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IT AUG 181988
Center for Information Systems Research
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
Sloan School of Management
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139
/
GROUPWARE: A KEY TO MANAGING
BUSINESS TEAMS?
Christine V.Bullen
Robert R.Johansen
May
1988
CISRWPNo. 169
Sloan WP No. 2013-88
'1988 C.V. Bullen
&
R.R.
Johansen
Center for Information Systems Research
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
A Key to Managing Business Teams?*
GROUPWARE:
I.
Managing Business Teams
Business
teams
Business
organizations.
focused
specific
on
typically
than
rather
Business
teams
sometimes
because
basis
combinations
unusual
way
a
to
life
in
many
deadline driven and
be
of their ability to contribute,
bureaucratic obligations.
of
Thus,
people are usual within business teams.
of
cross-organizational,
are
of
The participants in a business team
tasks.
the
on
tend
teams
assigned
are
becoming
are
cross-divisional, and
They are small in size and fast on
even cross-company.
their feet.
Peter
the
seen by many as a wave of the future.
Business
teams
Drucker,
for example, expects that, in the organization of
"Traditional
future,
standards,
as
specialists;
largely
Robert
Reich
in
urges
leaders
1987, Page 78)
*Parts of
Groupware:
centers
they
happen
aggressive
are
won't
departments will serve as guardians of
training,
for
the
assignment
be where the work gets done.
task-focused
managers
and
and
teams."
to
"honor
(HBR,
our
of
That will
Jan-Feb, 1988).
teams
more,
our
maverick geniuses less." (HBR, May-June,
.
this article are adapted from Dr. Johansen's new book
Computer Support for Business Teams (The Free Press,
1988)
The authors wish to thank Tom Malone, Judith Quillard and Ken
Lyon for their helpful suggestions regarding this paper.
-
1
-
vision
The
to
Business
implement.
answers
questions
geographically
coordination
communicate,
duplication
How
do
fact,
there are basic
How
especially
will
they
are
planning
and
if
team
How do results get pulled together?
contribute
down?
In
with regard to business teams.
resolve
to
separated?
occur?
unproductive
managers
problems.
members
team
do
team approaches do not provide instant
management's
to
management
How
business teams, however, is often not easy
of
effort
of
leadership
minimized?
How
can
the team, without holding it
to
of business teams match up with
activities
the
be
How can
conventional departmental activities?
These
managerial
difficult questions which raise important
very
are
associated with the concept of business teams.
issues
The
focus of this paper is on concepts, tools and techniques that
can
help
management
information
of
to answer such questions regarding the organization and
of
business
teams.
is
logical to expect that
will be able to relieve some of the pains
technology
organizing
It
and conducting business teams.
In particular, can
the ubiquitous personal computer help business teams?
Unfortunately
to
be
of
much
use
the
to
personal computer has been TOO personal
business
teams.
But this situation is
beginning to change.
The
manager's
dramatic
tool
has
growth
of
the
personal
computer
as
a
been fueled by individual needs to carry out
-
2
-
structured
applications,
followed
electronic
as
by
financial analysis tools, word
other
Slowly, communications tools
and database management.
processing
such
Spreadsheets were the key to the first set of
tasks.
applications
individual
have
mail
tiraeshare
computing
computer
resource),
are still the norm.
individual
central
the
users.
But
Even in the case of
computer
views
each
user
computing is typically an aggregation of
than teams of people working with each
rather
users,
by
(where a number of users can share a central
Timeshare
separately.
accepted
been
other through the system.
powerful
As
was
many
basic
office
professional,
or
the
majority
considered
or
secretary
many
cases)
such
instances,
when
tools.
in
the
-
worker
-
creating
needs to communicate all
collaborative
personal
the
In
manager,
of what he or she is doing to someone else.
of
software
typical
tasks,
executive
portion
some
tool as the personal computer has been, it
with the notion of business teams in mind.
designed
not
a
In
needs were not
computer
hardware
and
As a result, much of the software (and hardware
actually
hampers
a
user's ability to share or
communicate the work.
Recently
the
inability
computer
lies
a
it
to
has become clear that users are frustrated by
with their co-workers through the
collaborate
tools they have become accustomed to using.
major
motivation
for
a
technology.
-
3
-
And therein
new development in information
single-user
Gradually,
"groupware,"
a
designed
for
the
business
teams.
perspective
generic
term
computing
on
use.
specialized
for
not
is
giving
is
collaborative
of
Groupware
individual
than
use
software
work
computer
groups
to
aids
such
as
Rather it is
thing.
a
way
that emphasizes collaboration
a
rather
-
Groupware is a step in the transition from
the personal computer to the interpersonal computer.
