Topic 10: Information Organisation
10.1 Information Organisation
Information can be organised in Web formats in many
more ways than in print-based documents. One of the
identifying characteristics of the Web is its ability to
present information in a hypertext mode. A problem
facing the Web designer is the best way to organise
material so that it can be easily discovered and
accessed.
Hypermedia Forms
The different forms of hypermedia can be represented
by a continuum describing the nature of the linking
involved.
• At one end of the continuum, the links are minimal
and simply act to connect nodes in a specified
sequence. This form of hypermedia closely
resembles conventional text and is referred to as
linear. In its use, the reader is encouraged and in
most cases compelled to follow a set presentation
sequence. In hypermedia environments, there is
potential to create materials with varying degrees of
linearity.
• Further along the continuum, the links tend to form
a hierarchical structure, giving readers more
freedom in the choice of path through the materials.
• At the extreme, hypermedia can provide a totally
free information environment with multiple links
between associated nodes. In such environments,
readers are free to move between associated nodes
through referential links and very little structure is
imposed on them.
linear
hierarchical
strategies, it is evident that when the materials aim to
provide initial knowledge, for example, facts,
procedures and rules of discourse, linear linking is an
appropriate hypermedia form. For this type of
knowledge acquisition, it is appropriate to create
materials with a strong structure that present
information in a planned and considered fashion.
For higher levels of knowledge, for example,
developing an understanding of concepts and
principles, the less structured hierarchical and
referential linking are more appropriate. In these
instances, readers are guided by such factors as their
prior knowledge and readiness to assimilate new
material. When building on an existing knowledge
base, readers can benefit from the freedom to browse
and explore, to inquire and seek responses to their own
questions rather than following a pre-determined path
of instruction.
a. Linear Organisation
When information is organised in a linear fashion,
readers are expected to move through the information
base in a sequential fashion. Many textbooks are based
on a linear organisation with chapters and sections.
The sequence of the information is decided by an
author/instructional designer who judges the order in
which the material should be covered to facilitate
learning. But this doesn't prevent readers from
accessing the information in non-linear ways, for
example, though use of an index.
The way information is organised plays a strong part in
helping the reader retain what has being read. When
the information is presented in an organised and
structured fashion, the organisation helps the reader in
developing an understanding and overview of the
information. Information that has no structure is much
more difficult to retain.
referential
Figure 10.1 A continuum describing information
organisation in hypermedia.
The choice of information organisation for Web
materials depends on the nature of the intended
audience. For example, different organisation
strategies are needed for novices and experts.
When the instructional forms of hypermedia are
matched against the continuum describing instructional
Topic 11: Information Organisation
Figure 10.2
A Web document with a linear organisation strategy.
The pages are accessed by clicking next or back
buttons
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It is difficult to find Web materials that have a totally
linear organisation. While many are created as linear
files, most have indices and links enabling readers to
move freely within them. For example, the image
below shows a Web document whose first section
comprises an index with links to the various sections in
the document. The document can be browsed in a
linear fashion by scrolling or through the links placed
at the head of the document.
When designing Web documents of this form, it is
important to be aware of the following and to take
them into consideration:
• readers usually like to be able to scan and browse,
linear organisation prevents this;
• linear organisation can overwhelm readers with the
amount of material provided in one place;
• readers are not normally aware of how much
information exists below what can be seen on the
screen;
• clearly mark the beginning and end of the various
sections to alert the reader when the section is
complete.
• it is helpful include links at the end of each section
to take the user back to the index.
b. Hierarchical Organisation
Most Web documents tend to have a hierarchical form
due to the nature and scope of the information that they
contain. The information necessitates the use of
discrete pages and an organisation format to enable
readers to access the different pages. If there is a
significant body of information, there can be a large
number of pages organised in this way.
Figure 10.3 shows a Web page with an hierarchical
organisation structure. Various pages can be accessed
at will through an index. In this structure, to select a
new section or a new page requires the reader to move
back through the hierarchy to the index documents.
information base. Once within a section, users cannot
always move freely from one section to the next. They
are usually constrained to follow the tree structure and
to move back to the previous index in order to make a
new selection.
