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ALFRED
P.
WORKING PAPER
SLOAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT
IMPLEMENTING CHINA'S S&T MODERNIZATION PROGRAM
Professor Denis Fred Simon
MIT Sloan School of Management
WP #1474-83
December 1983
MASSACHUSETTS
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
50 MEMORIAL DRIVE
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
Not for Citation Without
Permission of the Author
IMPLEMENTING CHINA'S S&T MODERNIZATION PROGRAM
Professor Denis Fred Simon
MIT Sloan School of Management
WP #1474-83
December 1983
]
I[!]Dill!]§D!tiDa_Chi_r!als_S&T_ModerDi£atiori_Proara^
I
.
I
nt rod act
i
on
Btudies of policy
s.rid
developing
is the
Os
i
nations
product
lenient at
adaptation
procedures
Analysis
desirjnated
of
between
process
this
usually
a
policy
structures
formal
policy
at
pass through several stages,
certain
strategy and
out policies formulated
Attempts
the process and affecting the outcome.
menting
[ i
aortcem
must
organisational
carrying
for
hy national-level decision-makers.
tation
evolution.
and
political-economic context, as well as with the
and
mdustriai i zed
the
both
best viewed as a process rather thari
is
interplay
the
on in
organizational
of
just a discY'^ete event.
with
i
indicate that "successful" implementation
implementation
such,
itself
nip
implemen-
each one conditioning
strategy
The
for
imple-
may undergo considerable change during
the course of implementation both unintentionally
or
in
response
to the influence of contextual factors beyond the immediate control
of the plarinev^
not
policy
or
necessarily
be
or a policy failure,
process
designed
to
viewed
but
administrator.
as
an
These
indication
changes
should
of shifting goals
rather may be seen as part of
a
building
enhance the attractiveness of and facilitate
great et" receptivity to a new policy.
Within socialist
systems,
the
problems
of
developing
and
adapting
strategy
a
policy implement at ion are often
for-
by the issue? of centralized versus decentralised
arenas
policy
such
science
as
typical concerns of policy
imperatives
the
leaders
iri
ability
evevits
control and coordinate,
to
of
m'j.st
levels
lower
at
Yet,
wit
I",
in
on
bureaucracy
innovation
in
a
socialist
Berliner,
E3I1
Soviet
the
Union,
must
and
ecovicrtMc
advancre,
a\nD
m
study
his
has shown that
coord]-
m
some point
at
thieir-
to orchest r-^ate
administrative
centralized
system
political
maintai ni rrLj
and if need be,
the
innovation.
for
the so-called "imperatives of
natiori"
focused
be
for science and techriolocy to pt-^osper
be room
iridustrial
withiri
the'
other words,
In
v-Jithin
for example,
to
socialist states are concerned about
system. l£D
there
tend
system-ordering.
of
control.
and technology,
implementot^s
cornpouridecl
give way to the forces of the marketplace since competition
ef '^ect i veness and efficiency within
production enterprise.
is
the
economic,
social,
technology
botn
as
— the
much
inst
as well as
influence
on
i
t ut
tht'
]
or-,ai
,
inter-
evolution
the
II5I!
This paper will discuss some of the
to
the
and
unit
and its application as the activities of thE formal
technological institutions.
Chinese
R&D
domestic
setting
ecological
has
the
as Weiss and others have suggested,
environment
and
— that
find,
LAII
prevailing
national conext
of
rather
administrative decree frequently is needed to promote rreatcr
than
it
t i rna-
improve
and technology policy.
the
It
methods
adopted
by
the
"implementation environment" for science
offers
two
basic
themes:
First,
as
3
technology
in
progress in science and
r-esalize,
dependent
upon
increased
new
of economic
s^i^ea.
more
and
rehabilitation
Rather,
S&T sector depends,
the
in the
to a great extent,
Without
policy.
ads/Sinced
to respond to
implementation
technology policy
strategy
adequate
the
lack
leaders
key
which
policy,
the context of this
serve
the
research.
to
it.
sense of
it
economy,
As such,
The
Cfc]
a set
is
paper,
incentives
science
ways,
the
function
of
ar^e
seeking
a
is
to
mixed
a
The major objective
science
make
S&T policy has a
term
and
balance between use
strong
"programatic"
but
in
byi
is
technology
and
production-related
to get more applied,
i.e.
of projects,
programatic
element
used not in the narrow
inclusive
sense
so
that
connotes a set of policies that embody a strategy for achieving
undergo
substantial
by the movement away
of
for
also the prime implementation issue in
a particular set of objectives.
to
needed
national
of central control and some market mechanisms.
S&T
demand
China's
of
many
in
is,
which
?n
on policies adopted
nation's economic needs.
ttie
Second,
modernization
and
products and production processes, China's
R&D organizations and personnel will
of
investment
R&D or specific policies adopted to rectify deficiencies within
the research sector,.
of
to
merely
not
is
come
have
l6?aders
Chiria'G
administration
to the Cultural
from
This
strategy,
fine-tuning,
the
is
continues
which
characterized
Soviet -style,
overall
cent ra 1 ly- led
form
and management that dominated Chinese S&T prio>"
Revolution
in
the
mid-196ias. C7D
Instead
of
paper
Sigurdson
by what
implementation from
discuss
will
Policy implementation
perspective.
of S&T is to
has
termed
approach. LSD
"demand-pull"
This
development
the
center,
for the most part,
be accomplished,
a
the
from
"pushed"
being
viewed
is
facilitative
a
as
a
series
of
shifting strategies and dynamic processes occurring simultaneously,
each designed to alter not only the environment
arid
decisions
technology
srB
also
but
made,
which
in
science
the calculus of
decision-making among persons responsible for establishing resecirch
priorities
accomplishing
and
come about throughi the incessant pulling and tugging
and
resources
ities.
that
takes place between local
Withiri such a framework,
approaches
need
one implementation continuim,
muitifacted
"mixed"
sibilities of
re-defiried
to
but
viewed
be
rather
achieve
central
and
local
as
part
as
strategy where the role,
various
arid
versus
centralized
necessarily
not
These shifts
objectives.
economic
over
ceritral
coritr'ol
author-
decentralized
movements along
of
the
same,
function and respon-
units
3.Ke
constantly
greater responsiveness to the central goal
of making science and technology serve production.
II.
A.
The Role of SST in the Four Modernizations
The Dilemma of Policy Implementation
In an effort
to promote a more rapid and
sustainable
pattern
—
of
China's
development,
ecoriOfiiic
many of which would have
bold policy initiatives,
taboo
politically
heyday
the
during
These initiatives have
industry
of
profit
t'le
commune system in the rural areas.
ments
policy
Brici
in
to
with
efforts
the
the domestic research system,
the
foreign
experts.
be
required
view,
the rest of the
Beijing
to
these
make
the
leadership
century.
In
of
taken
has
widespread
and
efforts
large'
partici-
many
will
continue
yield desired outcomes,
technology
difficult
most
represents,
challenge
ways,
the
facing
in
this
Chinas for
confronting
task
involves more than just the mere reformulation of existing
policies for science and
in
far
Because of the broad range of insti-
the modernization of science and
author's
and
improve the operation
to
Dengist
the
dramatic
most
tutional and attitudinal changes that have been and
to
use
Of all these recent experi-
quantities of foreign technology imports
of
expanded
from
unprecedented step of opening China's doors to
somewhat
pation
rule.
Beijing's actions within the realm
innovations,
Olong
Mao's
partial dismantling of
a
of science and technology have been the
reaching.
considered
been
Chairman
of
spectrum
the
covered
incentives
leaders have taken some rather
science
and
technology.
technology
requires
transformation of the economic
srid
More
critically,
nothing
less
progress
than a major
political environment
in
which
research is conducted and technology-related decisions are made.
Implementation
of
a
national
program
and technology has not been an easy task for
to modernise science
the
Chinese
leader-
&
with
Faced
ship.
domestic
a
science,
technology, and education
infrastructure decimated by the political turmoil of
leaders
Chinese
Revolution,
have
challenge of rebuilding,
almost
structure
competent
and
of
pool
move the country forward in
science
li?-£'!Zi
scientists
years
institutional
an
and technicians to
As
ahead'.
result
a
years behind the West and Japan in most
technology
and
scratch,
China's research system stagnated,
the Cultural Revolution,
the Chinese
Cultural
been faced with the monumental
from
the
the
The
fields.
tific and technological advance is
Bri
leaving
critical
task of stimulating scien-
arduous
one
hold
and' will
political implications for the nature of Chinese society
important
in the years ahead.
without
Moreover,
application
expanded
modern
of
appreciable
progress
China's
technology,
The
key
factors
related
to
three main headings:
political
factor
legacy of the
of
the
that
have
science
and
derives
Revolution
Cultural
factor is a double-edged
many
of
their positions as a
political
campaigris,
Cultural Revolution,
CliZi]
result
such
remain
and
Party
earned
of
as
the
In several
sword.
whom
and
The
external.
and continues to be fueled by the
from
past thirty years.
authority,
technology can be grouped under
structural,
political,
LSI
implementation
the
influenced
and
pattern of
economic growth will continue to be erratic and uneven at best.
process
of
the
positions
in
of
credentials and attained
activism
anti-science
reluctant
the political
respects,
cadres
their
their
reversals
political
to
accept
during
previous
aspects
of the
new
system
a
7
govemrnent
of
adrni rust rat
ideological criteria.
policy
based
ion
technical
on
be resolved if scientists and engineers were
Within
resources
tific
where
environment
air\
given
authority
extensive
community
quite severe if the practical needs
would
rein.
and equipment
granting
tne
scien-
policy circles could
in
of
free
a
manpower,
financial,
scarce supply, the costs of
in
ax-'g
otherwise,
and
than
China's
this does not mean that all of
Yet,
implementation-related
problems,
rather
were
country
the
to
be'
be
subordinated to the scientific quest for knowledge.
ft
Chinese
Mariy
the Ocademy of
to
Sciences,
greater emphasis to
to
applied
research.
their
surrender
Even
C 1 1 1
though
of
"role
tend
these
models"
to
have
for
the
be
advanced
project
nations.
the current "pro-science" climate may
to
achieve
got
the
the Cultural
younger
large
selection
percenand their
development
and
Many apparently believe that
be
their
opportunity
last
nationally or internationally recognized scientific
a
accomplishment.
what
ft
been trained in the West or Japan,
research
to give
the core of China's
scientific community is well advanced in age. Cl£j
tage
commitment
in the movement
begun to appear on the scene,
have
scientists
refuse
and "dirty their hands"
science
basic
particularly those affiliated with
scientists,
This "ivory tower" mentality,
scientific
Revolution,
community
is
which
in political
compounded,
in
some
is
precisely
trouble during
respects,
by
continued
apprehension and fear about the longevity of the present
policies.
Though strongly committed to the
spirit
and
direction
8
of
Dengist policies,
the
large percentage of Chinese scientists
a
remain uneasy about the future.
The second factor,
with
faults
the
spite
In
development
Chinese
process,
the
not
been applications oriented.
of
research
all
the highest
The
—40"/.. C13I1
talized,
caliber
can
system
the
have
had
of the enterprise.
with
attaining
new product or
and
quality
very
ftnd,
output
process
the
civilian
only
is
defense
^rid
erratic.
incentive
factory
rate
researchers
among
little
to
manager,
sectors.
between
and
Research
C14!]
sev^ve the needs
concerned
innovations,
especially
not been
have
since
driving forces behind
The current state of affairs in our country is
is more backward than technology.
