A Historical Review 1
Running Head: A HISTORICAL REVIEW ON EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
A Historical Review on Educational Technology and Its Visions in Education
Submitted by:
Hsueh-Hua Chuang
HPC 588
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Introduction
People in general turn to education as a solution for both individual failures and
social problems and educational reform has long been seen as a true panacea for all the
ills of society. In the United States, education reform has been closely associated with the
history of how Americans seek a united voice through the establishment of common
schools with a wide range of religious, political, ethical, and economic diversities
(Kaestle, 1983). Meanwhile, throughout the history of American education, technological
innovations have also had their effects on education in the United States. Many have
argued that technology has provided education with the tools for needed reform (Becker,
1994; Means & Olson, 1994; Means et al, 1993; Pearlman, 1989). Still there are others
who questioned the technology compatibility in American classrooms (Cohen, 1988,
Cuban, 1986; Cuban 2001). This paper seeks to provide a historical review on
educational technology and the visions proposed by educational technology to transform
education. The main argument is that the presence of technology in the classroom is not
merely a coincidence. It comes with reasons and forces behind the scene.
What is Educational Technology
There is so much one can say that is obvious about technology. The Oxford
Modern English Dictionary claims the definition of technology is the study or use of
mechanical arts and applied sciences, meanwhile Webster’s New World Dictionary
claims a different stroke by defining technology to be the science of the practical or
industrial arts (Scott et al, 2001; Thompson, 1996). In general, technology is defined as
the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives or the
scientific method and materials used to achieve a commercial or industrial objective.
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Technology is the technical means associated with science, industry, and commerce. In
the education domain, educational technology is simply defined as technology used for
education and educational technology refers to any technology used as a tool and “ every
bit of educational value that comes from technology derives directly from the purposeful
application of technology by human beings” (Education Technology Leaders Summit, p.
5). From its initiation, educational technology has caused diverse views about the effects
on teaching and learning. Means et al (1993) categorized various educational
technologies into four basic uses with some educational purposes: tutorial, exploratory,
application, and communication. They emphasized that “educational technologies are not
single technologies …. These technologies may employ some combination of audio
channels, computer code, data, graphics, video, or text ”(p. 11).
A Brief History on Educational Technology
In the early 19th century, new machines, new sources of power, and new ways of
organizing work transformed the United States from an agricultural nation to an industrial
power. Schools established routines of organizational and classroom practice by 1900
(Kaestle, 1983). Therefore, starting from the earlier 19th century, we have begun to see
the presence of various tools in the name of technology in the classroom.
In the 1870s, stereoscope was first used to create three-dimensional images of
landscapes and objects. Later, abacus was introduced to demonstrate and test
computational skills. In the early part of 20th century, film and radio were the distancelearning methods used to instruct students. The advent of radio in the 1930s and
television in the 1950s promised to democratize education. The computer in the 1960s
and 1970s and spanning over to 1980s with the advent of personal computer renewed
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enthusiasm for a revolution in education. With even more rapidly and widely innovative
information technology such as email, WWW (World Wide Web) in the 1990s, teachers
and learners have been given a few more viable options in educational use of technology
(Cuban, 1986 ;PBS, 2001).
Visions in Educational Technology
As stated in the previous paragraph, from its inception, educational technology
has caused diverse views in its effects on teaching and learning. Whichever argument it
takes, educational technology was first introduced as the combination of machines and
structured routines of schools and since then, educational technology has become a
common phenomenon in schools. According to Cuban (1986),
Chalk and slate, books and pictures were 19 century media used to expand the
sole medium of instruction-teacher talk-into a broader array of visual tools for
conveying facts, skills, and values. More recently, films, radio, tape recorders,
television and computer have entered the teacher’s cupboard to be counted as
automated and electronic teacher helper (p. 3 & p. 4).
Up to this point, the goal of education was to convey facts, skills, and values and
the main concern was then how to deliver these messages effectively and efficiently. The
use of tool, machines, or in general, technology in education is to enhance teacher’s talk.
Therefore, if we look at some devices that have left a more lasting impact on education,
they are more or less connected with the enhancement of knowledge delivery from an
authoritarian source, e.g., radio and audio devices to record texts as an alternate way for
low reader to understand content. In other words, these tools or media aimed to
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supplement traditional teacher-centered courses and provide an individualized instruction
for students.
Radio and television
In addition, for some people, the advent of radio in the 1930s and television in the
1950s promised to democratize education. From the first television technology in the
1930s, “ the dream was that the new medium would help justify the belief of Burke and
Jefferson that an educated populace in any genuine democracy can and usually will make
reasonable decisions about governing themselves” (Freed, p.1). David Marc even made a
controversial conclusion about television. He said that television is the most effective
distributor of language, images, and narratives in American culture and television’s
influence even outgrew education (Marc, 1984). Burke (1996) also argued that even with
some disappointing results of the alliance of commercial and educational broadcasting,
the alliance is still the only viable alternative to bridge the gap between education and
television and then education will have a great influence over commercial broadcasting
for a “dynamic future of education” (p.1).