Peter
As
current
are
fact
pointed
has
there
is
to be a primary way work is carried out.
natural
a
person.
strong
a
tendency
work
for
There is in
to be done by more than one
Most business tasks incorporate the need to communicate,
report,
This
natural
work
for
approval
get
decades.
In
environment,
respond
to
problems
business
minimum,
addition,
management
approaches
team
communications
among team members.
individuals
need
into
project
smaller
with
an increasingly
also consciously chosen to
the use of specialist teams.
through
for
up
otherwise involve others.
faced
has
methodologies
carved
or
for,
tendency has been a factor in the accomplishment of
complex
the
out,
trend in organizations to use teams; in the future, teams
likely
show,
Drucker
control
ones
require
and
the
the
use
facilitation
At a
of
of
Because complex tasks must be
which
can
be
carried
out
by
with the appropriate expertise, business teams create
to manage, coordinate, and integrate the results of the
individual work.
-
4
group
work
difficult
the
computer
emerging
The
newness
categorize
of
that
support
a wide range of capabilities.
cover
to
tools
this
talk about them.
and
this kind of
Therefore it is
An indication of
field is that there are many names used to
designate it:
"computer supported cooperative work" (CSCW)
"technological support for work group collaboration"
"computer supported groups"
"collaborative computing"
"interpersonal computing"
"coordination technology"
"group decision support systems"
"augmented knowledge workshops"
"flexible interactive technologies for multiperson
tasks."
Most
of
settling
easy
these
on
the
are awkward to say the least.
Business users are
"groupware"*
since it is short,
generic
term
to pronounce, and quite descriptive.
Can groupware meet the
needs of business teams?
*The first major business press use of the generic term groupware
was a Fortune article entitled "Software Catches the Team Spirit"
(June 8, 1987).
Since then other mass market uses of the generic
term have followed, including several articles in the Wall Street
Journal.
-
5
-
II.
Business Team Needs
TEAM MEETING NEEDS
Business
which
meetings,
communication.
members
actions,
meeting
when
together
styles
to
natural
face-to-face
means
for
group
express their personal views, discuss
what
decide
team
the
vary
formal
provides
-
on
need is for a meeting, where team
the
leadership
and
works
it
and
most
today's
Typically,
come
possible
are
instinctively
rely
teams
should
do.
The
greatly, but the meeting
-
and informal links among the
participants.
Face-to-face
organized
Meetings may not allow everyone
of what happened.
Team members may never reach the
say what they wanted to say.
agreement
For
that participants leave the meeting with different
and
understandings
to
do not always work.
often complain that business meetings are poorly
people
example,
however,
meetings,
How can a groupware perspective
wanted to reach.
they
relieve some of these meeting pains for business teams?
Today's
to
be
usually
meeting
decidedly
includes
overhead
projector.
The
low-tech.
advanced
such
projector,
Even
even in high-tech companies, tend
rooms,
a
white
of available equipment
range
tools
board,
as
a
and
flip chart pad, an
perhaps
a
slide
business teams that are equipped with advanced
-
6
computing
capabilities in their individual offices typically have
very
technology
few
resources
their
in
face-to-face
meeting
rooms
possible
One
into
meeting
the
to
existing
conference
Such
directly to an overhead
connects
that
infrastructure
room
inexpensive
this
simultaneously
PC.
Eastman Kodak, for example, now has a
projection of any PC image.
allow
projector
projector),
is to bring a personal computer
step
room.
Datashow
called
product
first
anything
at
device
Building on the
the
(i.e.,
allows
a
team
overhead
to
look
of its members has created on a
one
system lends itself to presentations as well as to
a
discussions of draft reports or even brainstorming sessions.
Taking
step,
a
small
company called Meeting
a facilitation service, where their people
provides
Technologies
into a team meeting with a variety of computer aids
come
to
further
a
support
for
recording
used
on
allow
charts in today's meetings.
linking
relationships.
the
are
used
members
printer
to
of
the
devices,
Graphics capabilities
exploring
of
various
such as Datashow described
during the meeting so participants can see what
is
typing and make additions as appropriate.
