska
3.
California Current
4.
Gulf of California
MeXico
5. Gulf
6. Southeast US. Continental Shelf
7. Northeast U.S. Continental Shelf
8.
Scotian Shelf
NeWfoundland . Shelf
9.
10.
West Greenland Shelf
~ 11.
Insular Pacific--HaWaiian
12.
Canbbean "Sea
13.
Humboldt. Current
14.
Patagonian Sbelf
15.
ßrazil euITent ,
16.
Northeast Brazil Sbelf
17.
East GreeDlaiid Sbelf
18.
Iceland Shelf
19.
ßarcnts Sea ,
20. " Norwegian Shelf
21.
North Sea
22.
ßaltic Sea.
.'
Celtic-ßiscay . Shelf
23.
Iberian Coastal
24.
o(
Figure L
25.
26.
27.
28.
"29.
30:
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
" .36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43. ..
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
Boundarles of 49 large marine ecosystems.
Meclltcrranean Sea
ßlaCk Sea
Canary euITent
Guinea cUrrent
Bengue1a Current
Agllihäs CUITent
Somali COaStal CUrrcnt
Arabian Sea
Red' Sea
.
ßay of Bengal
South China Sea
Sulu-eelebes Seas
IndoneSian Seas
Northem Austrwati Sbelf
Great Barrier Reef
New ZCaland Shelf
East China Sea
Yellow Sea
Kuroshio Current.
Sc"li of Japan
OyasWo Current
Sea of" Okhotsk
West ßerUig Sea
Faroe Plateau
AIitärctic
26
1000
MM, F, B
100 -
(f)
>«
o
z
10
p
1.0
1.0
10.
100
1000
KILOMETERS
Figure 2. A simple set of scale relations for the food web P (phytoplankton), Z
(zooplankton), F (fish), MM (marine mammals), and B (birds). Two physical processes are
indicated by X, predictable fronts with small cross-front dimensions and (Y) weather events
occurring over relatively large scales. (Adapted from Steele, 1988.)