Computer technology
In the 1970s, some educators thought computer assisted instruction (CAI) and
computer-based instruction (CBI) would enable everyone to learn at their own pace. In
other word, at this stage, computer-related technologies, like the previous technologies in
the classroom, continued to supplement and extend traditional courses. The value of
individualized learning was again emphasized. Cotton (2001) has represented a synthesis
of definitions of CBE (Computer-Based Education), CBI (Computer Based Instruction)
and CAI (Computer Assisted Instruction) as terms referring to any use of computer in
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“drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, instructional management, supplementary
exercises, programming, database development, writing using word processors, and other
applications” (p. 5). Several researches have agreed that the use of CAI as a supplement
to traditional, teacher-centered instruction produced substantial gains in students’
examination achievement (Kulik & Kulik, 1985; Kulik et al 1987).
In 1984, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) established computer
evaluation guidelines. Computer hardware and software used in 1984 would definitely be
considered primitive from today. Most of the software was not interactive, but instead
focused on drill and practice programs. Since the late 1980’s, many improvements in
both computer hardware and software have occurred. Progress has been made as the
result of four major changes: 1) enhanced storage capabilities, 2) enhanced interaction in
software, 3) graphics, video clips, sound and color, 4) the combination of computerassisted instruction (CAI) and telecommunications. In other words, application of
technology to education was often motivated by a desire to implement "teacher-proof" or
“teacher-centered” instruction. They are basically supplements to conventional
instructional procedures, which implies that the leaning objectives are clearly identified
and stated and exist apart from the learners themselves.
However, From the 90s, primarily due to advancement of communication
technology and its capability to provide an interactive environment, constructivism
principle with the context of technology-mediated education has contributed to the vision
of “authentic, challenging tasks as the core of education reform”(Means & Olson, 1997, p.
4).
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At this stage, technology was not viewed as a mysterious black box, something
that could be implemented on schools and classrooms from above. To be effective,
technology and teachers must work together to provide challenging learning opportunities.
Technology serves as a tool to realize the goals of education reform by contributing to
provide a student-centered learning environment through involvement with authentic,
challenging tasks, new roles for students and teachers, professionalization of teachers.
Technology facilitates the creation of a culture that supports learning beyond time and
space boundaries (Means & Olson, 1997).
Gelberg (1997) pointed out that since the release of A Nation at Risk in 1983,
huge demand on reforms in school has been overwhelmingly on the rise. Those advocates
of reforms, according to Gelberg, defined what could be found in a school that works.
Two of the main characteristics are: 1) the children are engaged in active, hands-on
learning, 2) the curriculum is a model of what is called “integration across the content
areas” (p.1). Technology then is being constantly advocated as a tool that promotes a
more collaborative, interdisciplinary teaching and learning environment or a
constructivism classroom “a place where learners may work together and support each
other as they use a variety of tools and information resources in their guided pursuits of
learning goals and problem-solving activities” (Wilson, 1996, p.5). Under this vision,
technology might could inspire a new type of pedagogy, a student-driven, studentcentered, project-based inquiry-based and hands-on instruction to replace teachercentered and text-based instruction.
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Behind the Visions of Innovative Educational Technology
Cuban provides an historical outline of the introduction of film, radio and
instructional television into the schools and demonstrates the similar and low impact of
each invention on actual classroom practice. Bases on the teacher-centered pedagogical
belief, technology in the classroom have had very little impact on teacher practice no
matter how new devices were advocated to fundamentally change education eventually
(Cuban, 1986; 2001).
For example, following reasons were given in the 1930's for low integration of
films into the curriculum: 1) Teachers lack of skill in using the equipment, 2) Cost of
films, equipment and upkeep, 3) Inaccessibility of equipment when needed, 4) Finding
and fitting the right films to the class (Cuban 1986, p. 18). Similar reasons were given for
the low integration of radio programs and instructional television such as lack of
equipment, school-scheduling problems, and programs not related to the curriculum.