(usually
leave
and
ideas
Projection
facilitator
laser
They have lashed together
discussion high points in formats similar to those
flip
the
above,
activities.
order
Macintosh computers and developed their own software
Apple
three
meeting
the
,in
the
A
in the back of the room) allows all team
with
room
-
7
-
a
written record of what has
happened.
very
to have comprehensive notes is proving
ability
This
attractive
misunderstandings
members
team
to
who
have
experienced
over who said what, or who promised to do what,
by when.
carted
are
around by Meeting Technologies
equipment
Such
tour.
all of the information technology tools
example,
this
In
organization's
like a rock group on
can be permanently installed in an
also
conference
-
One such room has been created
rooms.
at Prudential Insurance in Boston.
experimentation
Some
devices
that
suggests
meeting
allow
even
an
room
workstation.
is
now
operation
researchers.
The
realization
that
for
room,
the
technology
support
went
a
into
team
each
on key items.
advanced
member
in
team
a
of
called
has
members
team
artificial
Colab,
had
individual
their
was
This
concept for a
his/her own
Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center, such
At
in
vote
to
technologically
where
one
-
members
team
more
is being done with hand-held polling
room
a
intelligence
motivated
elaborate
by
a
information
offices, but when they
conference room to meet, they had only a whiteboard.
Colab seeks to move beyond the whiteboard.
Colab
with
a
screens,
software
is
a room
projection
or
from
where six workstations are interconnected
screen
some
facilitates
displays
that
selected
common
-
subset.
tasks
8
-
with
output
from
Specially
which
this
all the
designed
team
is
such as brainstorming and proposal review.
involved,
of
In the case
brainstorming,
all the participants can type in ideas at once
normal
face-to-face meeting where only one person can
(unlike
a
at a time), with each idea projected on various parts of the
talk
next
screen.
At
exploring
relationships
the
the software assists the team in
stage,
among
the
ideas, defining them in more
detail, and setting priorities for them.
explored
being
decision
of
in
decision
support
managerial
substituted
would
tasks;
introduced
than
its
as
the
use
rather
than
replace
efficiency."*
If the word "team" were
"manager" in the above definition, it
perfectly describe the idea of group decision support.
concept
of
Minnesota,
University
exploring
The
of GDSS is being explored at research centers such as the
University
Computer
of
improve the effectiveness of decision
word
the
support,
(2)
(3)
for
was
systems
judgment;
rather
making,
In the late 1970's the notion
assist managers in their decision processes in
to "(1)
semi-structured
of research laboratories as "group
series
a
systems" (GDSS).
support
computers
assistance in recurring group tasks is also
software
Such
Claremont Graduate School, University of
Arizona,
Technology
specific
Michigan, and the Microelectronics and
of
Corporation (MCC).
team
support
This ongoing research is
tools that might contribute to
supporting tomorrow's teams.
*Keen and Scott Morton, Decision Support Systems
Reading, Ma., 1978, page 1.
-
9
-
,
Addison-Wesley,
teams are often under intense pressure to perform
Business
effectively
team
The organization and conduct of
and perform quickly.
is a logical place to start the search for ways to
meetings
help satisfy these critical demands.
ADMINISTRATIVE, FILING
Business
information
Administrative
team
and the multiplicity of tasks that make up project
meetings
team's
that
amounts
of
individual
items
of
others
mistakes
at
are also used.
Filtering
information.
and (less
Filtering is the sifting
that
interest
some
work,
that
most
is
.of
often
large
done
by
many people, for example, tend to read only
perform
administrative,
shared
databases
is inevitably involved in making sense out
articles
also
important to the
be
computer
although
bases
people;
boards
may
that
the team hopes,
cabinets and manilla folders are the base
filing,
text
process
information
Filing
for
frequently)
those
key
of
work.
technology
is simply the storing (and,
Filing
management.
retrieving)
filter
the preparation of information for
include
needs
and
file
in a variety of different forms.
exists
often
that
administer,
also
must
teams
FILTERING NEEDS
&
filing
recommended
are
a
piece
for
team.
filtering
and
Bulletin
this function by highlighting
of
a
by a colleague.
For
a
business
team,
need
to be
capabilities
level so that team members can benefit from each
avoid
others
duplication
of
already
have
-
10
-
tasks,
made.
making
and
avoid
Can
the groupware
perspective
the power of information technology to bear on
bring
this category of team needs?
straightforward
One
administrative
well
Electronic
deadlines.
most
acceptance,
and
addition,
as
team
concerns,
have
slow
been
such
in
as
gaining
because they have been awkward to use
portable
interviews
our
simple)
calendaring
calendars
probably
nearly
not
as
have
trusty
a
suggested
old black book.
In
that some significant
of people consider their personal calendars as their
proportion
bastion
last
collective
their
as
not
calendars for the team members, as
involves
task
often
(though
formalize
privacy.
of
been few incentives to
on a computer system and share it with
calendar
one's
have
There
others.
