DB
LINK
The National Information
Clearinghouse on Children Who Are
Deaf-Blind
Helen Keller National Center
Hilton Perkins Program/Perkins School for the Blind
Teaching Research
Lit er acy For Per sons Who Are Deaf-Blind
By Barbara Miles, M.ED.
magine this: In the living room of the Perez
house it is getting close to bedtime. Manuel, 6,
and his sister Julia, 4, are asking for their usual
bedtime story. Mrs. Perez goes to get a storybook from the basket near the couch. Then she
hears the cries of her 2-year-old, José, who is lying in a crib on the other side of the room. She
goes to the crib and bends down to pick up José,
still holding the book. Manuel and Julia are restless, clamoring for their story. Mrs. Perez is torn.
She imagines that José wants to belong to this
nightly ritual. But José is deaf-blind. He can’t see
the book, or hear the words as she reads them.
She can’t imagine how to include him, or what
use it would be anyway. She doesn’t know any
other children who are deaf-blind, and she hasn’t considered reading to be a possibility for him
(or for anyone who is deaf-blind, for that matter).
I
But tonight she senses this young child’s desire
to be included, and she wants him with her and
the other chil dren. So, for the first time, she
brings José into this family ritual. She holds him
on her lap as Julia and Manuel cuddle on either
side of her on the couch. Mr. Perez comes in from
work just then and joins them. After greeting his
wife and two oldest children, he sits next to
Manuel. He reaches over to invite José to touch
his beard, his usual way of greeting his son who
cannot see or hear. Then he rests his hand lightly
on José’s shoulder so José knows of his continuing presence. José quiets when he feels himself
set tled into his mother ’s lap with his fam ily
around. He senses his mother’s breathing and
feels the vibrations of sound in her chest as she
reads. José’s hand can feel his sis ter ’s and
brother’s arms as they alternately turn each page
— their long-established routine. José can smell
the paper of the book — he buries his head in the
crevice between the pages several times, and
smiles with delight.
This evening is José’s first experience with literacy. In the nights that follow, Mr. and Mrs. Perez
regularly include José. Over time, the experience
gains more and more mean ing for him. And
January 2005
then, as a result of help from educators of children who are deaf-blind, the Perez family is able
to make and acquire adapted materials, including sim ple books that have both print and
braille, and that have tactile pictures that José
can feel. Manuel and Julia sometimes help make
the pictures in their own favorite books accessible to José by pasting material on them, and by
using pipe cleaners and glue to make outlines
that his little hands can feel. Over time, too, the
entire family learns sign language, so they can
translate the language of the stories that José
cannot hear into a form he can feel. Mrs. Perez’s
initial instinct to include José in this family story
time blos soms into a life time of read ing and
writ ing e x pe ri ence for th is child who is
deaf-blind.
The Importance Of Literacy
For One Who Is Deaf-Blind
Each person who is deaf-blind—whatever her
sen sory, men tal, and phys i cal abil i ties—deserves the opportunity to become literate in all
the ways of which she is capable. Reading and
writ ing are es pe cially cru cial for one whose
world is narrowed because of vision and hearing
losses. Literacy can enable such a person to exchange information and ideas, and develop relationships that would otherwise be out of reach.
Literacy involves the use of language, whether
the language is in print or in braille. Although
not all persons with deaf-blindness will achieve
formal literacy, it is important to consider the
communication value that aspects of early literacy can provide. Being able to “read” a schedule
that consists of objects arranged in the order of
the events they represent, for example, can be of
great benefit to someone who is deaf-blind, even
if that person cannot read print or braille. Likewise, being able to point to a picture from a
menu of pictures in order to express a desire or
make a comment can considerably improve the
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life of a person who is deaf-blind with little formal language.
What is more, society deserves the increased opportunity to get to know the thoughts, feelings,
and ideas of persons who are deaf-blind. A person who is deaf-blind and who can read and
write or who can use an ob ject or picture
communication system can communicate more
and more with increasing numbers of persons in
their immediate and distant environments. This
person also has the potential of communicating
with increasing precision and depth. Getting to
know persons who are deaf-blind is likely to
benefit many members of society whose experience of the world is limited to vision and hearing, and who thereby miss the uniqueness of
ex pe ri enc ing the world pri mar ily through
touch.
Picture a woman who can neither see nor hear.
Imagine too that she can read and write and that
she has access to a computer with braille output
and input devices. This woman is able to commu ni cate with peo ple all around the world
through the Internet and has access to vast stores
of information. Given the availability of today’s
technology, while she is on-line this person is
practically not handicapped. Her ability to read
and write is her key to relationships and interactions undreamed of even a decade ago. Perhaps,
just as importantly, it enables others, who might
not otherwise have the opportunity, to get to
know her.