Such an organisation has several advantages:
• readers view the information base in its modular
form as a structured set of pages;
• readers can freely access any of the sections in the
site by appropriate index choices;
• readers are encouraged to use the documents in a
structured fashion;
• in any section, readers have a strong sense of their
place in the overall structure of the information
base; and
• this structure enables strong orientation support, an
aspect discussed in detail in the next section.
There is perhaps only one weakness in this
organisation structure. There is no overall indication
of the scope and size of the information base, and
readers must visit each page in turn to view the number
of sections each contains. In all other respects it serves
its purpose very well.
A common feature of most Web materials and
documents is links to related documents. In
hierarchical structures, links to related documents can
diminish the hierarchical barriers. Once a reader has
linked to an external document, there is no constraint
on other links that can be made. If external linking is
to be used in materials designed around a hierarchical
form, readers must be made aware of strategies that can
be used to return to the original document structure.
Perhaps the most common solution is to have readers
store the bookmark of the main index. This will
always enable them to return to a known position at
any time.
c. Referential Organisation
Information bases which use referential linking as an
organisation strategy are usually quite easy to create.
In most instances, designers search the WWW for sites
where related information is stored and then create a
document with a series of links to these sites. The
document shown below is of this type. It contains a
series of links to external sites and represents a vast
information base in which a reader can explore.
Figure 10.3
Web page with a hierarchical organisation strategy
In a system using a referential organisation scheme,
backtracking and relocating visited sites can become
problematic. Once a user has linked to an external site
and linked again from this external site, he or she is
effectively browsing in hyperspace. There is no
constraint on which links can be made and millions of
potential paths can be followed.
The use of the hierarchical organisation in the course
shown above restricts the movement of students in the
Topic 10:Information Organisation
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information systems just as there are many different
procedures in subway systems throughout the world. If
you think of potential users of any information systems
you design as foreign travellers, you will begin to
consider the necessary elements for a navigable
system.
a. Metaphors
Some Web sites use metaphorical interface to assist the
user to navigate. In such settings, a virtual setting is
used to organise the resources. Users access resources
by electing the most likely place (based on their real
life experiences).
Figure 10.4
A Web document with a referential organisation
strategy http://www.dlese.org an online library of earth
science resources.
Experienced users can store bookmarks and use the
back and forward options provided by the browser as a
navigation aid. As mentioned in the discussion of
hierarchical organisation, having readers store the
bookmark of a main document is one way to provide a
permanent link back to the main document.
Due to the extensive amount of information available
on the Web, referential mediabases in almost any
subject can be developed quite quickly. The Web
contains information on almost any topic known to
man and there are powerful search engines available to
locate relevant sites from which more focused inquires
can begin.
10.2 Navigation Elements
Figure 10.5 A metaphorical interface
Navigation is aided by the use of a virtual setting which
helps users to identify the location of resources.
b. Indices
Most Web pages use indices of some form to assist the
readers to discover where resources might be located
within the site. An index is usually place on the left of
the screen or sometimes in the headers and footers of
the screen.
The term navigation is used in the context of electronic
information systems to describe the processes and
means by which readers can move between
information nodes and gain some sense of their
orientation within the overall structure. Thus there are
two main aspects to navigation, one deals with having
a sense of location, orientation, and the other a sense of
how to change to a specific location, travel.
A good analogy to describe these two terms is to
consider a traveller using a subway system in a foreign
city. Once in the subway system, the traveller needs to
have some sense of where he or she is in relation to the
overall system. Once the traveller has this orientation,
there is also a need to be able to know how to move to
certain places. This involves such knowledge as where
lines intersect, how transfers are effected, how tickets
are purchased and how much they cost. A map provide
a means for orientation, (if it is in the right language).
Knowledge of local subway rules are needed to know
how to travel throughout the system.