Some of our technological facilities are not at all
inferior to other people's,
but the products are very
backward in both numbers and quality.
primarily bad management.
mainly
marketing
economic behavior at the level of the firm.
that management
3iZi
has had little incentive to adopt
quotas,
considerations
only
author,
to be highly compartmen-
tended
has
researchers and endusers have tended to be
institutes
one
to
institutes
communications
and
students
many
of
be translated into production; even in
particularly between the
Connections
associated
science and technology has
According
research
Rf.D
perception
the
of
of
liZiy.
is
the basic design and organization of Chinese
in
research system.
the structural variable,
i.e.
CI 511
The reason is
system
O related man i f est at ion of the Chinese
problem
allocation
labor
of
centralized
highly
of
nature
mobility.
and
system
the
has
been
the
Because of the
C16I1
determining
for
job
assignments and the scarcity of scientific and technical personnel,
many individuals have been forced
they
have
not
do
obviously redundant.
are
£/3
almost
trated in the machine-building and
number
similar
of
personnel
while
engineers,
cause of this imbalance has
of
components
however,
gers.
research
the
while
sectors
there
areas
sector.
has been the operating
the
are
many
too
there are not enough.
communications
poor
more
fl
One
among
important factor,
institute
among
"culture"
15^-
mana-
Given the difficulty and uncertainty in securing replacement
personnel,
to
the
been
concen-
ax'^p
industry is less than
light
others
in
sector
industrial
the
in
metallurgy
In some geographic
of the total. L171
chemical
in
which
for
engineers and technical personnel
the
of
For example,
jobs
xn
or for which their skills
skills
proper
the
remain
to
institutes
particularly in outlying areas,
restrict
tended
have
the movement of their personnel and to retain indivi-
duals even though jobs
transfers
might
be
of
benefit
to
both
the researcher and the receiving institute.
The
last,
but
that have defined and
mentation
in
science
perhaps
most
influenced
and
critical
the
technology
context
of the three factors
of
policy
iir.ple—
has been the external one.
This has been alluded to above concerning the
proclivity
of
some
10
scientists
to
abroad
look
research priorities and
been
has
goals.
tendency
the
in
of
engaging
actually
and
tendencies are reinforced
most
the
scientific commi-inity to "pay
blindly catching
science
bilateral
and Western Europe.
US,
Japan,
of
Chinese
scientists
comparatively
on
more
are
modern,
all cases,
overseas
numbers
large
or work in
visit
to
facilities
research
wel 1— equi pped
rather than "applied" research.
between
gs^P
in
projects that would fit into the category of "basic"
expensive
the
These
183
participation
expanded
In almost
sent
" C
cooperation programs with the
technology
and
over-
and
up
science.
"world
in
China's
by
manifestation
serious
Its
no heed to the national condition,
taking,
of reference in selecting
a point
as
many
what
This
has
served
exacerbate
to
Chinese scientists feel they want to
do and what economic leaders believe should be done.
discussed
The importance of the international context is also
below
in
terms
of
the
strong
scientists have had on the structuring
object ives. C193
Moreover,
and equipment has
been
as
well.
Here again,
China's
influenced
that overseas Chinese
influence
by
of
research
selection
the
external
technologies
have sufficed.
In short,
or
and
technologies
envoronment
many Chinese have been inclined to purchase
foreign-made "state-of-the-art items when more
riate"
of
programs
domestically-produced
so— called
"approp-
equivalents
would
C£iZi3
without changes in economic
incentives
and
alter-
—
11
at ion
the
in
links
between
researchers
changes in institutional personnel
management
of
external
policy
without
better
and
effectively implementing any new
The context must be changed
behavior
institutional
and
without
policies,
forces,
S&T policy will be frustrated.
and producers,
before
begin to change
will
—a
task
more easily said than done.
B.
The Big-Push of 1978
The pivotal role
to
be
played
science
by
and
technology
.
was most clearly articulated at the time of the March 1978 National
Science Conference when China's highest
leaders
noted
with science
a
national
that
crux
"the
technology
and
development ." C£l
The
discussion
advanced
in
O set of eight
attention.
C£'3D
and
It
of
negotiation
China's stated goal
nations
improvements
comprehensive
March meeting had been the product
as late 1976.
science
and
was
many
of
intensive
of
had
begun
"catch
up"
technology
apparent
after
the year
by
looking
not
as early
with
priority areas were spelled out for
becomes
research
announced at the
months
that
to
both
in
program
of priorities that their selection reflected
viewpoint,
holding
The
II
science conference in March 1978 signified the impot
education. C££3
political
scientific
and
the four modernizations rests
of
tance that the regime attached to
and
political
one
but the varying interests of the different
the
£0OiZi.
immediate
at
the list
homogeneous
institutional
—
1£
concerned
groups
objective
the primary
high-energy
in
technology
and
clearly
was
physics
economic.
stncj
group
topics
of
—
achieve
even
perhaps,
community,
space,
economic
applications.
there
such as genetics,
possible
— but
into specific research
third
Prize.
computers and electronics, and lasers
This is
were
obvious
projects
military,
as
well
to deny that within fields
riot
applications
practical
instances
many
in
percentage
large
a
Nobel
a
were given attention because of their
as
cases,
to jump back into the world scientific
foreign-trained,
were
other
In
the choices reflected
genetics,
and
the desire of many leading Chinese scientists,
who
modernization.
as in the selection of energy and materials science,
In some cases,
as
science
with
that
were
translation of these priorities
often
organizational
individual
goals rathev" than practical problem-solving. C£4D
The
emphasis
heavy
placed on the development of high— energy
physics has long been a critical point
Chinese
Western
and
scientists.
of
Citing
discussion
and
be
Fat'ig
to
promotirig
time
of
physicists
and
effort
in
and
felt
that
Xiaoping
and
for
Chinese
this
in
field.
the
area was supported and
scientists
— many
of
whom
advanced research in high-energy
physics was a good vehicle for boosting
bilities
both Deng
advancements
Chinese
pushed by a coterie of Chinese-American
were
interest
argued that substantial resources and personnel should
Yi
devoted
Investment
both
strong
the
exhibited by Chairman Mao Zedong in this field,
among
China's
scientific
capa-
scientists to gain international noto—
13
desire
This
riety.
research
shut off from world
a
scientific
Chinese
the
since
underestimated
recognition
internat ional
for
over
for
large-scale cooperative program to build
a
ftccordinqly,
GeV proton synchro-
5iZi
tron was begun as part of the Sino-US S&T cooperation
remarkable
The
was
financial and
short
allowed
personnel
This
supply.
command
such
resources
— both
to
during the
was
significant
which
of
basic
that
amounts
of
been
in
had
not to suggest that applied research was
is
However,
totally ignored.
program. CG5]
process
conference
first year after the national science
research
entire
this
of
aspect
be
community had been
decade.
a
cannot
the
signal
did
it
strong
influence
of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in the formulation and imp]emen-
tation of science and technology policy.
more
the
fundamenal
issue
of
CE'fc]
various
whether
also
it
find,
raised
Chinese leaders
actually understood for policy purposes the differences in function
orientation
and
was
it
the
"technology."
distinctions
Lacking
between
the
had
a
"scientific"
quality
to
it
— even
when
lacked a practical application.
This
nology
the
for
and
very surprising to see high-level support given
not
to any work that
it
"science"
appreciation
a sophisticated
two,
between
tendency
for
Chinese "science" to leap ahead and tech-
development to still lag
continued
disinterest
and,
behind
brought
in some cases,
to
the
surface
reluctance of the
industrial sector to seize upon the new opportunities
for
product
process improvement that were being made available as a result
arid
of the new emphasis being given to S&T.
gested
the
that
expanded
to
key
retrospect,
In
in applied research
interest
necessarily
and a more responsive research establishment would not
come
center itself in the form of new science and tech-
the
from
sug-
it
nology policy.
catalyst
the
Rather,
bringing
for
about
SST
modernization was to be found elsewhere in the system.
Rnother
dimension
important
of
the
national science
1378
plan was the lack of attention paid to reform of the
ture
and
design
downfall of the
leaders
was
domestic
the
of
"Garig of Four,
"
rehabilitate
to
basic
S&T system itself.
the
approach
the
system
adopted
as
struc-
ftfter the
Chinese
by
existed prior to
it
the Cultural Revolution rather than to consider fundamental
tural
From
change.
ar\
China's
overall perspective,
system had been modelled after the basic structure
system
— having
a
three
pronged
sharp division between basic and
of
structure
Soviet
characterized
by the
of
lack
strong research capability within the university sector. ZZTl
a
Science
and
Technology
the Cultural Revolution,
a
the
and
The system was managed by one overarching organization,
by
research
the
research
applied
struc-
revolutionary
Commission (SSTC)
.
During
the SSTC had been disbanded
committee
charged
with
the
State
the height of
replaced
and
overseeing
science
and technology affairs.
In 1977,
re-establishment of the SSTC was
one
of
the
first
15
taken
steps
the Deng-led regime as
by
attempted to revitalize
it
the country's traumatized research sector.
little
done to alter the situation in the university sector regarding
was
the harnessing
In
very
Moreover,
view
the
of whom had
extensive
received
system
training
purposes.
Soviet
the
in
some
Union,
produced a nuclear weapon and other
had
scientific/technological
desired
research
for
many Chinese administrators and scientists,
of
Soviet-style
the
personnel
scientific
of
advances,
therefore
was
and
not viewed necessarily as a possible obstacle in the implementation
process.
The initial response to
technology
and
the
modernization
was
throughout
institute.
In some
tutes
enterprises
and
localities,
the call to modernize
at
December
a
technology,
the
formulated
1979
"quite a
country
science
leading
various
technology.
forum
research
each
insti-
or paid lip service to
ignored
and
national
few
within
and
were
Beijing
in
local cadre within
basically
science
on
placed
resulting in wide vari-
mixed,
ations in the ways in which policies
interpreted
stress
new
pointed
fts
out
progress in science and
on
were
cadres
still
accustomed
to giving guidance to scientific and technological work by adopting
the
method
unwilling
of
promoting
political
of
"
authority.
Their
technical
behavior
by three factors: their lack of technical
was
Moreover,
C£8D
to relinquish their political positions,
the call for placing persons with
itions
movements.
they obstructed
credentials
primarily
training,
in
pos-
motivated
self-interest
16
and
apprehension
an
shift and that a high profile
"
winds might once again
political
the
that
py-o-science"
position
might
turn
out to be politically dangerous.
At
present there are still many cadres within the
party,
including some who are in charge of economic,
aware
of
who are insufficiently
and party leadership,
government,
of science and technology or who
importance
the
do not sufficiently support science and technology
work.
Many party committees and administrative leadership
organs have still failed to put scientific and technical
work on their agendas, or pay lip service to its importance
loses
but actually relegate it to second place,
so that
out when the pressure of work, increases.
Some comrades
it
even consider that science and technology stand in the
production
same relationship to
cock
crows
that
dawn,
at
and
that
i.e.
the cock crows or not," and that
the
it
economy
technical
received
personnel
positive
and technology in a
the
staying
skeptical
about
policies.
Some scientists,
out
a
for
pursuing
that
makes no difference
their
research "failure,"
majority
the
the
"dawn comes whether
whether science and technology are pursued or not.