Then the same issues occurred again in the 80s to respond to the use of microcomputers
in the classroom. Cuban argued that most teachers found no good reason for using them
although a small percentage of teachers were using them in a more innovative
pedagogical approach. Beginning in 1990s, increasing student access to high-end
technology became a national priority. Calculated by dividing total school computers by
student population, the national student-to-computer ratio has decreased from 92 students
per computer in 1983-84 to 27 in 1988-89 to just fewer than six students per computer in
1999. With regard to Internet access, in 1994, 35% of U.S. schools were connected to the
Internet; by 1999 that number had increased to 90%. In 1994, just 3% of classrooms were
connected to the Internet, while by 1997 that figure had risen to 27%. The figures today
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are certainly even higher. This increase in high-tech access represents a huge national
financial investment in school technology over the last 15 years. However, even with the
increasingly high access to technology in schools, technology still has little impact on
teaching and learning practices. Cuban stated that technology in most cases is “oversold
and underused” because of its incompatibility with the structure of schools, time
constraint, and technology defects (Cuban, 2001). He concludes that technologies will be
adopted to the extent that they solve classroom problems and when their benefit to the
teacher outweighs the cost of learning to use them. In fact,” the overwhelming majority
of teachers employed the technology to sustain existing patterns of teaching rather tan to
innovate” (Cuban, 2001, p.134). Meanwhile, even with a major increase in computers
and other technologies, there is an increasing concern that certain groups do not have
enough access to technology. For example, schools from low socioeconomic class and
minority groups have been reported to have lower computer-to-student ratios than those
of higher socioeconomic class and white students. There has been a huge gap between the
“haves” and “have-nots” (Becker, 1983; Sutton 1991).
Economic Interest in Educational Technology
Social efficiency has long been promoted as one of the major objectives in
education (Labaree, 1997). This idea has been promoted by industrialists and corporate
leaders whose main purposes are to develop schools to provide better trained workers to
better increase their productivity in the work place. One of the main themes in Gelberg’s
book, The Business of Reforming American Schools, is that the business pro-efficiency
model is closely associated with school reforms since early 19th century (Gelberg, 1997).
Therefore, instead of providing visions of needed reform in education, technology might
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become tools used for other reasons than educational ones. For example, commercial
broadcasting served as the inevitable force behind the idea of education responsibility of
broadcasting. In the 1930s, one of the earlier pioneers of the new broadcasting
technology, the National Committee on Education by Radio (NCER), was established
with the idea that broadcasting and mass media have an educational responsibility.
However, the struggle over the radio frequencies between educational broadcasting and
commercial broadcasters has also proved that the goal of educational broadcasting was
never easy to achieve. Even after years seeking cooperation with commercial
broadcasters, one of the founders of NCER, Morgan admitted that it has proved
unworkable (Burk, 1996). In television broadcasting, Channel One is probably the most
controversial show on television in the history of American education. Michael Apple
argued that the development of Channel One, in schools is not a reform but a
conservative reaction to democracy and loss of the common culture. School financing
problems have helped the expansion of Channel One and the news selected is a major
concern (Apple, 1992). Channel One was a twelve-minute video news program beamed
daily to 11900 high school classrooms in the U.S. It was produced by a private
corporation, Whittle communications, which offered a free satellite dish and cable wiring,
videotape recorders and television for the building in exchange for the daily appearance
of the twelve-minute news program viewed daily by high school students. The issue of
commercials has been found in most of the opposition in studies about Channel One.
Under a contract between schools and a private corporate who offered free satellite and
cable wiring, videotape recorders and television in exchange for students’ watching the
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twelve-minute news program daily, its real function is not journalistic but commercial. It
has been accused of selling television advertisement (De Vaney, 1994).
In the 80s, the computer literacy movement, according to Besser (1993), was not
based on a concrete reason for people to learn about computers in order to fully function
in the society. Rather, it came from the corporate need for a trained workforce and
competitive need to keep America ahead of other countries. Since the 90s, it has became
more obvious that impact of technology of chief executives of leading corporations have
on advocating the presence of technology in schools. Those chief executives have
identified the need to strengthen the technology workforce as the single greatest
challenge to U.S. competitiveness over the next 10 years (CEO Forum on Technology
and Education, 2001). Increasing international economic competition and the emphasis of
high skill jobs that add significant value put technology into focus in education. It is then
widely believed that workers in the 21st century require not just a large set of knowledge
but be able to acquire new knowledge, to solve new problems, to employ creativity and
critical thinking. Therefore, the advocates of effective utilization of computers,
networking, and the latest information technology have based their argument of the need
of technology in schools on economic interests and on keeping ahead in international job
market competition (OTA, 1995; Milken Exchange, 1999). As the history of public
education has been shaped by corporate need for a trained workforce and competitive
need to keep America ahead economically, technology in education is subject to similar
economic influence.
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Conclusion
In summary, technology as a tool has been adapted to fit into whatever education
defines a good teaching. At the time when teacher-centered pedagogy was the dominant
force in schools, the goal of educational technology was to supplement and extend course
delivery. In order to meet the needs of establishing a student-centered learning
environment, educational technology was then advocated as a tool to respond to
individual differences among learners. In addition, technology as a symbol of a ‘modern”,
‘trendy”, “ advanced” and “progressed” industrialized society, it inevitably brings its
market value into the domain of education. Technology adopts different roles in the
history of American education form a supplement to course delivery, a tool of efficient
classroom management, or a catalyst to change school culture. It has never stood by its
own.
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