Likewise, a person who is deaf-blind and who
has neither the cognitive ability nor the interest
in using the Internet can benefit from literacy in
count less other ways. A pic ture/print or object/braille communication sys tem may allow
him to com municate his desires and ideas to
people around him; picture/print/braille recipes
may enable him to cook independently; being
able to read labels on food items may give him
many choices at the store; writing and drawing
in a daily journal may enable him to express
himself, reflect upon his own past experiences,
and share experiences with people not present at
the time they occurred. These are only a few of
the possibilities.
The opportunities that literacy provides to persons who are deaf-blind, and thereby to society
at large, are vast. What is more, opportunities
are increasing all the time as technology develops and as people—parents, educators, therap i s t s , a n d p e o p l e w h o a r e d e a f- b li n d
themselves—broaden their ideas of what literacy of fers to peo ple with lim ited vi sion and
hearing.
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What Is Literacy?
Literacy generally refers to the ability to read
and write. Reading and writing are symbolic
systems that allow people to receive and send
information across distances of time and space.
Reading and writing have contributed significantly to the development of societies, cultures,
and technologies. They allow people to transmit
knowledge from generation to generation and
from place to place.
There is now a field of educational research devoted to emergent literacy. It considers both
read ing and writ ing de vel op ment from the
child’s perspective. Bloome and Green (1984)
stated “Literacy is seen not just as a cognitive
process, but also as a social, psychological, and
linguistic process” (Dziwulski, 1992, p. 3).
When we think about literacy as it relates to people who are deaf-blind, it is important that we
expand our conventional notions of reading and
writing to include not only emergent literacy experiences, but also to include the various modes
of literacy. If we conceive of literacy as the ability
to read and write newsprint-sized print, for example, our conception will automatically exclude most persons with deaf-blindness. For a
def i ni tion of deaf-blindness, re fer to the
D B - L I N K p u b l i c a t i o n “ O ve r v i e w o n
Deaf-Blindness.” Fortunately for all people who
are to tally blind, Louis Braille in vented a
method of reading and writing that does not depend upon sight. And fortunately for people
with low vision, engineers have invented a variety of large-print technologies. We, as educators,
friends, and family members of persons who are
deaf-blind, are challenged to become equally visionary when conceiving of reading and writing
systems and ways of educating that can accommodate persons with deaf-blindness. Some of
these peo ple have unique vi sual dif fi cul ties,
some have uniquely developing language abilities, some have cognitive challenges, and others
have physical limitations. None of these should
be a barrier to the development of some kind (or
kinds) of literacy.
When a teacher or a family uses an object schedule system (sometimes referred to as a “calendar
box”) with a child who is deaf-blind, that person
is using a kind of proto-literacy to communicate
with the child. A se ries of ob jects, placed in
boxes or hung on the wall, and representing a
corresponding series of activities, is a kind of
calendar which the child without vision or hearing can read. As her hands touch each object
from left to right, she gets information about the
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future, what will happen that day (or week, or
month, depending on the size of the schedule).
As she develops more abstract cognitive skills,
these concrete objects may be paired with or replaced with pictures, print, or braille. Likewise,
if she spontaneously goes to the calendar and
picks up a ball and carries it to her teacher as an
indication that she would like to go out and play,
we might say that she is engaging in a kind of
proto-literacy (or even proto-writing) behavior.
She has read which symbol represents her desire
and has brought that symbol to the teacher to
read. She is using a symbol to convey information about what she wants to happen in the future. And her life choices are con sid er ably
enriched by this kind of literacy. People hoping
to enlarge literacy opportunities for people who
are deaf-blind need to continue to invent ways to
make lit er acy avail able. The pos si bil i ties are
countless.
The Social Functions Of
Reading and Writing
Literacy never exists in a vacuum. People read
and write for many purposes, most of them social. At home bed time sto ries pro vide young
chil dren with a foun da tion for lit er acy. Even
though they are not reading, they are learning
the social value of the printed symbol and are beginning to understand that pictures and symbols convey information. They are also learning
that reading these symbols is fun.
As we seek to share literacy skills with persons
who are deaf-blind, we need to be aware of what
purposes these skills will serve. We need to ensure access to as many of the functions of literacy
in their lives as possible—comparable to the access that hearing-sighted people have. We need
a menu of possibilities.