In spite of the fact
as
of
C£9I1
scientific
and
China's renewed emphasis on science
way,
a
large
percentage
remained
power of the new leadership and its
fearful of
intellectual
once
again
activities
being
singled
or engaging in
viewed the statements coming out of Beijing
17
trepidation.
some
with
This
C3i2iD
antithetical to the research process
projects
"successful"
regarding
duplication
widespread
to
led
West or other parts of China.
take
repeat
and
In other
proven
a
responsibility for
science
involves
It
of
been completed in the
experiment
the
instances,
response
science
for
went
extremes
to
peasants And workers.
sincere
their
in
led
The
efforts
to
these
— having
areas,
research
in
popularizing
movement
to
to
court
the
value of B£T to
popularize
science
noted
research,
to China's ne^ds.
and
of
rela-
In one province,
institutes. C31D
153%
no equipment,
above,
and no
in
personnel.
one
the
year.
others
In
the stress on "popularizing and engaging
in" science and technology led to extensive attempts
foreign
Beijing's
institutes came to be called the three no centers-
no projects,
as
dispel
a massive outflow of rather simplistic "scien-
to
worthless
of
on
and technology that had been engendered
number of so-called "institutes" increased by
Many
to aBsunie
emphasis
tific and technical publications" and to a proliferation
tively
under-
to
than
Beijing's
to
by the Cultural Revolution and others anxious
technology
particularly
technology resembled something of a bandwagon effect.
and
disdain
favor,
In many instances,
was politically safer
research
inherent
an
research,
had
that
be?
more speculative scientific venture.
a
Many local officials, some
the
which
of risk taking in order to move ahead.
element
this
of response proved to
type
to
replicate
much having little practical or immediate value
The tendency to pursue S&T
activities
in
such
18
a
reinforced
was
fashion
by
rapidity with which China was
the
expanding its S&T contacts with the outside world.
the
Chinese
offer
up
class
acquisition
in order to
cooperative
for
the
purposes.
izations"
was
the
proceed
to
emphasis given to
than
Chinese
announcement
"four
the
of
on the basis of the past,
purchase
the
actual
technology
whole
of
plants
and know-how.
in the Chinese press have suggested
expended
regarding
behavior
the
foreign technology and equipment. C323 .Here again,
of
the general response to
were
forced
difficulties encountered within the realm of the research
system itself were compounded by
rather
also
It
organizations
S&T
partner
acceptable
ffir\
research.
"counterpart"
create
to
The
for
cases,
development of these contacts forced China to give the appear-
ance of engaging in world
funds
In many
that
less
modern-
with primary
and
equipment
ftrticles appearing
than
10"/.
of
the
so-called "technology imports" actually went
for
Numerous
technology. C333
delegations
sent abroad to survey the state-of-the-art
Many of these missions proceeded to
sign
buying
and
missions
in various fields.
contracts
for
advanced
items which China could not possibly use.
The
serious.
from
find,
their
situation
C3AI1
abroad
concerning
computer
imports was particularly
Many medium and large, high-speed computers
acquired
were severely underutilized or poorly maintained.
in some instances,
original
the
shipping
computers
crates.
were
never
unpacked
r35Ii
from
Stress was placed on the level
19
of sophistication rather than on the appropriateness of
Contracts
nology. C36D
delegations when in
in most cases,
conducted
not
imported items
ancillary
the
plant
they
fact
had
authority
little
domestic
equipment
such
as
the
in
For
infrastructure
purchases
In addition,
were
inefficient use of both
in
resources.
and
commit
to
assessments
project
and
resulting
beforehand,
equipment
and
results,
feasibility studies
and
tech-
were signed by over-enthusiastic technical
Chinese foreign exchange for these purchases.
scarce
the
worthwhile
example,
make
to
were
most
of
the whole
lacking.
The
case of the Baoshan steel mill,
turned
out to be disastrous with very little
technology
actual
transfer
taking place. C373
Although
many
problems
these
of
the time of the Third Plenum in December 1978,
early
1981
when
they
assumed
agenda of the top leadership.
Third
the
a
development
appearance
cits
— the
basic
During
problems
of
and
until
period
after
technology
Third
the
ft
for
eradicating
program of economic
Plenum
in
response
to
a series of domestic budgetary and trade defi-
of
the
eight-character slogan of
dation
ensuing
the
disappeared.
largest in the history
provisions
not
many of the expectations that earlier had been
Plenum,
readjustment was announced at
the
was
it
leading position on the working
placed on the efficacy of science and
China's
to surface by
begun
had
improvement."
of
program
the
Communist
regime.
The?
were embodied in the so-called
"readjustment,
The program,
restructuring,
consoli-
which constituted a major
retrenchmerit
,
leaders.
political
NPC(June 1973
for
physics,
was
From an overall perspective,
of
research
the
system
several
program.
critical
the
however,
only
addressed
High-energy
shortcoming^i
implicitly.
readjustment program would have important implications for
and
technology,
particularly
respect
with
between research and the economy. 13&1
economic
underlying
large
for these cutbacks.
target
prime
were
and
and scientists were encouraged
modernization
a
ecoriornic
Sessions of the Fifth
3rd
respectively),
cutback
were
example,
and
1980
economic
the
to assist with
End
September
and
projects
scientific
the
Ot
both
of
consurnmed the full attentiori
to
science
the relationship
not until
Yet,
The
the
signals
were rectified could Beijing expect
behavior
attitudes towards the development and use of science and technology
to change.
Economic Readjustment and Readjustment of S&T
III.
ft.
C39I1
Rethinking S&T Modernization
Although
details are scarce,
the
nology meeting to review
for
S«T
and
problems
art
and
revise
several
outpouring of Xinhua (New China)
articles
articles
indicate
that
the
strategy
The meeting
news
broad-
in both P^2Ei?l§ D§iiy ^^'^ Guangming
Daily regarding the appropriate role
These
national science and tech-
modernization was held in December 1980. C40]
set the stage for
casts
the
a
a
of
major
science
and
technology.
revision of the approach
£1
for st irnulat
ted
irig
the
in
S&T advance was underway in early 1981, as
admonition
Xinhua
that
reflec-
performing science and
"in
technology work, we should make the promotion of economic
develop-
ment our primary task. "C41]
The
thrust
full
interviews,
one with
member
the
of
Yang
faculty
Yang
and that no more than
basic
to
Tong
Vice-Minister
Dal in,
research
applied
that
Recording
to
Yang,
"the
devoting much manpower and money to isolated
regard
without
2)
1
)
research
of
research
efforts
the
practice of
"
topics
C4£D
Tong high-
and
technology
be coordinated with the growth of the economy;
will
production technologies and their application
focus
A)
S&T
a
devoted
sophisticated
science
all
of
be
past
for economic results must change.
lighted five new principles to guide
work:
and
would be stressed
of available S&T funds should
5"/.
research.
Onhui
of
the Chinese University of Science and
at
indicated
approach was described in two
vice-governor
J ike,
Technology and the other with
SSTC.
new
the
of
activity;
3)
strive
to
and
enterprises
will
should
popularize
the
be
key
expand their
research
findings;
continued efforts should be made at studying foreign S&T develop-
ments; and
grow
at
5)
a
basic research
steady,
but
should
gradual
not
be
pace.
C43II
ignored,
but
should
Tong went on to note
that the future development of S&T and the success of
readjustment
of the economy are closely linked.
The
fullest
expression
of
the
new
policy was stated in a
editorial
0l!l'[!]iD_Rife§l2
the
Rpril
on
7th. C4AD
of the December 1980 S&T meeting,
results
that the time has come to move away
to
science
advanced
and
technology,
reaching for what is beyond one's grasp
up
with
reasons to
to
surpassing
and
development
the
China's
for
account
others."
of
key
competition that has fostered
and
the
tendency
to
performance
catching
respect
with
technologies:
disregard
a
lack of
results
economic
for
rely principally on increased capital cons-
truction rather than new technology to expand production output.
What is the aim of scientific research?
that
it
it
is to probe the unknown.
it
boil down to?
If we
levels.
Still
is to achieve good results and
train competent personnel.
all these sayings.
Some say
Others say that
is to catch up and surpass world
others say that
However,
There
st'^e
gr-ounds for
what does all this finally
To_increase_the_f orceE_gf _Eroduct ion.
deviate from this fundamental aim,
it
will be
difficult to avoid tendencies such as scientific
research for its own sake, catching up with and
surpassing others for the sake of doing so and achieving
good results just for the sake of achieving them,
in the end,
and
suggested two
editorial
production
a
production,
blindly
of
and
attention
"paying
ignoring
The
poor
the editorial noted
only
from
further
Surnrnarizing
production cannot be benefitted and
it
be difficult to develop the economy and go on with
scientific research. C45D
and
will
;
S&T
criticism
more severe
ft
sector
The
Daily based in Shanghai in June 1981.
many
within
practices
on-going
in another editorial
presented
was
of
the
in the Liberat
which
article,
i^on
blamed
China's problems in the S&T realm on the continued influ-
of
leftist
ence of
pointed
elements,
to
problems
five
that
had
affected the implementation of the program for S&T modernization:
a)
placing
the West
too
failure
research
to
b)
adequate
pay
attention
impatience for success;
d)
continued duplication of research; and
economic
failure of
which
was
however,
planners
Chinese
the
between
links
the
The last problem,
both
up with
quality
the
to
S&T
lack
and
science
continued to be
of
technology
&
the
to
key
and
what
administrators believed was the real
modernization
efforts
—a
of formal institutional
those responsible for determining
economic
needs
primary
cause
linkages between
arid
objectives
one hand and those responsible for setting research prior-
the
ities on the other hand.
nation
catching
blindly
c)
neglecting
the economy.
on
on
,
e)
of
emphasis
much
between
members
Highly-focused consultation
of
the
SSTC
and
coordi-
and their counterparts and
the State Planning and Economic Commissions were a rare occurrence,
except for broad planning purposes.
More
important,
all
of the problems cited in the Liberation
£4
in one way or another,
Dail.^,
ity
and to ensure adherence to the policies
formulated
being
The State Science and Technology
central authorities.
mandate
which had been given the
and
inabil-
to effectively monitor the implementation process
Beijing
of
owed their existence to the
oversee
to
the
by
Copim;i
the
Bsion,
rehabilitation
revital izat ion of the S&T system, had proven itself re]atively
managing
ineffective at
criticism
vities.
Public
and
Session
4th
Criticism
the
of
the
of
science
national
People's
National
5th
1981 when COS Vice-President Li
tunity
castigate
the
Xun seized
between
rivalries
and that institutes were scrambling for research
overall coordination was
ar\
regarding
situation
policy
through
acting
be unable
China's
provincial
desired
more
even
was
provincial
SSTC
without
arid
tech-
unsettled.
The
counterparts, continued to
changes
regarding
science
and
personnel
In a recent
technology
paper
admin-
Howard Klein documents the basic inconsistencies between
the policies coming out of Beijing
being
projects
implementation of science
the setting of research priorities.
dealing with
istration,
its
about
bring
to
and
the
sco.^rs^te one. C47D
nology policies in the provinces
SSTC,
oppor-
the
his point that the SSTC had failed to unify research
the COS,
The
!:46j
though Li's comments were
Even
SSTC.
traditional
partly motivated by the
and
Congress.