There are many options available to the Web designer
to assist readers with orientation and travel through
Topic 10:Information Organisation
Figure 10.6 A Page Index
The index provides access to the various pages in tis
Web site.
c. site map
Most Web pages will provide a site map as a fallback
strategy to assist readers to find the page they are
seeking. The site map can be supplied as a series of
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organised links or as a concept map which displays the
organisation across subjects and topics.
Figure 10.7 A Site Map
A page to aid navigation showing site pages and their
organisation.
10.3 Orientation Elements
One of the major problems reported with the use of the
Web as an information source, is the orientation of the
reader within the information system. Orientation
describes the means by which users are able to identify
their current position in a system in relation to the
overall system.
Disorientation is a problem which is frequently
observed in studies of Web users. Disorientation
describes the state of users who have travelled within a
system and have no sense of place, position or the path
taken. Disorientation can have a number of associated
problems:
• disoriented users often have no sense of the scope
and extent of the information system and much of
the information is concealed from them;
• disoriented users cannot search and browse
purposefully and can end up wandering aimlessly;
and
• disoriented users spend much of their time on tasks
which have little learning prospect.
b. breadcrumbs
Breadcrumbs describe the use of link descriptions that
show the pages which haven accessed in a hierarchical
fashion to arrive at the current page. They typ[ically
show at the top of a Web page in an inconspicuous
fashion as an orientation aid. Normally the elements
within the breadcrumb are clickable and this aids
navigation within the site as well as orientation.
Fig 10.8 Breadcrumbs
An orientation strategy showing the trail used within a
Web site to arrive at the current page
c. Home Page
Most sites use a Home Page as a referent point and aid
to orientation. A link on every page to return the user
to the Home Page can assist in orientation in that it
helps users to orient themselves when needed.
Unfortunately this system does not always guarantee
the user will remain oriented.
d. Search Option
Some sites find it very hard to ensure user orientation
and ease of navigation. The use of a site map provides
a strong navigation support in that it enables the user to
locate pages, based not only on their titles and
placements but also through keyword searches on their
content. Search engines like Google support large
Web site design by enabling developers to include a
local Google search as a page element.
A number of strategies are available to the Web
developer to aid the user’s orientation within a Web
site.
a. Placement cues
In linear sequences, the use of bars or graphs can be
used to indicate the distance and placement of the
learner within an information system or document.
Such images are created as graphical elements and are
interspersed within documents to provide visual cues.
Topic 10:Information Organisation
Fig 10.9 Search Option
A Home Page with a search option enables users to
discover pages within the local Web site through
keyword searches.
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10.4 Copyright
Copyright is a form of legal protection for people who
express ideas and information in certain forms. The
most common forms are: writing, visual images, music
and moving images.
In Australia, there are a number of important aspects to
our copyright rules and regulations:
• Copyright protection is free and applies
automatically when material is created.
• There is no registration system in Australia under
the Australian Copyright Act.
• Copyright applies only to specific categories of
material.
• Copyright does not protect ideas, information,
styles or techniques.
• Copyright doesn’t last forever.
• There are no general exemptions from copyright
law for non-profit organisations or for personal use.
One important issue about copyright that needs to be
understood is that copyright only protects the materials
themselves and not the ideas they contain. For
example, a person breaches copyright when he or she
reproduces using a photocopier or scanner or camera a
musical score. Copyright is not breached if the musical
score if reproduced by a hand copy. The reason is that
be handcopying, the music, the actual copy has not
been violated (even though the ideas it contains have).
a. Copyright Protection
Copyright protects:
• textual material (“literary works”) such as journal
articles, novels, screenplays, poems, song lyrics and
reports;
• computer programs (a sub-category of “literary
works”);
• compilations (another sub-category of “literary
works”) such as anthologies, directories and
databases—the selection and arrangement of
material may be protected separately from the
individual items contained in the compilation;
• artistic works such as paintings, drawings,
cartoons, sculpture, craft work, photographs, maps
and plans;
• dramatic works such as choreography,
screenplays, plays and mime pieces;
• musical works: that is, the music itself, separately
from any lyrics or recording;
• cinematograph films: the visual images and
sounds in a film, video or DVD are protected
separately from any copyright in works recorded on
the film or video, such as scripts and music;
• sound recordings: the particular recording itself is
protected by copyright, in addition to, for example,
the music or story that is recorded;
• broadcasts: TV and radio broadcasters have a
copyright in their broadcast signals, which is
Topic 10:Information Organisation
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separate from the copyright in the films, music and
other material which they broadcast; and
published editions: publishers have copyright in
their typographical arrangements, which is separate
from the copyright in works reproduced in the
edition (such as poems or illustrations or music).
