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An Analysis of
Direct Potable Water Reuse Acceptance
in the United States:
Obstacles and Opportunities
Charla R. Cain
MPH Capstone Project
May 2011
Advisor: Jacqueline Agnew, RN, MPH, PhD, Professor, JHSPH
Mentor: Thaddeus Graczyk, MSc, PhD
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
Presentation Outline
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





Introduction
Description of Potable Water Reuse – Indirect and Direct
Drivers of Direct Potable Reuse
ADWT Treatment Train
Case Studies
Obstacles and Opportunities
  Treatment Train Unit Processes
  Health Risk Concerns
  Key Regulations
  Public Perception
  Management and Operational Controls
Conclusion
Introduction

Dependable supply of safe drinking water

Status quo – conventional drinking water treatment

Indirect Potable Reuse (IPR) – successful in U.S., 30yrs

Direct Potable Reuse (DPR) – most sustainable option

Has DPR’s time now come?



Survey current literature
Illuminate problem of DPR acceptance
Report on opportunities to go forward
Indirect Potable Water Reuse
  Unplanned
IPR
Wastewater
Treatment
Plant
  jjkj
  Planned
Water
Reclamation
plant
Wastewater
Treatment
Plant
Drinking water
Treatment
Plant
Adapted from: Asano, T. et. al. Water Reuse. 2007. p. 1307
IPR
Drinking water
Treatment
Plant
Direct Potable Reuse
Water
Reclamation
plant
Drinking water
Treatment
plant
Wastewater
Treatment
plant
Adapted from : Asano, T. et. al. Water Reuse. 2007. p 1307
“The introduction of highly
treated reclaimed water either..
directly into the potable water
distribution system
downstream of a water
treatment plant, (i.e., pipe-topipe)
or
into the raw water supply
immediately upstream of a
water treatment plant.”
Drivers of DPR
  Global
water situation
  Water-scarce
  Population
/ water-stressed areas
increases / demographic shifts
  Environmental
  Right
to Water
Impacts
Advanced Drinking Water
Treatment (ADWT)
Secondary effluent
Tertiary treatment
(pretreatment for
advanced
processes)
Ozonation
PAC
MF/UF
Filtration
UV disinfection
Dissolved constituents
removal, conditioning
GAC / BAC
Ion Exchange
RO
AOP
Water conditioning / pH
Disinfection
Chlorine
UV
Ozone
HOME
ADWT Targets

Inorganics (i.e. nitrogen, sulfides, heavy metals)


Organics (i.e. Benzene, DDT, carbon tetrachloride)


Membrane Bioreactor, Reverse Osmosis
Microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminthes)


Membrane Bioreactor, Reverse Osmosis
Membrane Bioreactor, Disinfection (chlorine, UV, ozone)
Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (i.e. Estradiol,
Progesterone) and Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care
Products (i.e. Hydrocodone, Dilantin, Deet)

Reverse Osmosis and UV/Advanced Oxidation Process
Note: MBR includes PAC, GAC, BAC, UF/MF/NF
Case Study – Windhoek, Namibia


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
Only DPR location in world!
Opened 1969, upgraded 2002
Multiple Barrier Approach
Oversight by leading water
treatment agencies
New Goreangab Water
Reclamation Plant
Source: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windhoek_Skyline.jpg
Source: http://www.fichtner.de/en/water_supply_projects.html
Case Study - Singapore
Used Water
Microfiltration
Reverse Osmosis
Disinfection with UV light
NEWater
DPR – Current Dialogue
  Media
/ Government
Wall Street Journal
  EPA’s Office of Water

  Scientific
Researchers
NWRI DPR regulation white paper, CA
  2010 DPR Workshop Report, CA

  Public

Health Researchers
JHSPH and wastewater reuse
  WateReuse

Association
WateReuse Symposium DPR presentations
Determinants of DPR Acceptance
Treatment Train
Processes
Health Risk
Concerns
Management
and Operational
Controls
Key Regulatory
Issues
Cost
Treatment Train - Obstacles
  Logistical
Difficulties
  Membrane
Sensitivity
  Disinfection
  Waste
Byproducts
Stream Generation
Treatment Train - Opportunities
  Increased