SSTC was particularly strong at the 4th Session
in December
to
acti-
techriolocy
emerged at both the 3rd
SSTC
the
of
and
handled
at
the
local
and
how
level. C48D
these
In
policies
a select
we>-"e
number of
provinces,
such as Sichuari,
provincial
the
branch
local officials,
the
of
Communist
positive fashion to Beijing's policies.
the
of
provinces,
however,
the
conjunction
slower
pace at which the local
with
had
what
trans-
in Beijing since early 1978 and the need to depend on ccvdrer.
pired
questionable
uneveness
pol icies.
in
the
commitment
to
acceptance
and
produced
Deng,
persister.i
a
promotion of cent ral ly— den ved
II503
filtering the Implementation Environment
E.
Olthough the
the
in
approach
decision
modernization
S&T
to
initiate
to
fundamental
a
technologies,
the
style and criterion
facilitate
to
of
in
management
implementation
Discussions
managerial
behavior
of
critical
that
economic
successful
science and technology.
change
remained
fact
changes
would
ari
how
and
economic
reform.
C51I1
be
best
ir,
lor^
the
r\ecB^^a\y'y
to
effect
intimate part of the
leadership's internal debates concerning the essence
ment
product
of the new policies for
about
were
re\,isiori
meant that new attention
would be focused on the development and application
a
a
percentage
In a large
II493
iMithi
responded in
Party,
S&T system had been restored in comparison
with
in
of
Beginning in mid- 1981,
readjustt\\e
dis-
course coming out of Beijing reached a new level of sophistication,
with
the
debate
focusing
plan and the market.
led
by
Chen
Yun,
C5c:D
viewed
on the proper relationship between the
One
the
group
plan
of
decisionmakers,
perhaps;
as the inviolable principle
—
of
management.
economic
and
Muqiao
apparently
Zhao
that market forces could
source
relaxation
allowed
be
Xue
China's
of
the plan so
of
economic
determine
to
by
convinced that over
were
Ziyang,
advocated
They
stagnation.
supported
group,
decision-making was a major
centralization of
economic
Onother
1153]
be-
havior.
The
willingess
to operate was
growth.
the
China's
would harness the
same
time
prevent
excessive
that
methods"
"administrative
of dynamism in
signal
a
the
in
economy
"enthusiasm"
excessive
reliance
sustain
to
future
anxious to develop
of
so-called
on
had not produced the type
past
needed
were
leaders
to allow some market forces
leaders
top
of
a
enterprises
the
deviation
economic-
formula that
and
at
the
from state guidelines in
areas such as new capital construction.
One of the key mechanisms adopted to facilitate these
was
the
introduction
the industrial sector.
changes
the economic responsibility system into
of
David Zweig
fts
has
shown
in
his
paper,
the response of the peasants in the rural areas to the agricultural
responsibility system had been quite positive,
some
undesireable
side
effects.
Indications
sibility system would be widely applied in
apparently
first
appeared
at
and transport held in Shanghai
the
notion
a
in
the
though
that
were
there
the respori-
industrial
sector
national conference on industry
April
1981. C54D
Reliance
on
of economic responsibility at the level of the factory
£7
Mould
a
interest
material
firms.
Moreover,
C55!]
criteria
(and
productivity
the
in
i.e.
would
workers)
have^
respective
their
of
basic
would also mean that the
it
the past,
of
managers
enterprise
that
rneari
op£?ratinc
meeting output quotas, could no longer
be the sole consideration in the minds of workers or managers.
accom-
Introduction of the economic responsibility system was
panied
several other changes in economic policy
by
implications
had important
and
science
for
increases
plants
whole
increases
desired
vation and
modernization.
equipment
would
items. C573
Efforts would be
upgrade
and
a
priority.
high
efforts,
bank
the central
loans
and
more
by
made
or
Rather,
oc
the
poorly-maintained
sophisticated
modern,
rationalise
to
modernize
in
plant
manufacturing
energy
layout,
techniques.
efficiency
also
To accomplish all of these objectivei-
gains,
assist
to
of new plants
abroad. C56D
obsolete,
Old,
and technology would be required.
order
from
productivity
would
construction
improvements
significant
and to realize economic
In
Firt:?t,
in productivity would be factory reno-
replaced
be
management,
Achieving
assumed
technology.
longer
No
the
through
sought
be
the importation of
to
of which
important was the shift in industrial policy from "exten-
most
sive" to "intensive" development.
key
and
— many
with
authorities
expanded
application
of
science
11583
the financing of plant y-^enovation
increased
the
availability
of
other forms of credit to help pay for acquisition
c'6
of new items. C5S3
controversy
in
modernization
expect
remained
point
was
the depreciation period
would
increase
providing
possibily
to further subvert central
long
retained
wherewithal
so
funds,
localities
for
priorities
government
rate
lengthening of
a
locally
could
to occur if
the
&rid
well-taken,
financial
the
facilities
so
Sun's
While
low. LSili
claimed
leadership
the
and
plant
of
depreciation
the period of
China's industrial
lead by the aged Sun Yefang,
most of the industrialised nations and that
not
develofDed
rate was inadequate in comparison with
depreciation
China's
major
a
depreciation
of
Many economists,
plants. C60D
that
rate
existing
the
over
addition,
Iri
areas
in
such
as capital construction. C&£D
Discussion
finances
over-'
over the issue of prices
issue
relam
the
in
on
when
where
and
to
achieving
significant
ficiency.
In
many
be
achieved
as
sensitivity
to
politically
most
unwilling,
there was
would
be
improvements
these
a
in
agreement
any
general consensus that
necessary
a
sensitive
Although the
to come to
begin,
cases,
through
the
Chinese economic policy.
if not
adjustments
major price
— perhaps
of
leadership was unable,
also engendered significant debate
plant
improvements
prerequisite
operation
Mould
to
and ef-
ultimately
introduction of newly-stimulated innovations
technology-derived
productivity
gains
would
likely substantially increase.
Second,
new
emphasis
was
placed on improving product qual-
——
£9
Chinese leaders initiated several
ity. C63D
a
items were not
longer
manufactured.
being
Ot
broad
a
for making certain that the past practice of producing
useless
stocking
goods
abolished.
was
bore
good
a
ability
of
products
theiv^
the
adept
deal of this responsibility.
ticular, managers would have to
concerned
be
the
about
factory
In
pa>-
marke^t —
availability of
growing
the
given
over
and
given the new role
Yet,
of profit and loss within Chinese enterprises,
also
level,
Commission assumed part of the responsibility
Economic
State
manager
including
of product licensing in order to ensure that substandard
system
the
procedures,
consumer goods throughout the country.
there was
Third,
This
was
being
movement towards enterprise
a
encouraged
close
to
inefficient plants that remained on the
out
despite
their
poor
of a successful effort
One
of
mentality
also
It
tories that had
by
fostering
bring
scene
year
and
in
year
One good example
performance.
television
the
that
was
pursued
greater
has
industry
Shanghai.
in
their
the
practice
greater
various
proximity of one another.
been
so
pervasive
in
Chinese
meant to address the issue of those fac-
tories with many geographically
to
down many of the small and
Beijing's aims appears to have been to confront the "small
producers"
industry.
is
economic
consolidation.
plants
of
"small
specialization.
dispersed
under
and
complete"
In addition,
components
were
fac-
told
one roof or within closer
30
fourth move
ft
the
effort
recipient
the
country's
the
best
Ministry
China's
appreciably more and
of
has
in
military
and testing equipment,
report
a
sector has had
better
manpower,
been
receiving high
According to
the
quality
higher
manufacturing
modern
Ordnance,
sector
resources,
priority throughout the last thirty years.
by
embodied
was
defense
China's
sectors.
of
productivity
the barriers between the civilian and
down
break
to
industrial
defense
strengthen
to
Bnti
rnort-
and greater financial
Given these advantages and the availability
and political support.
of large amounts of unused production capacity in the defense
the
sector,
civilian
major
the
has
encouraged
Whereas
institutions.
been
had
leadership
vehicle
in
greater cooperatiori with
the
but within the
the two sectors, within the new environment,
security
of
considerations,
the scope
ta^jkiriQ
cooperation between
achieving
for
central
past,
Arid
bounds
timing of cooperation
would be left to the individual components themselves. C64]
Support for building
come
from
fiiping,
the
highest
bridges
between
in the Chinese
levels
Minister of National Defense and
National
Defense
Science
and
the
former
Technology
of the overall national modernization drive. C65n
a
two-way
street. C663
This
of
information
point
article by Zhang in Honggi in March
was
1983.
Zhang
leadership.
head
of
has
China's
Commission, has viewed
the development of a civilian R&D capability as
appears to be that the sharing
sectors
two
integral
3Lr\
part
Zhang's position
and
resources
is
implicitly stated in an
Stressing
that
China
31
cannot
nologies,
be
specific
one
electronics
Computer and
as they arise. C67D
where
e^rea
strengthen
to
country's
the
research base to meet Chinese need^
technological
and
acquisition of desired tech-
for
Zhang emphasized the need
scientific
to
nations
other
on
rely
this
appears
development
bridge— bui
is being
Id ing
emphasised. CEBD
C.
Freeing Up S&T Resources
The launching of the various economic
consequences
and in some cases as
vis-a-vis
the
of the S&T system.
types
science
freeing
complementary
of
and
the
of
result
a
similar
resources,
reform
the
for
reforms
technology
In response: to,
up
economic
of
actions
system.
important
has
were
taker,
important
Most
has been the initiation of a formal contract system. Under existing
guidelines,
for
the
factories and research institutes may
exchange
of services.
Each contract specifies a certain
formula for compensating the research
butions.
This
emphasis
of an effort to encourage
on
agreements
sign
institute
contract -related
for
its
research
cost— consciousness
greater
contriis
within
part
^
the
research unit as well as to assist the research sector in obtaining
funds that cannot be supplied by the central government.
Three forms
institute
sells
of
contracting
rights
its
factory and receives
a
fee;
to
appear
to
predominate:
l)the
a new technology directly to the
£)the
institute
signs
a
contract
v/
with
factory
a
provide
to
percentage of the profit
at
the first year,
10"/-
as
£0"/.
annually
sir\
as compensation,
sales
types of arrangements link
the
resourcefulness
addition,
— something
the
also serves as
it
etc.
and 3) an insti-
;
receives
and
a
productivity
percentage
a
research
visa versa.
and
unit
These'
factory
the
of
such
rate,
once again at a decreasing rate.
the
of
decreasing
the second year,
tute provides technology to a factory
of
assistance and receives a
technical
to
Iri
vehicle for "capitalising" technology-
the Chinese system lacked
prior
the
to
introduction
of the research contract system. C693
enterprises and research units have sought to go beyond
Where
the limited,
short— term features of the contract, they have
cooperative
ventures
-production
unions,
feature
these
of
organizations
do
called
and
"coal it ions.
relinquish
not
and selection of projects.
Profits
"
[7011
forms
their
The
distinguishing
is
that the member
formal
institutional
They are structured to facilitate both joint planning
affiliation.