Think about the past few weeks of your life. You
can undoubtedly think of many ways in which
you have used reading and writing. People who
are deaf-blind deserve to use reading and writing in a corresponding variety of ways. Here is a
beginning list of the pragmatic functions of reading and writing, together with some examples of
each function. As you read the list, you might
think about a person who is deaf-blind and consider how that person could benefit from each of
these uses if they were made available by means
of adaptations.
t
Acquiring or transmitting knowledge or
information: books (nonfiction, reference);
news pa pers; en vi ron men tal print (road
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signs, ad ver tise ments, etc.); Internet
Websites; magazines; movie credits; telephone directories; restaurant menus; song
lyrics; music transcription
t
Or ga nizing and supporting mem ory:
schedules; calendars; grocery lists; shopping lists; to-do lists; histories; diaries; labels in photograph albums; transcripts of
presentations; minutes of meetings
t
Entering or creating a fantasy world: novels; stories; comic books; poetry
t
Self-expression: journals; diaries; poetry;
editorials; t-shirts or hats with messages;
bumper-stickers; signs and placards; artistic expression with words
t
En ter tain ment: nov els; po etry; comic
books; magazines; Internet Websites; computer games; computer chat rooms
t
Problem solving or problem posing: crosswords; word problems; math problems; office memos; journal entries; advice columns
t
Fi nan cial ne go ti a tions: money; bills;
checks; contracts; wills; price-tags; receipts;
bank statements
t
Creating and maintaining relationships:
let ters; notes; greet ing cards; com puter
e-mail; computer chat rooms; TTY phones
t
Dealing with emotions: journals; diaries;
notes; letters; advice columns; stories
t
Conveying or understanding instructions:
recipes; instructions for tools, devices, and
appliances; directional signs; maps; computer graphics; ATM instructions; test instructions; game rules
t
Making or un der stand ing an nouncements: signs; posters about events; movie
theater announcements; wedding or party
invitations; brochures about events; leaflets
announcing sales
t
Persuading people to do or buy things:
newspaper and magazine ads; billboards;
TV ads; product logos; political ads; classified ads; product catalogues; banners
t
Identifying things or places: street signs;
labels on boxes, cans, packages; labels on
pictures; titles on books; names on personal
items, such as clothing, credit cards, library
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cards; addresses on letters, e-mail, fax transmissions; labels on elevator buttons
that can, and should, be made available to people with vision and hearing impairments.
Giving or receiving inspiration: quotes;
sermons; self-help books; refrigerator magn e t s w i t h m e s s a g e s ; g r e e t i n g c a r ds ;
sky-writing
Observation of significant people reading
and writing for a variety of purposes
(Adapted from Dziwulski, 1992)
Many educators of children and adults with severe or profound disabilities (including those
who are deaf-blind) may discount some of these
functions, thinking that they may not be possible
or appropriate for children who have particular
chal lenges. Self-expression, en ter ing fan tasy
worlds, and maintaining relationships are several functions that are frequently absent from
curricula for children who are deaf-blind or who
have severe disabilities. None of these functions
need be inaccessible to any child. Our own ingenuity, creativity, and determination will be the
keys that will allow a child access to any of these
functions of literacy. Without exposure to them,
it is impossible for a child to acquire them.
If you are a teacher or a parent reading this list,
you might think also about how to expose the
child or adult who is deaf-blind to an increasing
number of these uses of literacy. You may draw
her attention to a t-shirt logo the next time you
see one, or you may show her a newspaper ad, or
a wedding invitation, and explain what each
says in a way that the child may understand.
Even a child who is totally blind can benefit from
these gestures and the simple explanations that
accompany them. In fact, be ing shown these
things by an adult, and having them explained,
is the only way in which many children and
adults who are deaf-blind will ever know that
they exist.
Conditions Necessary For The
Development Of Literacy
There have been many interesting recent developments in the teaching of literacy to children
and adults with severe special needs, as well as
those with hearing impairments and those with
lin guis tic and cul tural dif fer ences. Many of
these de vel op ments have im portant im plications for helping children and adults who are
deaf-blind learn to read.
This recent research and longtime experience
point to several basic conditions necessary for
the development of literacy. Each of these conditions implies a variety of possible opportunities
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Children with good vision encounter print and
its uses from the day they are born. This is especially true in highly literate societies and in families where literacy is central. Children in such
environments routinely see people reading and
writing for many different purposes. It is widely
acknowledged that children who grow up in liter ate fam i lies gen er ally have good read ing
skills; this is probably due to the motivation instilled in a child who sees the people he interacts
with and admires using reading and writing
regularly.
A child who is deaf-blind usually does not have
op portu ni ties to ob serve peo ple read ing and
writing unless they are specifically provided.