There are a lot of materials not protected by copyright
in Australia, but these may have other forms of
protection. For example:
• Names, titles and slogans are not copyright
protected but often have Trade Mark protection eg.
Coca Cola, Nike, McDonalds;
• People themselves are not protected. Someone can
take your photograph and reproduce it without
breaching copyright. Copyright prevents others
from using existing photographs without
permission but not new photographs. There are
however privacy laws that work in these instances.
Fig 10.9 Copyright
Using a computer music program to copy a musical
score does not infringe copyright. What is being copied
is not the image but the ideas.
b. Copyright Ownership
Copyright is considered to last from the time the
material is created until 70 years after the creator’s
death. This rule has exceptions though, and often the
copyright is extended by new legal owners of the copy.
Copyright is usually owned by the person who has
created the materials, eg an artist, a printing company,
a record company, a film studio. Often however these
people negotiate ownership of copyright with partners
etc. There are some interesting exceptions to this
general rule in the following cases.
•
•
•
Employees. Where a work is made by an employee
(rather than a freelancer) as part of that person’s
job, the employer will usually own copyright. For
staff journalists and photo-journalists, however,
while the employee will own most of the copyright,
the employee will usually own copyright for some
purposes (photocopying and publication in books).
Freelancers generally. Freelance creators will
usually own copyright in what they create.
Someone who pays for the work to be made can
generally use the work for the purposes for which it
was created, but may not be entitled to use it for
other purposes.
Freelance photographers, engravers and people
doing portraits. There are a number of rules for
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•
•
commissioned photographs, and which rule applies
depends on when the photo was taken, but if a
photograph was taken on or since 30 July 1998, the
photographer will own copyright unless the photo
was commissioned for a private or domestic
purpose. Someone who pays for the making of an
engraving or portrait will usually own copyright.
Films and sound recordings. The first owner of
copyright in a film is usually the person who
arranges for it to be made, or the person who paid
for it to be made. The first owner of copyright in a
sound recording is usually the person who paid for
the recording to be made.
A State, Territory or Federal Government will
usually own copyright in material created, or first
published by it or under its direction or control.
c. Infringing Copyright
There are many ways to infringe copyright and to be
liable for prosecution. Some infringements don’t even
involve copying. For example, copyright is infringed
when someone:
• Imports copyright materials eg. bringing home
cheap (and copied) DVDs from overseas;
• Making, selling or renting devices that are used to
hack, crack or mod chip. The law makes it illegal
for people to act in ways that can lead to
circumventing the digital protection on electronic
materials eg. MP3s, CDs etc. (a mod chip is a piece
of hardware used to circumvent the protection of
the digital source).
Copyright protects only one aspect of intellectual
property. Other protections exist though:
• Trademarks; names and symbols registered for
trade and commercial purposes
• Design laws; laws that protect basic design issues
eg. the shape of the Porsche 911;
• Confidential information; it is illegal to copy and
deal wit confidential information usually through
privacy law,
• Patents; patents protect ideas to protect them from
being copied. Patents must be registered for the
protection to be afforded.
precedents in the area of Internet linking and deep
linking. Deep linking occurs when a link in a Web site
is to a page deep within the Web site of another. The
potential problem with deep linking is that the link
avoids the Front Page, any advertising it contains and
any description of the page and its context.
Copyright law surrounding Web linking is not definite
yet and linking is not specifically stated within the
Copyright Act. Some court litigation in the area in the
United States is beginning to develop precedents that
suggest deep linking can be seen as a violation of
copyright. One big problem is that if the site is a a
commercial site, deep linking can create costs as well
as denying the provider of legitimate income because
the advertising material and hit counters have been
passed over.