— oriented,
"alliances," brain-trusts, research—
organizational
new
formed
involving
and
loses
both
sr^e
The research that occurs is production-
horizontal
and
vertical
integration.
jointly shared, once again providing both
partners with a vested interest in a successful venture.
third policy innovation designed to
tation
of
policies
new provisions
for
for
labor
science
mobility
and
and
promote
technology
the
implemen-
deals with the
consulting. C71j
In
an
—
attempt
expand
to
availability
the
of
both enterprises and government agencies,
have
been
the
given
technical
scientists and
completion
after
sonnel,
consultants
societies
on
under
of
part-time
a
their
regular
basis. C7£3
organisations
allow
to
such
as
jobs,
the
in
formalized
was
role
Science
China
early
Technology
and
The
Beijing. L731
in
their
per-
serve
to
addition,
In
as;
research
Chinese Ossociatiori
the
for Science and Technology can perform a technical
This
engineers
opportunity to sell their services on a fee
Research units have been instructed
basis.
expertise to
advisory
role.
with the formation of
1963
Consultative
Service
Center
center will serve as mechanism for bringing
together multi-disciplinary teams of experts
nical and economic matters.
advise
to
tech-
on
C74II
These three new features on the science and technology scene
research
contracts/cooperative ventures with enterprises/technical
consulting
— are
all designed to stimulate research
units
to
make
a sustained effort to insure that their projects have some economic
purpose.
at
the
By encouraging the commercialization
same
in industry
time
and
promoting
facilitating
the
while
research
of
economic responsibility system
cooperation
between
civilian
and
defense units, the leadership has introduced several new dimensions
to the
Chinese
research-production
system.
So
as Liaoning indicates,
various
far,
the
interface
as
the
results
previously
experience
have
been
absent
in
the
in such provinces.
appreciable,
with
new amalgams of research and production units being formed
—
34
ori
scientific
guidance
offering technical
efforts
[7&I1
"deregulate" the research system have been
to
complemented by a program to build
within
the
shortage
a
university
technology
the
of
in
system
a
and
strong
to
link that capability with
of
Faced
of
various
enterprises. C77D
funds
to
acquire
new equipment and to modernise
education
Shanghai,
institutions,
Services
Technical
such
wit^l
Jiaotong
as
have taken to the rendering of consulting
services as a means to raise needed monies.
ment
capability
research
needs
existing facilities,
University
geographic
other
to
strong
have taken to
Shanghai
as
expertise
and
areas throughout the country.
These
such
base
technical
and
municipalities with a
In addition,
a regular basis. C75D
at
Depart-
the
In 198£,
Jiaotong earned over 1.5 million
yuan from consulting activities. C78]
One other
to
promote
more
pushed
being
effort
effective
policy
by
In
May
Chinese
the
1S81,
a major election in which many management
with
scientists
COS President and
scientist,
West.
was
rather
Minister- in-Charge of
replaced
These changes
apparatus.
In
also
Liaoning,
by
Lu
have
for
positions
Jiaxi,
occurred
example,
power
of
and
ficademy of Sciences helri
rest af fed
positions were
administrators.
than
leadership
Dengist
implementation is the placing
of persons with technical credentials in
authority.
the
the
Fang
SSTC,
a chemist
within
forrner
Yi,
but
a
non
trained in the
the
government
two engineers were named
The Cornniunist Party also has
deputy governors. L7S1
up
efforts
its
recruit
to
scientists
10,000
professionals
reduce
and
the
for
new
policies
situation
work.
C81I1
smoothly
regarding
as far as their having
The
an
in
i'''
all
intellectuals
appropriate
fact that
remains
quite
environment
discussed
example,
difficult
within
which
in
sri
editorial
in
September 198£:
We should realize that many people
from "short-sightedness."
lectuals,
ar-'e
culture and the intel-
and the pernicious fallacies about the intel-
lectuals spread by the "gang of four"
minds
suffering
The longstanding leftist
ideas of belittling science,
the
implemen-
For
cases.
been
intellectuals continue to experierice
harassment and discrimination was
t!£DS9i
party
have
received by both factories and research institutes,
tat ion has not proceeded
to
potential
[IB0D
In spite of the fact that Beijing's
well
almost
in the face of the increasing amount of technical decisions
that must be made.
the
admitted
Since
as part of its attempts to dampen the legacy
of the Cultural Revolution
errors
stepping
technicians.
and
the Fujian Provincial Branch of the CCP has
1979,
been
some
of
comrades.
eliminate this influence.
manifested in:
1
)
Today,
Much
a\^e
still affecting
effort
is needed to
this influence is
Ideolog ical ly and theoretically,
some'
people have not yet truly realized that the great majority of intellectuals are components of the working
36
class who have mastered relatively more knowledge in
science and culture. £)Sorne people do not really understand
that
further
the
we
more we need intellectuals.
out
modernisation,
with
go
the.-
They even think that "with-
production will be carried on and
intellectuals,
houses will be built just the same and so on.
It
is
high time this kind of prejudice and narrow-mindedness
was gotten rid of.
Problems
also
C8£!]
arisen
have
with respect to the compensation
their
due several scientists and engineers for
In one case reported
ities.
for
when
charges,
the
very
fil
advisory
that
fact
positions.
technician
money
accepted
such
engineers
An
from
acquitted
accepted
for
engaging
regions. C85]
or
of
in
a
3i?i?
yuan
so-called
similar
renumeration
Here again,
but only after severe public ostracism.
The "commercialisation"
formation
the
incident occurred could
designing a barge for a local company in Nanning.
they were acquitted,
of
another example in Guangxi, three tech-
In
admonished
nicians were
later
though he was
be enough to dissuade other
ping
he
activ-
technical assistance he had rendered to a local rubber product
research institute. C833
for
a Shanghai
in Chi!:!a_Dail.y,
was accused of illegal economic dealings
consulting
of
research
"technological
also
has
blockades"
led
C84I1
to
the
in
sevev^al
Spurred on by the potential profitability of
develo-
possessing
various
marketable
technologies,
certain
37
research
share
institutes
information
their
other parts of China.
law
with
have
their
The absence
"proprietary"
protect
to
enterprises
and
become
counterparts
of
information
Given
leadership's
the
patent
makes the hoarding of
recent
intra-country "technology transfers," the
tc'
locally or in
domestic
strong
a
technical information economically rational within
environment.
reluctant
new
prevsilinc
the
encouragement
economic
of
realities-,
of the situation have worked against Beijing's stated objectives.
The
on-going
program
to
tiveness of research units
One
source
of
research
a
sabotaged by
institute. [871
In
falsified research
of
the
within
of
the
scientist
various
other
"egal
i
t
received
or
C8ail
problems.
— discouraging
one
example,
scientists
Lastly,
some
scientist's
the
violated
institutes
by
In
C86I1
of
instances,
findings
research
rewards
some
the
at Shandong Normal University wa^.
director
research community.
accomplishments
the
research.
in
deputy
the
experienced
has
problems continues to be administrative and
interference
political
work
these
of
also
increase the efficiency and effec-
the
research
themselves have
scientific
the administrative
have
taken
ethics
group?.,
"percentage"
a
scientists for their research
many scientists
from
moving
beyond
ar ianism" that characterized the research sector duriny
the Maoist period. L&32
Finally,
science
in spite of the new incentives to develop
and technology to production,
and
apply
political attitudes continue
38
to lag and responsiveness
has
to effectively
cause
the
technology,
policies
implement
central ly— derived
which
of
may
nature
dispersed
and
leadership
decided in January 1983 to form
organization
matters.
and is composed of members from all
defense
and
organizations,
decision
continued
the
to
remained
have
as
to
brings
a
new
corit
centralized
In
important
One
many
might
are scarce,
civiliarr
issues. C91D
reaction
a
infighting
that
on scientific and tech-
constraints
suggest
the
that
emergence
of
Area,
haven arisen
Beijing
personnel
resources
Pressures for re-cen-
because
Within
a
a
decen-
setting
where
the?
advance S&T modernization
the leadership cannot risk extensive
tures from central priorities.
under
the tools to insure con-
lacks
to
respcn—
implementation
some respects, this is true.
environment,
and
policy
political
and
sistent adherence to its policies.
financial
leading
body to direct S&T activities stands in direct
tralization in the S&T
tralization
S&T— related
the S&T front the author-
to
rad ict ion to the "ascending" nature of
sibility.
major
form this new body is apparently
foot-dragging
nological progress.
the
new supra-ministerial
a
China's
of
itative stamp of the premier's office on
The
system,
which is headed by Premier Zhao Ziyang
The new body,
C90'J
research
country's
the
handle
to
c^nci
both a function of the
be
the
of
science
modernizing
for
large size
level
policies
to the continued inability of the SSTC
Owing
improved.
not
certain
to
waste
or
depar-
33
According to official Chinese statements, the primary function
of this new entity will be policy formulation and articulation.
will
not
directly intervene in the realm of implementation unless
obvious deviation from central
the
response
leading body,
the
final
of
local
however,
analysis,
guidelines
takes
approach
research units to the efforts of this new
its existence
Beijing's
of such high-level,
part of the scene.
will
Pending
place.
goal
may
not
be
temporary.
is to find the best
to achieve its objectives vis-a-vis S&T activities.
tralized
It
not
yield
desired results,
policy-oriented groups will remain
If
a
In
formula
decen-
the presence
a
permanent
40
IV.
Prospects and Conclusion
lies in utilising the
The challenge for reformers...
discipline inherent in a closed system to loosen the
structure and thus to permit the system to adapt and
learn rather than remain persistently sealed from the
social forces in its midst.
The literature
content
mental
success
or
economic
may
be
the keys variables in
the
widest
as Grindle indicates,
must
rely
of their
explaining
local
on
local
a
of the prevailing
One of
outcomes
within
varying
degrees
decentralized
flexibility
under these circumstances,
central
of
approach
order
in
execution.
policy
in
content
in
various systems.
different
the
the
is
Some regimes opt for
provide
within
implementation
programs
identical
differently
of
nature
the
of
climate,
environments
alternative
to
Because
political
implemented
determinant
important
a.rt
failure.
or
control.
policy implementation suggests that environ-
C'r\
is
CSE'J
national
Yet,
leaders
leaders who may act according to the dictates
situation
rather
centrally-derived
than
direc-
tives. :33:
The
experience
policies for
movement
of
modernizing
towards
a
China
regarding
science
decentralized
acceptance of the regime's policies
and
the
technology
approach
than
implementation
the
suggests
of
that
has yielded greater
earlier
experience
41
and programs.
relationship
it
to
directives
were
used
Given the vast
size
of
centralized
when
difficult,
is often
formulate
carrying
stage,
and
China
and
policies that
of
set
a
impossible
not
if
C3.ri
Given the logistical and
responsibility
Moreover,
system
with
be equally applicable'
bureaucratic
initiated
in
Chinese
order
case,
to
it
overcome
for
for
earning
the
tapping
is available.
more
a
allows
variation
of the economic
opportunities
approach
of local initiative when and where
the
nightmare
regional
addition
the
increased
and
decentralized
the
leaders
from formulation through the implementation
policies
application.
In
different
the
Chinese
for
an ascending strategy allows for needed
"profits,"
new policies
"push"
that each province and municipality has with Beijing,
to all of China.
of
to
decentralized
approach
was
structural shortcomings of
the
the S&T system regarding the lack of formal institutional relation-
ships
between
research
units
and
production
decentralized approach, however, only served
the
regime's
inability
to
the implementation problem.
autonomy,
local
local officials,
and
power
manage
fis
political
increasingly
devolved
program
continued
lectuals throughout China
for
the hands of
to
the
policies
This trend only helped to further
modernizing
difficulties
is
compound
dimensions of
into
some of whom remained committed
undermine Beijing's
The
further
to
The
a result of the granting of greater
practices of the Maoist era.
nology.
the
enterprises.
science
and
tech-
being experienced by intel-
indicative
of
the
costs
incurred
by
adopting
decentralized
a
This
approach.
is not to suggest
greater
that centralized efforts would have met with any
only
but
the tradeoffs when dealing with implemen-
highlight
to
success,
tation variables that have different systemic origins.