Here are some ideas for ways to create these experiences:
t Invite children and adults who are deaf-blind to
observe as you use the computer, read the newspaper, write notes, check calendars, read signs,
and engage in other literacy activities. Such observation will need to be tactual for the child who has
no vision. Invite the child to “look” again and
again. Place your hand slightly under the child’s
hand (so the child’s hand remains free) and move
toward what is happening, so the child is invited
to explore both the materials and the actions. For
specific ways to do this refer to the DB-LINK
publication “Talking the Language of the Hands
to the Hands.” Invite a child with low vision to
witness these activities by being physically close.
Be sure also to discuss what you are doing (“I’m
checking my calendar. This is my calendar.”).
t Arrange specific opportunities for the child or
adult who is blind to touch adults or young people as they read braille. A child who is blind needs
to be exposed not only to braille itself, but also to
the act of reading braille, and to its uses. This exposure must happen again and again in the context of meaningful relationships. The child must
touch, again and again, the fingers of people she
knows and admires as they read and write braille
words, sentences, magazines, labels, and books.
Only in this way will she be enabled to build a social concept of literacy—a concept that comes so
naturally to the child with vision. These opportunities to observe people using braille will motivate her to read and write.
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t Read stories to children who are deaf-blind, using
speech and/or sign language as appropriate, with
support of print, braille, related objects, and pictures (including tactile pictures), as appropriate to
the child. Adapted materials (see below) will enable a child who is blind or who has low-vision to
follow along tactually or to handle related materials that will give concrete references to the language in the sto ries. (Use ful sug ges tions for
reading to children who are deaf can be found in
the May/June 1999 issue of Perspectives in Education and Deafness.) Regular exposure to stories is
important, as is repeating favorite stories or using
predictable stories. All children like the sense of
knowing and predicting. It encourages participation and involvement.
t During the course of each school day and each
day at home notice all the many opportunities for
children to see or touch print or braille. In the
class room, use ac ces si ble la bels on rooms,
shelves, coat hooks, and furniture, as well as object/picture/print/or braille schedules, lists, recipes and books. Long before a child is expected to
read these things, he can benefit from observing
others reading them and from seeing or touching
these words naturally during the course of his
daily routine. Make a practice of inviting children
to be near as you use these forms of reading and
writing.
Meaningful conversations during literacy
experiences
Conversational interaction ensures that the development of reading and writing occurs within
meaningful social contexts. It enhances the communication abilities of the child or adult and
provides the teacher or parent with continuous
feedback about the child’s or the adult’s understanding. Children who can see and hear have
countless opportunities for conversations about
the written word—as they are read stories by
their parents or teachers, as they walk or drive
by signs in the community and ask about them,
as they observe Mother writing a grocery list and
chime in with their preferences, as they talk to
Father about a newspaper story he has just read,
as they show their teacher a picture they have
just drawn and explain the scribbles writ ten
above it, as they ask for help spelling a word in a
story they are writing, and as they discuss their
feelings about a book they are reading with their
fellow classmates. Children who are deaf-blind
need par al lel op por tu ni ties for in ter ac tions
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around literacy experiences. These might include the following:
t Pause a moment as a child notices a label (in print,
braille, tactual object or marker), be aware of the
child’s reaction, and make a simple comment in
gesture, speech, and/or sign language, as appropriate. This comment may serve as the beginning
of a short conversation. For example, the child
touches a coat hook label. Teacher says, “Yes, this
is your coat hook. Mine is over here”(showing
child). Pause. Wait to see what the child does. (He
touches another hook and label.) “That one is
John’s.” Pause. And so on. Taking the time to
make a small conversation each time the child has
a literacy experience—even before the child is
reading—will give the child many opportunities
to build both concepts and relationships.
t Pause often during story-reading times, notice
and respect the child’s reactions, and respond to
them. This will make the story times enjoyable for
both adult and child and will build concepts and
relationships. Often the reactions of the child who
is deaf-blind—especially when the child has little
lan guage—will be gestures and fa cial ex pressions, or even as subtle as tension and relaxation
of muscles. Mirror and comment on each of these
responses so the child becomes engaged in a turn
taking process as the story progresses. Reading
the story is thus not something being “done to”
the child, but is a mutual activity between teacher
(or parent or friend) and child. Such a conversation might look like this: Sammy is sitting in Father’s lap. A mirror is propped on the table in
front of them so Father can see Sammy’s face. Father reads print with his eyes and moves his fingers along the braille un der the print, while
Sammy’s hand follows. Then he signs, “The bear
is soft,” Sammy’s hands following the signs by
resting lightly on his father’s hands. Father then
gives Sammy a soft teddy bear from the “story
box” accompanying the book (see below, under
accessible materials). Father waits to give Sammy
time to respond. Sammy touches the bear’s face,
and begins fingering the plastic nose. Father notices and touches the nose along with Sammy, his
finger following his son’s. He signs “Bear’s nose”
as Sammy feels the signs. Then Father touches
Sammy’s nose and signs “Sammy’s nose.” Pause.