Research and Development
Example: Endocrine Disrupting Compounds and
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
  2010
DPR Workshop Report
Classification of best treatment process order
  Identification of Chemicals of Emerging Concern
(CEC) surrogates
  Validation of barrier effectiveness against
benchmarks

Health Risk Concerns - Obstacles
  Few
Epidemiologic and Toxicological potable
reuse studies in IPR and DPR
  Difficulties
extrapolating IPR epidemiologic
studies to DPR
  Long-term
  CECs
health effects difficult to assess
Health Risk Concerns - Opportunities
  Perform
epidemiologic studies of DPR and
potential health effects
  2010
DPR Workshop Report
Water quality treatment performance goals
  Validation of treatment performance goals through
performance monitoring
  Health risk and exposure assessments
  Monitoring for public health assurance

Key Regulations - Obstacles
  SDWA
  No
U.S. Federal regulations for IPR or DPR
  U.S.
Federal guidelines for IPR only
  State
  No
and CWA insufficient for DPR regulation
regulations for IPR - 4 states only
state regulations or guidelines for DPR
Key Regulations - Opportunities
  EPA
to include DPR chapter in next Guidelines
for Water Reuse
  California
leader
2010 NWRI White Paper
  2010 DPR Workshop Report

Identify optimal regulatory scheme
  Develop CEC evaluation approach
  Assess environmental buffer function
  Develop source control strategy

Public Perception - Obstacles
  Largest
hurdle
  No
separation between sewage effluent and
drinking water influent
  Media
“From toilets to tap: How we get tap
water from sewage” USA Today, Kathy Chu
http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/
2011-03-03-1Apurewater03_CV_N.htm#
  Water
is “everywhere” and therefore DPR not
necessary
Public Perceptions - Opportunities
  Utilize
identified factors influencing public
perceptions and behavioral acceptability
  2010
DPR Workshop Report
Develop appropriate terminology
  Survey stakeholders and involve at inception
  Utilize health communication specialists to develop
messages and strategy

  “Trust”
= strongest influencing factor. Capitalize!
Management & Operational Controls –
Obstacles and Opportunities
  Real-time
  Control
  2010
process monitoring
strategies development
DPR Workshop Report
Consider system design for emergency response
  Develop enhanced source control programs
  Develop DPR operational guidelines

Conclusion
  Direct
Potable Reuse….
Viable option for future water resource management
  Acceptance depends on pursuing opportunities
  Need for stronger epidemiologic research
  California as a model

“When
the well is dry, we learn the worth of water.”
Benjamin Franklin, (1706-1790), Poor Richard’s Almanac, 1746
Thank You…
For a thirst-free future…
…your kids will thank you!
www.thirstfreefuture.com
References

Intro
http://www.battelle.org
IPR / DPR
  Asano, T.; Burton, F.L.; Leverenz, H.L.; Tsuchihashi, R.; Tchobanoglous, G. Indirect Potable Reuse
through Surface-Water Augmentation. Chapter 23. In: Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and
Applications. New York: Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2007: p.1307 & 1346.
Windhoek, Namibia
  http://www.fichtner.de/en/water_supply_projects.html
  http://www.hivresponse.gov.na
  http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windhoek_Skyline.jpg
Singapore
  http://www.livetradingnews.com/barclays-offers-rmb-bond-fund-in-singapore-39050.htm
  http://www.ambsingapore.um.dk/en/menu/CommercialServices/MarketOpportunities/Sectoranalyses/
Energy+and+Environment/
  http://www.greatnewplaces.com/t-Sembcorp
Key Regulations – Opportunities
  http://nwri_usa.org
Public Perceptions – Obstacles
  http://worldchanging.com
  http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/environment/2011-03-03-1Apurewater03_CV_N.htm#
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