To overcome the problem of deviation from national priorities,
regime
the
found
necessary
it
create a high-level
to
to intervene when and where necessary.
actions
the
since
accompanied
to
the
a
it
becomes
has
beeri
that
cannot
be
vagaries of the "non-planned" aspects of the system.
group
"leading
need
Beijing's.
at
alsQ
projects
and
technology"
for
a
been
has
joiried
for computer development" and several other
State Council-level entities, suggesting
the
body
number of new organizations
priority
The "leading group for science
by
the
in
responsible for handling high
left
decentralization
towards
increase
an
by
looks
198£ government reorganization,
t*i3.y
move
apparent that the
If one
S?>T
strategy
implementation
"mixed"
Beijing
that
recognizes
that combines
elements of both central guidance and local initiative.
Center
One of the most interesting of these new bodies is the
for
Techno— Economic
Research.
This research / po 1 icymaking organ-
ization is particularly important because
that
it
oversight
roie
plays in the selection and appraisal of national projects.
Headed by Ma Hong,
of
the
of
Sciences,
who is also President
of
Chinese
the
Ocademy
the group is designed to conduct feasibility studies
of projects that
involve
a
large
commitment
of
personnel
and
A3
resources.
financial
engineers,
scientists
and social
perspective
interdisciplinary
proposed
various
an
projects.
Beijing's
underlies
bodies
such
providing
of
over the "deregulation" of various aspects
apprehension
continued
hope
the
in
on
The need to create and maintain
of natural scientists,
cornposed
is
It
of the economy.
Its emergence also underscores
ations.
First,
reality that much more remains to be done
the
IS
the
spirit
which they were introduced.
in
"short-term" thinking in China as both local and
search
fixes
quick
for
long— term solutions.
problems
Second,
because the policies under
in
consistency
Beijing
uncertainties
so
that
the
exaggerated by poorly formulated
terised
the
initial
phases
are
—a
China's
being
leaders
problem
that
modernization
the
enhanced
lacking
Center is
produced
implementation
of
policy
of
frequently
ar-e
Techno— Economics
policies
"good"
muc^i
tendency,
significantly
sr-e
The
in place to ensure that
national
this
of
consideration
coherence.
or
There is too
are only amenable to
that
as a result
implementation
policy
of
problems
to
implemented
consistently
before the leadership's policies will be
in
consider-
related
other
two
are
in
not
characdrive
m
1978.
fit
effort
the beginning of this
to
implement
science
paper
it
was
suggested
that
the
and technology policy would require
fundamental attitudinal and political changes in
Chinese
society.
44
information presented that additional signif-
is clear from the
It
icant behavioral changes
and willing
will
however,
desired
produce
to
come
not
reform and reorganization
anathema
to
value
all
and
about
reversals,
many scientists
reluctarit
to
at
move
too
as
those
m
abrupt
for
far too fast,
if
s^r-E
they
flux.
in
rapid political
and
others
as
The
Chinese society-
institutions
when
well
modifications,
consolidated.
and
change
behavior
potential
the
Concerned
before
program of institutional
stabilized
uncertainty that appears
is the
These
results.
China's
until
is
necessary
be
for implementation will be able?
responsibility
the
with
charged
still
will
in
remain
China
willing to move
ar'^e
all.
The difficulties encountered
Chinese
the
by
leadership
in
compounded
by
the
continued
influence that the foreign scientific community
in
the
West
these
producing
Japan
have
will
changes
ou
will
China's
be
modernization
aware
Chinese leaders appear
to
be
"open-door"
to
bilateral
with
the
contacts,
do
at
short
of
the international
"closing"
the
the transfers of knowledge and
dangers
associated
and international scientific
there
level
door
Although
thinking.
the
of
and
is
little
without jeporadizing
information
that
they
a
accompany
C3.r\
loss in
these
act i vit ies.
fit
the
regarding the
eminating out from Beijing
time,
the
signals
objectives
And
priorities
same
for
S&T
modernization
45
indicate
there are incentives and rewards for ignoring these
that
distractions and pursuing a "Chinese-style"
strategy
implementation
of China's
compliance
authorities
with
national
reaffirmation
1 i
tat i ve" aspects
because
at
sheds
it
lating
of
China's
supports
the
of
experience
policy
particular
in
all
levels
Science and
activity,
policy
need
profn-
increase
can
the
its
political
the
continued
between
the
context.
tension
imperatives
sr^e
allowed to participate
Additionally,
mobilize
sufficient
the
Chinese case
political
support
to successfully execute a central policy decision.
technology
does
most
The ability to maintain control becomes
arenas.
to
the
efforts by either manipu-
or
extremely difficult when external actors
underscores the
cor.tinued
work of Grindle and
leaders
highlights
also
of control and innovation.
various
the
implementation
within socialist regimes
within
along with
have proven to hold
political
that
their
content
the
not had the power or the capability
finding
others who have noted
effectiveness
Chinese
Since
central level of the content of the policy,
the
This
results.
priorities.
contextual reforms,
B&T serving the economy,
ising
at
f aci
made
was
level
have
Beijing
in
to ensure implementation,
i.e.
"
development.
to
on the means adopted by the Chinese to achieve higher levels
light
of
in this paper to focus on the
decision
The
path
not
as
have
a
a
be utilised
by a wide spectrum
instances,
the
output
that
social
readily
of
is
the
activity,
unlike
economic
consummable output that can
populace.
find,
in
most
produced yields long-term rather
46
than immediste gratification or satisfaction.
payoffs
had
a
result,
a
the
for expending resources must be made clear from the start.
China's
Both
fls
scientific
different
sense
community
structure
of
balancing off centralized
economic
mariagers
have^
what these payoffs are and should be.
of
The challenge facing Beijing,
appropriate
and
new
therefore,
inceritives
will
be
wr:ile at
to
the
desigr:
sarne
ar.
time
restraint with selective intervention.
NOTES
1
Mer i
1 1
Gr i nd 1 e,
e
E'9iitie§_§!li^_E9iiey_I[!]Bie!I!gi:J t^ii2!l'_i!li_itlS_I!2ii!£l
World (Princetori: Princeton University Press,
SCharles Lindblom, Pol
Lindblom
igS£).
it
ics_and_Msrket s
(New
1980.
Basic
York:
Boo'k.s,
both a top-down and bottorri-up analysis
pv-ovides
of the differences between plan-led and market-led societies.
3Roy Rothwel
and Walter Zegveld,
1
(London: Frances F'lnter Ltd.,
E'£:li£y
4Joseph
Berl iner,
understand
innovation
The
(Cambridge: MIT Press,
1,97S)
determinants
the
of
rules,
incentives,
SCharles Weiss,
iEience (March
6C. O.
on
focus
also
Tisdel
1
Decision
in
suggests
Soviet
IndliilllZY
to
that
better
innovation xn socialist systems,
the
additional
central
factors:
bureaucracy,
prices,
but
decision
and organizational structure.
"Mobilizing Technology for
16,
,
four
on
E'ii^liS
1981).
Berliner
.
we must not merely concentrate
must
industr ial_Innovat ion_and
1979),
Science
pp.
and
Chapman
Developing
Countries,"
1083-1089.
lechnolog^
and
Hall,
B'2kk£.y.L
Ltd.,
ElCieiZitiSS
1981).
£f _
Tisdell
Governments
(London:
provides
well-developed explanation for the differences between
a
science policy and technology policy.
7Richard
Books,
8Jon
P.
Suttmeier,
(New York:
B§;§£^i;£!ll_£iL'^_E£Y'2i!:li.i2D
197A).
Si gurdson,
Xg£t>n2l93ii
Scj^ence_j^n_the_Pgogl^e'_s_Re£utal_i_c
sSJlld
of_China (Elrnsford, New York: Pergamrnon Books,
9Th £
,1.
Lexington
pC'irit
was underscored with
the
1981?).
m
anriouncernent
late
J.
S&r.
of the goal of qLiadrupling the value of industrial and agr ici.il t ural
output by the year
China's leader's
£02!;?.
have
ackr.cwledged
that
least half of ths gains towards achieving t'lis goal will depend
at
on expavideri application of new technology.
Through
Relying
Advances
or,
Bibao (People' s Daily),
Scierice Sind Technology,"
iri
(November
See "Create New
19a£)
7,
m
translated
Wealth
Renjiiin
FBiS-PRQ
(Foreign Broadcast Information Service-People's Republic of China),
(Nz.vettiber
IPFor
lU,
1962)
,
pp.
interesting
ari
K5-K1E'.
example
"Strive for the Right
one scientist see Shi Xiyuan,
Research,"
Zin^D
SisiDibgL'Sf 5
of Nature),
Number
1
(1980)
Tongxun (Journal
translated in
Research Service) 78995 (September
11
Leo
Orleans,
"Science,
18,
Elitism,
China," Science (January £9,
198S)
"Intellectuals
Getting
Cang,
££,
1983)
and
the trials and tribulations of
of
,
and
pp.
the Dialectics
of
Publications
JPRS<Joint
1981),
pp.
Scientific
of
49-58.
Economic Readjustment in
47£:-A77.
Cocky,"
translated in JPRS 83775 (June £8,
Renmi.n
1983),
See
also
Bi^ao
pp.
67-68.
Sari
(fipril
e
IclOne
the
typical example serves
CftS-af f i
1
Dalian
iated
illustrate
to
Institute
this
point.
Chemical
of
Hjthi.--.
Physics,
average age of senior researchers in 56.8 years, while the
age
of
respectively.
for
not
the
The problem would not
See
many
that
fact
"Bring
in TPRE 61364
13Xxa
Yulor.g
Erroneous;
(July
£'B,
and
Liu
Le^-^'tist
1333),
lAFor
Ar,
1931),
assessment
Present,"
Is
pp.
Kexuexue
Shanghai
Yanji^u
Management,
76161
"Energetically
Oin,
"
(OuQust
lianjin
5,
1980),
Ribao
pp.
lEHuang Wei and Zhang Jieyu,
the
Cultur-c^i
le-P.yec'
translated
iSBcl)
Necessary to El
Cir\ti
(June
I'-iiriat
Techt-iolocy Front,"
£,
protjlerns
1981)
translated
Need
to
in the case of Shanghai
Be
Solved
Shangnai
in
Lunwen_Xuan (Selected Papers on tne
Study of the Science of Science), Number A (1980),
ISDan
we>-e
KS-KIS.
these
of
of
£'7,
filso
Influence on the Science
(June 11,
it
19.
"It
see "Ten Problems That Urgently
fit
result
a
(February
p.
iI§if^-Usi_3ibao (Liberat ion Daily),
in EBIS-EEQ
as
Bii?iii2
Ji,
if
the Positive Factors of K idd
Out
EST Personnel," Guangnii2ii
serious
so
be
ye<-.>'-L
of those in the mid-lcvsl category
training
and below lack in-dcpth
Revolution.
average
and junior researchers is AS years and 39
rnid-level
thi;
pp.
lS/3-162'.
Study
and
Grasp
Modern
(May
£7,
1981?)
translated
Scientificin J£R3
1-6.
"The Structure of
China's
Scientific
Rankc
Technical
and
Ke><ueKue_Ya_Ke><ue
of
i'''
Science
iZElBS
(npril
&32A<Z'
17Taci Kaj
1£,
Scientific
1£,
198£)
Xj_nhua(New China),
(June 18,
£0Wang
1983),
Chiwei
pp.
Kingdonq,
and
Economic
Effectiveness,"
the
Problems
of
(December 1982),
£1 Richard P.