Sammy reaches up toward his father’s face. Father
laughs and puts his hand lightly under Sammy’s
hand to invite him to follow as he touches his own
nose. He signs, “Yes. Daddy’s nose.” Then, back to
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the book. Father’s hand again moves over the
braille, with Sammy’s hand fol low ing. Fa ther
speaks and signs, “The turtle is rough,” and then
gives Sammy a small plastic turtle with a rough
shell. He again waits to see what Sammy will do.
And so on…
t Use a di a logue jour nal with a child who is
deaf-blind and who has some beginning reading
and writing skills. A dialogue journal will allow
her to express her own ideas freely and also to
read the genuine response from her teacher about
what she has written. Such a journal can be a conversation on paper that has short entries written
every day, either in print or in braille, as the student requires. Entries can range from very simple
to quite complex. The students should be equal
initiators of the topics in these conversations; the
teacher’s entries will serve to confirm the student’s
ability to communicate in writing about something that really interests her. The teacher can also
model good language in his responses and can
continue the conversation in natural ways, with
comments and questions about the child’s ideas,
as well as add ing his own re lated top ics (see
Bailes, 1999).
t Respond conversationally (and encourage class-
mates to do the same) to any drawing,
proto-writing, or writing attempt made by the
child or adult who is deaf-blind. Bringing an object-symbol can be re garded as a kind of
proto-writing. So can any scribbling or use of
writing or braille materials. All drawings and attempts at drawing (includ ing use of clay) are
forms of self-expression which, when responded
to with comments and interest, lay the foundation
for the child’s confidence in herself as a writer.
Accessibility of literacy materials
Accessibility includes the adaptation of materials to compensate for sensory losses and physical disabilities. It takes into account cognitive
understanding and individual interests.
Adapting books and materials for the individual’s sensory, cognitive, and motor needs is necessary to give the child access to the information.
And, as with oral and signed language, unless
the child receives a great deal of accessible print
or braille input, she cannot produce any meaningful output in print or braille. All children and
adults need books that are interesting to them:
books that have accessible print or braille, pictures, or tactile illustrations; books that are about
subjects that are interesting; and books that use
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language that is appropriate to the child’s or
adult’s individual level of understanding. To the
extent that they are possible and practical, they
also need accessible labels and other forms of all
the pragmatic uses of literacy mentioned above.
Because each child and adult is so unique, many
books and materials will need to be made or
adapted specially (see the section below on individual experiences). The task of adapting books
and materials is one that a teacher and child can
often do together, or the child can do with another classmate. For example, the child can participate in brailling or printing words (or watch
as the teacher does it), or in making and gluing
tactile pictures to pages, or in the writing of the
stories themselves. This participation serves to
help the child understand how things are created, cuts down on out-of-class preparation time
for the teacher, and gives classmates something
to share and do together.
Accessibility also necessitates adapting the environment so the child or adult has the time and
phys ical ability to interact with materials, as
well as the social encouragement and motivation to do so. Here are some specific suggestions:
t Ac cu mu late braille books and other ma teri als
and/or books-on tape if these are useful. The child
also needs a slate and stylus and/or a brailler (see
Materials).
t Make a “story box” to accompany a simple braille
or print story. Dolls, toys, and other “props” related to story content can be kept in a box alongside the book, so that when the story is read, there
are concrete representations of the characters and
major items in the story. These will greatly facilitate the child’s understanding of the story, and
will also make conversational interaction much
more likely and easy.
t Adapt storybooks by using textured pictures to
help a young child read the pictures. For example,
when reading the board book version of The Hungry Caterpillar, texture the caterpillar with felt. Every time the child touches the caterpillar, assume
he is looking at the picture with his fingers (and
with his eyes, if he has some vision). Comment on
the caterpillar: “There’s that hungry caterpillar.”
Pause and observe what the child does and respond to that. When parents read to young children, they often don’t actually read the stories
verbatim. They use the pictures in the storybook
and often story time means quality social and cognitive time. This opportunity should also be available to children with deafblindness.