The majority of sites on the Internet carry copyright
and usage statements outlining what forms of use are
permitted. Such statements are usually contained
within the site through a link in the footer of the Web
page labeled ‘terms and conditions’, ‘copyright’ or
similar. Generally speaking, permission should be
sought to deep link in to the content of an external
website.
(ii) Framing
The use of frames enables a developer to create a Web
page with a number of separate windows with a
different page displayed within a frame. When frames
are used, it can give a user the impression the material
contained within the frames originates from the host
site. When this is the case, the page can contravene the
Copyright Act.
Framing of pages and other sites can also be seen as a
violation of Moral Rights law as it can lead to false
attribution of ownership of the materials. When a page
opens in a frame, the impression that is given is that
owner of the frame is the owner of all the content being
displayed, which is often not the case. It is important
to ensure clarity of ownership in the materials between
the two sites. For this reason, links to other sites are
best made into new blank windows.
Copyright is an international issue and Australian
copyright is recognised in most overseas countries (and
Australia recognises the copyright of materials from
most overseas countries).
d. Copyright and the Web
The Web is one form of intellectual property and the
copyright rules apply to the Web and the underlying
materials as it does to others. One grey area of Web
copyright activity that is currently a copyright issues
relates to linking.
(i) Linking
Currently, particularly within the US, there are several
deep linking cases before the courts that will establish
Topic 10:Information Organisation
Fig 10.10 Frames
External pages opening in a frame can give the wrong
impression as to whom they belong.
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Links of Interest
Topic 10 Revision Questions
Suggestions for how to organise content on your
website.
http://www.logiko.com/page/contents.html
1. Describe the three strategies that can be used for
organising information in a hypermedia setting.
Guidelines from human-computer interface design
research
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/
summary.htm
2. What do you think would be the best strategy to
organise information for an online learning course?
3. What do you think would be the best strategy for
organising the information contained in an online
library?
Tips on designing accessible navigation.
http://www.netmechanic.com/news/vol5/accessibilit
y_no1.htm
4. Describe three strategies that can be used in Web
page design to aid the navigation of the user.
Information on navigational elements so as to reach a
balance between aesthetics and functionality.
http://www.wpdfd.com/wpdnav.htm
5. Describe three strategies that can be used in Web
site design to assist the user to orient him/herself
within a Web site. .
Explores Website Architecture - Website Navigation
http://www.avwebvisions.com/site-navigation.html
6. In a Web site, is a site map a navigation aid or an
orientation aid? Explain your answer.
Tips on web-site navigation.
http://www.buildwebsite4u.com/building/websitenavigation.shtml
7. Describe the concept of copyright and to what it
applies?
Ideas on how to navigate your website and not loose
your audience.
http://www.webstyleguide.com/interface/navigate.ht
ml
12 Website Design Decisions Your Business or
Organization Will Need to Make
http://www.wilsonweb.com/articles/12design.htm
8. If a person uses a logo from a Web site he has
found on the Web, is he/she infringing copyright?
Explain your answer
9. What is meant by the term deep-linking in Web site
design? How can deep-linking contravene
copyright?
10. Why should frames be used with care when linking
to external Web sites?
A visual and useful document showing the process of
redesigning a website for a digital magazine.
http://aifia.org/tools/download/blueprint.pdf
A useful website with numerous links to understanding
Information Architecture of websites.
http://iainstitute.org/tools/
A website helping designers understand what design
practices are currently in use on the Web and
commonly-employed design practices.
http://www.webdesignpractices.com/
What is copyright?
http://www.whatiscopyright.org/
Australian Copyright Council's Online Information
Centre.
http://www.copyright.org.au/
Frames are a picnic – a basic step-by-step guide to
understanding frames in web design.
http://webmonkey.wired.com/webmonkey/html/96/3
1/index3a.html
Topic 10:Information Organisation
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