£3The
eight
electronics,
Management
cliZi,
i98£)
translated
of
Directional
Bi^iao
Guanrnji_n3
12,
1933),
pp.
Floisi
(July
£A5-£5^'.
Bcie''i —
Meets Overseas Chinese
1983)
m
translated
FBIS^PFQ
"Import
Caijing
(July
of Foreign Technology
Wenti,
1982)
Yanji^u Research
(
on
translated in JPRS 6236A
£3-26.
Suttmeier,
f 9!I_!!!'2d^!Z!l!i5^ti2!l;
££Sigurdson,
Finance),
pp.
the
fll-Pl£.
Liu
and
and
K6-K12.
pp.
Xiaoping
(June £0,
Quest ion
Personnel,"
"Deng
see
Readjustment,"
of
£30-237.
translated in JPRS 83240 (Opril
example
"
pp.
the
"On
Technical
and
18Xia Yulong and Liu Ji,
tists,
Number 4 (July
1983),
and Ceng Qing,
of
ISFor
Yanjiu (Scient olcigy
§LiS?l!li
Technology),
and
Measures
Current
and
Science^
Ig£!!lL"2i2Sy
§D£!
QhiDEiLs
(Stanford: Hoover Institution Press,
UlI'^^E
19820.
lgchnei2S:^_§Dd_§£i.gL'E§-
priority
space,
areas
include
genetics,
physics,
agriculture,
materials
computer!::,
science,
arid
energy,
and lasers.
point
£4This
made
also
is
China," Nature, Volume 301
in "Planting a Tall Tree?:
(January £7,
£5This project was ultimately cancelled
1983),
pp.
£80-284.
replaced
and
Science in
by
mors
a
modest project to build a +£/-£ electron positron.
merely has to examine the criticisms of the
E'EDne
particularly
CflS,
the comments made at the Kay 1931 meeting of the Scientific Council
the
CfiB
had helped set S&T priorities durDng
the initial phase of the
SST
moderni nat ion
Examines
<Spr ingf ield,
to
understand
hot^v
Sci.en2g
E2ii£!i!:
Information Service,
E;7Zhang Oiang,
of
iri
Hebei
of
(Journal
1979),
£9"The
and
i»'|
p.
5,
pp.
Virginia: Foreign Broadcast
143-172.
and
Issue on the Readjustment
(January
University),
Scientific
XiDby^ (December
,
QQina
Reform
Scientific Research System," Hebei_Daxue_Xuebao
JPRS 7943£ (November
c:B"National
198£')
"An Important
Country's
Our
January
See
program.
13,
1981),
translated
1961)
£6-38.
pp.
Technological Conference
and
1979)
£5,
translated
in
FglB-PRC
ir<
Beijing,"
(December
6,
Lll.
Entire Party Should ftccord the Proper Importance to Science
Technology,"
JEBS 78147
(ivlay
Guanfimins
££,
1981),
Ribao
pp.
(fipril
1-5.
18,
1981)
translated
a
3(Zifit
1380 there was
achievement held in Beijing in late
scientific
on
fov^urn
amount
large
a
regard i.ng
expressed
concern
of
continued "administrative interference" in research activities.
"Forum on Scientific fichievEment Held in Beijing," Xinhua (December
£1,
translated in FEIS-PRC (December ££,
i98iZ')
1380),
p.
LAS.
f
has
ten-foid
increased
journals with
nat ional
/
local
million.
since
newspapers
S?,T
In spite of the fact
education
tools,
large
a
with
percentage
7,
3£Denis
"China's
Technology,
the
Four
13B£),
pp.
"
Simon,
Modernisations,
fls
1
pp.
circulation
International
p.
offer
the
to
34
almost 5
of
very
potential
Capacity
to
the?
readors.
Congress,
Foreign
fissimilate
Joint Economic Committee,
37th
little in
3.
China
Under
£nd Session (Ougust
Yang
Haitian,
"China's
13,
liZi,
138£)
translated
in
JPBS
Position
Unfavorable
Technology Transfer Should Be Changed
Possible," Caimao_Jinaji (Finance, Trade and
(J&ro.\e^r-y
and
51A-55£.
33Guo Xinchang and
in
1381),
United States,
million
that many of these serve as valur.D]e
See Chi.na_Dai].^ (ftugust
Fred
journals
Brtd
103 scientific-
are
16.5
of
a
"technical" information
way of uscfu]
There
13fe&.
circulation
overall
an
magazines
scientific
popular
31The circulation of
fts
Economics),
80736 (May
5,
Quickly
iMur.iber
13a£),
31—37.
34"0n the Requirement that Technology Be Advanced and
the
P'roblem
,
Economic
of
Rat ionsl ity,
(November £0,
"
Van jiu Economic
Jit'SJi
translated in JPRS 77£:a5
ISSiZD
ResGjarch
<
(January
)
1901),
3iZi,
34-43.
pp.
May 1979,
35By
33£ computers had been imported at a
Less than 1/3 were used as
500 million yuan.
eight hours per
Proyrams in
ten
hours*
pp.
Scientific
(1981)
£
translated in
"
JElES:
36-45.
Mingdong,
Liu
36Wang Chiwei and
Number
ZQ^^ii'A'Cii
1981),
1,
"Formulate
with the Demands of the National Economy,
Ptccor^tiance
79115 (October
Weiyuan,
Guan
See
day.
Bianshennf^
Zi.ran
as
of £4 computers in finhui only 3 were used mora tnan
out
day;
per
many
of almost
co?:t
"Import
of
Foreign
Technology
and Economic Effectiveness."
37For
of the Baoshan steel project see Mart
discussion
a
"The Baoshan Steel Mill:
Strategy,
Development
"
Symbol of Change in
fi
in
WeII,
Industrial
the_Four_!l^9d§!ZDi5li.i2D§i
365-393.
pp.
3eficcording to a speech by Fang Yi
principle
the
work
should
Scientific
(December
L10.
national
not
and
5,
be
scientific
economy,
weakened
but
translated
For a discussion of
how
in
the
and
strengthened."
Conference
Technological
1979)
in December" 1979,
"to
irnplernent
restructuring, consolidating
readjustment,
of
the
improving
p.
Under
China
China's
j r.
in
FBIS-PRC
COS
arid
technological
See "National
Beijing,"
(December
interpreted
^^iDtlliS
6,
the
1979),
call
"
Forum To Discuss Measures
Guangmina
A,
1979),
39Pl
Ri^ao (Ougust
pp.
see
readjustment
economic
for
"
7,
to
nology
iri
Policy,"
translated in JPRS 74313 (OctoDer
1979)
1-5.
situation
short but focused discussion of the
prior
Eight-Character
Implement
to
Sciences Calls Work
of
"ficademy
readjustment
is
as
provided in "Factories fippiy New Tech-
Production," FEIS-PRC (September
19,
ISSiZD
,
p.
LSlB.
A0"Scient ists Urged To Contribute to Production," XinhiiS
eS,
1981)
41"Beijing
translated in FBIS-PRC (February 27,
Radio
Stresses
Use
the
of
translated in FBISrPRQ (February
Ir.terviews
5,
and
Technology,"
the
and Technology.
Policy
Renmin_Ri,bao
E>l§[!3i!!:!ES_Sci.ence_Poijicy,
A5"Further Clarify
the
1981),
p.
LIS.
pp.
l-£.
(January
1981)
£9,
Le-LS.
Science and Technology Official," translated
in China_EKami.ne5_Sci.ence_Poli.cy,
44 "Further Clarify
PP-
Xinhua
4£"fipplied Science to be Emphasized,"
1981),
(Febi-i.iary
Science in the Econony,
translated in China_Exami_nes_Sciencc_Poli.cY,
43"Xinhua
e:>;istcd
it
pp.
p.
11.
For
(Plpril
the
7,
Development
1981)
of
translated
Scrier;ce
m
China
16-19.
Policy
For
the
Development
of
Science
—
AEiFor
description
3.
"National People's
NPC see Howard Klein,
Chi.na_EKChan3e_New5,
jing,"
198iZi),
scientists
Chinese
period
about the efforts of the SBTC
by
Meets
claimed
they
scientists,
but
the
in
in
distressed
that
that
Beijing."
in
Bei--
During
were quite unhappy
CftS
diminish
to
were
personnel
COB
SBTC because
not
Meets
Number 5/6 (October/December
Volurne 8,
"National People's Congress
search.
Congress
£-3.
pp.
47Klein,
this
the events at the 3rd Session of the 5tn
of
actions
the
by
organisation
o-^
th6>
staffed
was
by administrators who did not
re-
basic
for
funds
fully undei
stand the nature of scientific inquiry.
ABHoward Klein,
Current
tions:
Assessment
"fin
Status
(May 1933),
fissociates
Provincial
of
Future
and
Scientific
of
Research,"
Sichuan
is
China
Consulting
unpublished manuscript.
Guangming
translated in Ch i.n§_E>iS[!]iD§S
case
Organi na-
Trends,"
49"Sichuan Province Decides to Reform Further
of
Science
?£i5!j2g
interesting
the
(September
Bi^ao
E'9ii£i^»
because
Present
it
where economic reforms and readjustment appear
PP-
£3,
1E:3-1£^(.
Byster.i
1981?)
The
also is the province
to
have
proceeded
the most rapidly in China.
SiZiReferr ing
to
the
leadership's
among the leading cadres,
of
science
izations,
and
dilemma regarding the situation
one writer noted "they lack the knowledge
technology needed in undertaking the four modern-
but they still have to
lead
the
four
modernizations."
See
Respectfully
"Learri
Honestly," Renrnin_Ri_bao (ftugust
and
1980 translated in FBIS-PRC (ftugust 18,
51See Jack Gray and Gordon
Strategy
(London:
reform
aimed
was
ed.
ftcadernic Press,
of readjustment and
Reform
White,
at
deviation
from
with
bring
oriB
Implement
another.
(December £3,
pp.
central
issue
Jiye
Wang
See
Strategic
Policy
translated
1980)
Ziyang's
Zhao
only
directed
the
economic
Work Report,"
Xu
the
addressed
also commented on
another.
results
Centralisation
leadership
the
as
and
and
versuB
tried
in
ori
Renmin_Ri_Do2
(January
EilSrE'BQ
i
"Resolutely
Kaitai,
Wu
Readjustment,"
of
report
FEISrE'Be
Dixin,
"The
1981),
pp.
the
4th
swing.
In
to
full
issue
£,
1961),
See
"Text
(December
Current
1981)
Session of the 5th
his
speech,
of improving economic results,
all-encompassing
plan.
Jinaji_Yanjiy (June £0,
El,
one
to
economic
improve
policies.
core
ct
NPC brought the debates into
also
the goals
L18-L2A.
5£Premier
no
In many ways,
and "micro" economic behavior into coord inat
"macro"
the
^eyej_2S[!]lDt
^^'d
contradictory
were
L5-L6.
expanding local autonomy and responsibility
decentralization became
to
pp.
QbiDSll
,
1982).
while readjustment was designed to
limit
1982),
15,
16,
role
of
the
of
Zhao
1981),
Zhao
but
centrally-
Ziyang Gove'^nrnent
pp.
K1-K35.
See-
Pt^oblem of Economic Readjustment,"
translated in JPRS
78880
(September-
3-l£.