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t Pro vide a child who ha s low vi sion with
should be limited. With adapted materials, each
child can read about subjects and ideas that are interesting. The child will thus be appropriately
challenged to continue to expand her concepts
and reading abilities. The fields of Deaf Education
and English as a Second Language have much to
of fer in the way of mate ri als and methods of
teaching those for whom English is not the first
language. Teachers of children who are deaf-blind
need similar knowledge of how to assess a child’s
syntactical structures, vocabulary, and idiomatic
understanding; how to adapt materials accordingly; and how to help a child progress in these areas. The help of a deaf-blind specialist will often
be necessary to accurately measure the reading
skills of a child who is deaf-blind and to design
appropriate instructional strategies.
large-print ma te ri als and ad ap ta tions. Re cent
computer advances have made these adaptations
much easier. A closed-circuit television (CCTV)
available in the classroom can enlarge any print
placed under it and is useful for many students
with low vision. Often a black permanent marker
is sufficient to make print accessible. Simply taping modified print and simplified sentences over
the ones in a ready-made book can make it accessible for a child with low vision.
t Give props to a child with physical limitations to
help her to handle reading materials by herself. A
stand can hold a book at an appropriate angle on a
wheelchair tray and will enable a child to see it
well without needing someone to hold it for her.
Page “fluffers” (bits of foam or other material
glued to the edges of the pages to hold them apart)
and/or tabs on each page can enable a child with
limited physical dexterity to turn the pages of a
book independently. Voice output switches can be
used so a child who is non-speaking,
hard-of-hearing, and motor involved can recite a
line in a nursery rhyme or repetitive book.
t Supply appropriate writing materials to a child
with visual and/or physical limitations. Black
markers, large crayons, special grips (which may
be as simple as tape wrapped around the marker
to make it more graspable), adapted computer
keyboards and/or screens with large print and
picture display, head-sticks or laser pointers that
allow a child or adult who cannot use his hands to
use a keyboard with head movements, adapted
braillers with extended keys—these are just some
of the ways that a child or adult who may have
difficulty writing may be aided in doing so.
t Provide sign language for a child who is deaf and
being read to. This will allow real access to the
language being represented by the print or braille.
Ideally, the parents or the teachers will know sign
language fluently and will have the skills to comment on the child’s interests as well as sign the
story. Even learning the most salient signs in the
book will be helpful to the child.
t Adapt the language level and concepts in stan-
dard text books and read ing ma te ri als for the
older child or adult who is deaf-blind. These need
to suit the unique understanding of the particular
child. As the child grows in age and experience,
her interests will often exceed her reading ability.
This does not mean that her reading experience
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Accessibility also means that the child is physically able to get the materials and is encouraged
to do so. Each classroom should have a library
where books are displayed at a level where the
children can reach them. Writing and drawing
materials should also be accessible. In addition,
the child should have time to use these materials. In the home, too, there can be a labeled box,
bin, or shelf designated for books, pictures and
related materials.
Connection of literacy to experiences and
interests
A child who is deaf-blind and who also may
have additional disabilities usually has unique
and limited experiences. Of ten such a child’s
world extends no further than the reach of her
hands; her concepts are therefore very basic and
concrete. The teacher must think about how to
gradually expand the children’s experiences and
thereby assist them in building concepts about
the world beyond themselves. Experiences become the vehicle for developing concepts, upon
which language and literacy can be mapped.
The experience of a child who is deaf-blind differs so significantly from most children’s experience that standard reading programs are not
usually effective in the beginning stages of literacy learning. Reading and writing need to be
meaningfully connected to the hands-on explorations, experiences, and interests of each child
who is deaf-blind. Here are some ways to make
those connections:
t
Use key vocabulary: The first words a child
learns to write and read are especially important. They will often determine whether
or not that child becomes excited about
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reading and writing as a key to future learning. If the teacher can listen carefully to a
child and give the child words to read that
match that child’s own deepest concerns
and excitements, then reading and writing
will forever be connected with power and
in ter est, and the child’s mo ti va tion for
learning will last well into the future. Literacy and its power will be unlocked. (Techniques for presenting key vocabulary can be
found in Teacher by Sylvia Ashton-Warner.)
t
Use memory boxes or memory books: Each
time a child who is deaf-blind has a meaningful experience there is the possibility of
documenting that experience in some way.
This documentation can become the beginning of literacy. For a child with no vision, a
“mem ory box,” or a se ries of “mem ory
boxes,” can be made by saving objects associated with meaningful activities. A leaf, a
stone, or a twig can bring back a memory of
a walk in the park; a shell can help recall a
trip to the beach; a straw, a cup, or a napkin
can recall a meal in a restaurant, and so on.
Bringing these things home or back to the
classroom in a pocket, and keeping them in
a box, can serve as a kind of diary. The box
can become the source of many enjoyable
conversations and is a real beginning of literacy. A similar book can be made by gluing
or taping objects to pages or by using photographs or drawings for the child who can
see them. Print or braille labels—first in the
form of single words, later as simple sentences—can begin to give meaning to writing.
t
Write poetry: Poetry-writing opportunities
can help students enjoy language for its
own sake and learn to play with words and
word combinations. Magnetic poetry sets,
in print or braille, can often stimulate students’ creativity.
t
Write experience stories: As the child begins to be interested in words and in their
power to express things, short stories about
the child’s own experiences (written either
in print or braille, as appropriate) are wonderful learning tools. These stories can be
writ ten to gether with the child and his
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classmates, drawing from them the meaningful
aspects of each experience. (See Remarkable
Conversations, pp. 195-196 and Perspectives in
Education and Deafness, pp.36-38 for specific
techniques for writing and using experience stories.)
t
Create journals: Journal writing can begin
very early for the child who is deaf-blind
and is an important part of teaching the
child confidence in her own ability to express herself. Even a single word brailled or
printed, or a simple drawing, can constitute
an exciting form of expression for a child.
Journals, unlike more formal written work,
should not be corrected, since correction
can inhibit the child’s enthusiasm. A short
journal time every day is a valuable addition to a child’s schedule. (See Remarkable
Conversations, pp.199-200 for specific techniques for using journal writing.) Journals
and logs can also be used during academic
lesson times —in conjunction with science,
math, literature, or social studies, for example—to reinforce learning and to make writing ex pe ri ences rel e vant to each child’s
unique experiences.
Regular opportunities for independent
use of reading and writing materials
Children with adequate vision routinely have
the opportunity to scribble, draw, use computer
keyboards, look at maga zines, read signs, or
thumb through books. In an interesting study, it
was noted that while only 15 % of children entering school believe they can read, fully 90% believe they can write (Rebecca Edmiaston).
Scribbling and drawing are a kind of
proto-writing. In the child’s mind, they are a
f o r m o f e x p r e s s i o n e q ui v a l e n t t o w h a t
grown-ups do when they write. Opportunities
for inde pend ent use of materials build confidence. Parallel opportunities need to be provided for the child or adult who cannot see or
who has low vision and for the one who has
physical limitations. Very often teachers of children who are deaf-blind or who have multiple
disabilities are re luctant to let the child have
genuinely independent experiences of exploration. But these are necessary. Make the following
resources available:
t Classroom or home library, with accessible mate-
rials, and regular free time to explore
Literacy For Persons Who Are Deaf-Blind
Voice: (800) 438-9376
DB-LINK
t Time and opportunities to use writing and draw-
ing materials—crayons, markers, paints—without teacher direction
t Adapted writing and drawing materials to ac-
commodate for physical limitations (see above,
under accessibility)
t Free use of drawing programs on a computer
TTY (800) 854-7013
seek to share literacy skills with those who are
deaf-blind, we can be continually aware of, and
respectful of, the doors that are being opened,
not only for those who are deaf-blind, but also
for those who can see and hear and who thus
have the opportunity to find out about the experiences of people whose hands and bodies and
eyes and ears know the world in unique ways.
t Free use of clay or playdough for a child who is
blind (see Fukurai, S.)
t Texture-making materials (such as stylus, shells,
stamps, wood, pastry rollers) for use with clay,
playdough, or paper
t Opportunities (for the child who is blind) to play
with and ex plore a slate and sty lus and a
Braillewriter when available
The child who is deaf-blind should have frequent visual and/or tactual access to others who
are also engaging in free exploration of materials. Simply placing a child in front of some clay,
and then sitting and watching while she uses it,
will not be as useful to her as joining her in using
clay for free expression. Without the social aspect, it becomes a task that has little meaning.
Knowing that others also express themselves in
a variety of ways gives motivation to the child
and opens up more possibilities. Be extremely
careful not to impose your own expectations on
the child. Simply engage in her own form of expression and be gently attentive to whatever the
child seeks to do by herself.
Summary
Lit er acy can un lock count less worlds for the
child or adult who is deaf-blind. Each of us who
knows someone who is deaf-blind can invent
ways for him or her to expand their possibilities
for reading and writing. We can begin by sharing
with them our own reading and writing experiences and by mak ing materials acces sible for
them. We can encourage self-expression with
ges ture, clay, scribble, braille, writing—whatever forms each person can use. We can also regard each ex pe ri ence that we share with a
person who is deaf-blind as a potential opportunity for literacy—we can save an object from the
experience, we can write a story about it along
with the child or adult, we can draw a picture
and encourage the child to draw a picture, and
we can write a letter or an e-mail to them about
the experience. The opportunities are numerous.