53Fang Weishang,
"fin
Inviolable Basic Principle
— Some
Understanding
On Upholding the Policy of Relyinr; Mainly on
and
Supplementing
<Red Flag),
198£),
(May
With Regulation by Market Mechanism," Honcgi
translated
1982)
1,
Production
in
JPRS
81379
(July
Commission,
Transport Conference Opens,"
translated in FBIS-PRC (Ppril
1981)
15,
and
55ftccording to Yuan Baohua,
former
£:S,
of
the
medium
enterprises
XiDtlk-§
Kl-Z.
pp.
State
Economic
responsibility system in industry would
economic
the
head
1981),
16,
allow retention of profits and accountability for losses
and
Econorriy
£0-31.
pp.
54" Industrial
(April
It
Planned
the
as
by
large:'
as greater managerial autonomy.
well
See "Industrial Production and Transport Conference Opens."
56The new emphasis in technology imports
of
know-how
and
hands
the
on
acquisition
the
information rather than large quantities,
Authority for
of equipment.
of
design
was
import
decisions
of the major trading companies.
was
to
fall
Even though decer-
tralisation of decision-making had posed some problems in
it
out
1979-79,
believed that the addition of greater local accountability
was
would alleviate some of the problems
of
waste
that
occurred
in
the past.
57flccording
to one study,
dates back to the
5%
from
the
194iZis
1970s.
&<Z>'A
of the equipment
from
and 1950s,
35"/
See
Changqing,
Ding
the
(July
£0,
198£)
translated
in
196iZis,
and
only
"The Mach ine-Bui Id i ng
Industry and Technology Transfer in the National
Yanjiu
in Chinese industry
Economy,"
J^iDSji
JPRS ai7£4 (September
8,
1982),
1-10.
pp.
technical transformation as
of
new
Ribao (February
1981),
p.
59 "Using
translated
1981)
Science
7,
2.
i2i
According
to
which
provided
billion
1.2
See FBIS-PRC (December 29,
provided
also
was
to
yuan
1982),
IC,
1982
in
These
K2iZi.
p.
The
1979-1982.
1.259 billion yuan in renminbi
"Reform
Caiz heng (Finance)
,
8,
1982),
the
Fixed
of
(December
pp.
26-27.
Management
JiDSJi-Yanjiu (May 20,
5,
1982)
ftssets
also
Meng
for
— all
See "Loans
p.
Depreciation
translated
1981)
See
1982),
Bsr.k
loaris
items
for technical renovation.
used
be
60Liu Guoliang,
Improving
ESDiliiD
XiQtmi report in late 1982,
a
Used for Technology," Chini-Daiiy (December 20,
(February
"
(November
domestic production of parts and equipment for imported
of
5,
supplemented by 11.47 billion yuan in foreign excharige
were
China
(February
Recovery,
FBIB-PRC
in
loans provided by the Bank of China between
of
Jigfang
"
billion yuan in 1983 in loans for technical transformation
of enterprises.
funds
Improve
To
translated
1982)
K5-12.
pp.
Technology
and
the China Construction Bank
and
building
the
FBlg-PRC
in
of
05.
Ribao (November
19S£),
3,
undertake
to
guise
the
used
further
or;
"0 Second Front Not To Be Ignored,
See
plants.
means
a
applied
enterprises
several
construction,
capital
restrictions
the
58In some cs^bb because of
2.
System,"
in JPRg 80e'50
Lian,
"Views
on
of Depreciation Funds of Fixed fissets,"
translated
in
JPRS
81215
(July
6,
—
1982),
34-39.
pp.
the depreciation rate
it
assets
fixed
of
was adjusted to accord
to
i.e.
China's depreciation rate is only
China
in
include
only
more
Western
the
with
definition,
production equipment, the rate would still
be less than
6%
"Exploration
on Technical Transformation," Jinaji_Yanji_u
20,
1982)
still
on
the
side.
low
translated in JPRS 8(2512 (Opril
62In 1982,
for example,
construction declined to
even though
49.8"/.
state
a
result
(July 16,
pp.
p.
Controllers
63"Quality
tember 22,
1983,
1982)
investment
S"/.
(February
22-35.
in
in 1981,
overall
See Xu
Investment,"
Capital
capital
billion
11.2
by
Shangqin^,
yuan
f^.iriT^,
China
2-
Congress
translated
in
Opens
in Beijing,"
FBIS-PRC
Xinhua (Sep-
(September
23,
1982),
K9-K1IZ1.
64"Institute
Urges
Combining
!ley^D_§]:!§Dii (Scient if ic
lated
in
JPRS
82108
Military
Civilian
and
Research Management),
(October
risk associated with providing
to
pp.
of local autonomy.
"Ten Billion Yuan: P Warning Mark for
O^iii^
1982),
compared with 56.
enlarging
the
of
Sun
See
7,
outlays for capital construction increased
as
includes
buildings and other utilities beyond production equi priient
factory
If
assessment,
one
to
filficcordirig
A.E:y.;
.
28,
1982),
defense
(July
pp.
manufacture civilian consumer goods in that
1982)
53-63.
factories
it
Research,"
an
Or,(-
transof the
opportunity
may be difficult
,
to get them to return to
defense
production
they
if
have
d=en
succesful and earned large profits.
65In
rnid-13a£:,
the National Defense B&T Commission and the National
Defense Industries
Defense
Office
were
Technology
Science,
combined
form
to
Commission (NDSTIC)
Industries
and
National
the
led by Chen Bin.
6£."Zhang ftiping Stresses
£6,
ISSl-J)
translated in FBIS-PRC (December £7,
£7"Zhang
National
on
ftiping
XiDwin_She (China News
i>^'
FBIS-PRC (March
6B"Zhang
£,
1983)
fliping
Number
pp.
1
Defense
Service),
1983),
1,
Hails
with
(19S£)
49—53.
"P
Economic
ISBB)
,
p.
(Decemli.er
KA.
£8,
1SB3)
l!ll9i2£iS]:;2
translated
Ke-K9.
pp.
Electronics
Number
Xinhua
Modernization,"
(February
translated in FBIS-PRC (March
&9Wang Cailiang,
Research
Modernization,"
PLA' s
Industry Role," Xinhua
4,
1983),
Problems
of
pp.
K14-K15.
Managing
in
(^.arch
Industrial
Methods," Kc><ue><ue_Yu_Kexue_Jishu_Guarilii
translated
in
JPRS
ei7£4
(September
8,
1982),
Some reservations were expressed at the time regaraing
the possibility for excesses if adequate
political
work
cid
not
accompany the new emphasis on economic rewards.
70Zhou
Jinquan,
"Bright
in Scientific Research
and
Future
for
Implementing Joint Ventures
Production,"
Hexuexue
Yanjiu
Lunwen
XyiL'i
Number
71 "Corisultancy,
East,
(1981),
£,
49-55.
pp.
translated
"
in
FE/W1198/fi (Ougust 18,
198£)
Services,"
in JPRS 80479
73"Scient
£8,
i
1983)
74See
Wen
(fipril
Consultancy
f ic
"Fang
Yi
at
QbiD£_Daiiy (May
£,
1983),
Economic
translated in
17
Expanded,"
Xi.nhua
(January
1983),
pp.
1983),
pp.
K6-K7.
are
Production,"
£.
Meeting
Opens,"
(January
EilSrEBQ
provinces
p.
K6-K7.
of Scientific Service Center,"
Opening
"Cooperation with Research Units Raises
75Zheng Shen,
76"National
translated
5-8.
Service
translated in FBiS-PRC (March ££,
Con-
1981)
3,
translated in EilizERQ (January 30,
also
Technical
and
(December
pp.
,
12.
Scientific
Bao
Hui
19S£)
£,
p.
,
7£"0rgani zat ion and Leadership in
sulting
2f _W2iZid_Broadcasts--Far
Summary:
cooperating
£8,
with
(January £7,
Xi_nhua
1983),
pp.
Shanghai.
1963)
K7-Kli25.
In 198£ over
Cver
li?5
technical delegations from around China visited Shanghai to discuss
possible technical exchanges.
77Liu
Dong
and
You
Huadong,
Coordination
nology
in
Jinsji
Guanl^i.
in JPRS 82045
(Economic
with
"Enterprises Must Develop New TechInstitutes
Management),
(October 21,
1982,
pp.
of
(August
12-15.
Higher
15,
198£)
Education,"
translated
Faculty Receivcps BonuB for
78"Urii versi ty
Daii^ (February
Experts
79"Technical
(May 17,
1983),
10,
1932),
p.
Work,
Cniri§
"
3.
p.
ftppointed
Similar
5.
Consult ing
to Leading Posts," Efeijing_Reyiew
appointments
have
made
been
in
other provinces and municipalities throughout China.
e0"Fujian
(July lA,
81
Party
Intellectual
1983),
Members,"
8£'"Fl
Major
tuals,"
198£)
(October £9,
83"Spare-t ime
(December £5,
Work
1982),
Punishment
(March 10,
1983)
Guoquan,
yeD_d!Ji_i§2
£7,
1981),
Lands
p.
of
to
(February 11,
pp.
0£-03.
5§ily.
1,
ISSc.')
the Policy Toward Intellec-
translated
Technician
in
JPRS
SiE:131
Qni,n£,
Da^^ly
Guanxj,
B.1^^9.
in
Trouble,"
3.
Technicians
Criticized,"
translated in JPRS 831A5 (March £8,
"How
QUiD^
££-£6.
pp.
84"Unjust
85Xu
Implementing
in
(September
198£),
Backwardness,"
4.
p.
,
Problem
idonugi
FBIE-r^RQ
in
07.
p.
"Scorn for Intellectuals Is Sign of
(December £0,
translated
1983),
p.
£7.
Keeping of Technical Secrets,"
View
the
1981)
translated
See also Shen Junbo,
FBIS-PRC
in
et
.
al,
(February
"Three Problems
iri
Technical
Ecoriornic
arid
8&Lu
Jiaxi,
JPRS 82108 (October £8,
Not fillowed,"
Norms
8e"Ethical
p.
9(Z!"Zhao
1983)
14,
for
,
pp.
Current
"
1-3.
(November
1983),
pp.
translated
198£)
£5,
m
156-158.
Scientists,"
Cut
to
Beijina
Ribbons,"
Review (September
(February
Daily
Ctjina
Ziyang to Head New Scientific Work Group,
translated in FBIS-PRC (January 31,
in
the
situation
regarding
"P Strategic Question on
Bei.jins_Rey i_ew (November 15,
9£Peter
in
6,
19,
3.
See Zhao Ziyang,
omy,
Scientific
translated
Xinhua (January
"
1983),
91Since mid-198£ Premier Zhao appears to have taken
interest
15,
7-10.
pp.
198£)
(July
(July
£4-£5,3lZi.
89"Science Piwards
,
19a£)
1982),
5,
Concerning
Guanii
Renmin__Ribao
JPRS 8£643 (January
pp.
Ke^an
Bibao
Hampering and Sabotaging Scientific Research Definitely
87"Conduct
198£),
Problems
"Sevev^al
Management,"
Research
30,
Jiefang
"
translated in JPRS ai9£:7 (October
138£)
1983)
Cooperat ion,
Cleaves,
in Merliee Gr indie,
198£),
science
K6-Kg.
pp.
more
a
technology.
and
Invigorating
pp.
Econ-
the
13-£ei.
"Implementation
ftmidst
Scarcity
and
Pol.i.cy
iLQEiementat ion
Polities
direct
and
fipatny,
in
"
the
I!lli>2d_Worl^d,
936riridle,
pp.
p.
301.
E'2iiti£S
18-19.
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