We are all inventors. We have much to learn together and much excitement to share. As we
Literacy For Persons Who Are Deaf-Blind
For Further Reading
Gratitude to Sara Gaar, who helped substantially with this article. Many thanks also to Steve
Perreault, Barbara McLetchie, Gail Leslie, Karen
Olson, Marianne Riggio, Julie Baumgarner, and
the teachers and students of CAIS and
SOCIEVEN in Caracas, Venezuela. Thanks also
to all the students who are deaf-blind and their
teachers who continually seek for new ways to
com mu ni cate with each other and with the
world around them.
Ashton-Warner, S. (1963). Teacher. New York,
NY: Bantam Books .
Bailes, C., Searls, S. Slobodzian, J., & Staton, J.
(1986). It’s your turn now! Using dialogue journals with deaf stu dents. Wash ing ton, DC:
Pre-College Programs, Gallaudet University.
Bailes, C. (1999). Dialogue journals: Fellowship,
conversation, and English modeling, in Perspectives in Education and Deaf ness, May/June,
1999.
Blackwell, P., Eugen, E., Fischgrund, J., &
Zarcadoolas, (1978). Sentences and other systems: A language and learning curriculum for
hearing-impaired children. Washington, D.C.:
The Alexander Graham Bell Association for the
Deaf.
Bloome, D., & Green, J. (1984). Directions in the
sociolinguistic study of reading. In P.D. Pearson
(Ed.), Hand book of read ing re search (pp.
395-421). NY: Longman.
Coleman, P.P., Koppenhaver, D.A., & Yoder, D.E.
(1989). Emerging literacy activities for preschool
augmentative com mu ni ca tors. Un pub lished
manu script, Uni ver sity of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, Carolina Literacy Center, Chapel
Hill, NC.
Dziwulski, M. Developing literacy skills for persons with developmental disabilities: some consid er ations. (1992). Cha pel Hill, NC: Clin ical
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TTY (800) 854-7013
DB-LINK
Voice: (800) 438-9376
Cen ter for the Study of De vel op ment and
Learning.
E d m i a s t o n , R . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . I N R E AL t r a i n i n g
materials
Fukurai, Shiro. How can I make what I cannot
see? (1974). NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Koppenhaver, D.A., Coleman, P.P., Kalman, S.L.,
and Yoder, D.E. The implications of emergent literacy research for children with developmental
disabilities.
American
Journal
of
Speech-Language Pathology: A Journal of Clinical Practice (1991), 1 (1). pp. 38-44.
Miles, B. (1998). Overview on Deaf-Blindness.
Monmouth, OR: DB-LINK, The National Informa tion Clear ing house on Children Who Are
Deaf-Blind.
Miles, B. (1999). Talking the Language of the
Hands to the Hands. Monmouth, OR: DB-LINK,
The Na tional In for ma tion Clear ing house on
Children Who Are Deaf-Blind.
Miles, B., & Riggio, M. (1999). Remarkable conversations: A guide to developing meaningful
communication with children and young adults
who are deaf-blind. Watertown, MA: Perkins
School for the Blind.
Materials
Braille materials can be obtained from:
National Braille Press
88 St. Stephen Street
Boston MA 02115
(800) 548-7323
Fax: (617) 437-0456
http://www.npb.org
American Foundation for the Blind
11 Penn Plaza, Suite 300
New York, NY 10001
(212) 502-7600
(800) 232-5463
http://www.afb.org
High-interest, low vocabulary materials can be
obtained from:
Gallaudet University Press
John Kessler, Sales Representative
5801 South Ellis
Chicago, IL 60637
(733) 702-7248
http://www.gupress.gallaudet.edu
Perspectives in education and deafness. Special
liter acy is sue. (May/June, 1999). Wash ing ton,
DC: Gallaudet University.
Stratton, J.M. Emergent literacy: A new perspective. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness:
(1996), 90(3). pp. 177-183.
Taylor, D. (1983). Family literacy: Young children learn ing to read and write. Exeter, NH:
Heinemann Educational Books.
Barbara Miles is a communication specialist/consultant and teacher, experienced with all ages and levels
of persons who are deaf-blind. She has taught regional, national and international seminars on communication issues for children who are deaf-blind.
Her articles have been published in professional journals & newsletters and she is co-author of the book
“Remarkable Conversations.”
You are welcome to copy
this publication, but please
provide the appropriate
citations.
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http://www.dblink.org
DB-LINK (The National Information Clearinghouse on Children Who Are DeafBlind) is funded through Cooperative Agreement No. H326U040002 by the U.S.
Department of Education, OSERS, Special Education Programs. The opinions and
policies expressed by this publication do not necessarily reflect those of DB-LINK or
the U.S. Department of Education.
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Literacy For Persons Who Are Deaf-Blind