This
software
situation
much
is
changing,
is
graceful to use.
more
New calendaring
however.
For example, a general
office
system called Higgins from Conetic Systems Inc., maintains
strict
privacy
to
help
the
meetings,
a
the
various
details
of
In order
business
Higgins provides links to notations, tickler files, and
attempts
meeting,
organize
user
address
name,
person
on the details of individual calendars.
a
telephone
and
to
find
composite
scheduled
times
details.
Portability
of
When an authorized
mutually convenient time for a team
a
calendar
blocked
directory.
out,
is
but
electronic
-
11 -
displayed
containing
calendars
with
previously
no
individual
still does not
rival
black
the
improving
access considerably.
business
teams
calendaring
evident.
team
a
significantly, the growth of
And,
making the advantages of at least some shared
is
more
with
meeting
carry, but the ubiquity of the PC is
you
book
who has tried to schedule a
Anyone
busy people will be attracted to group
of
calendaring.
Beyond
management
project
PERT
charts)
plan
for
teams
Traditional
aids.
often
use
various
aids (such as Gannt and
can be incorporated into software that helps a team
project
tasks
track
and
its
progress
-
or lack of
Team budgets can also be tracked using group versions
progress.
of
business
calendaring,
which
speadsheets,
automatic
reports
for
project
status
can
directly
linked
be
filing and exchange of
Such
updating.
to expenditure
can be critical to ontime performance of business
teams
One
frequent
Indeed,
lack
most
information
closely
with
frustrating
basic problems of filing and filtering is the
the
of
of
people
they
tend
rely
to
lack
This
business
and
on
search
people
as
procedures.
sources
of
These are usually people who work
cannot find.
them*.
for
organizing
common
teams
of
integration is often very
need
who
to share information
frequently and easily.
*Allen,
T.J.,
Managing
Cambridge, MA, 1977,
the
-
Flow
12
of
Technology,
MIT
Press,
Computer
Metaphor
for brand management teams in the consumer products
problem
this
storage
database
Nielsen
surveys),
with
progress
does
limited
what
functionality
is
will
teams
with
other
except
systems,
in
its individual functionalities are often less
and
than
There is a tradeoff
analysis.
and
communication
ways)
business
Metaphor provides integration
Metaphor has been a closed architecture (i.e., it
-
allow
powerful
analysis,
to exchange messages and work in
ability
filtering
for
however
not
statistical
giving all team members access to common files and
tools
here,
and
other team members.
functions,
common
retrieval,
and
word processing, access to outside data (e.g., from
spreadsheets,
of
system is highly integrated, with capabilities
Their
industry.
for
is a company that is attacking
Systems
available as standalone systems.
often
be
willing
commonality of access.
for
to
trade
Still,
specific
Team members MUST work
Powerful individual tools will be of limited value if
together.
they hamper information and task sharing.
Information
The
researchers
at
MIT,
sharing.
Originally
priorities
for
junk
system
mail
is
retrieval
as
now
as
Lens,
aimed
is
prototype
specifically
system
at
built
by
information
designed using expert systems rules to set
electronic
well
a
as
mail
receive
receipt (and thereby filter out
high priority mail first)
,
this
geared toward internal and external bibliographic
well.
Business
-
13
teams often must track important
developments
Information
like
efficient
on
both inside and outside of their companies.
the
extent
help
Lens
and more effective.
business
that
this
process
both
more
The power of such a system depends
are given to it by the team members.
that
rules
make
to
Systems
teams
articulate
can
these
To the
rules, such
systems can be very useful.
Adminstrative
processes
"organizational
business.
beginning
business
most
for
memory"
The
filing
tasks,
of
technology
information
current
groupware
often
enduring
of
is
are critical
result
in the
value
to
the
tools are just
There is considerable room for
to support these tasks.
exploration
and
teams,
that
filtering
and
tools
this
in
category
of
team
activities.
CROSS-DISTANCE MEETING NEEDS
Business
stretched
and
many
across
time
globalization
are
recruiting
the
today's
in
business
world
have
are
often
many locations, some of which may be many miles
zones
Mergers,
apart.
acquisitions,
and the
of business are just three of the many factors that
fueling this trend toward geographic dispersion.
specialists
still
teams
needed
for
a
new
business
people from more than one site.
face-to-face
meetings
will
have
meetings,
to
-
occur
14 -
Getting the
team will usually mean
Generally a team will
but there will be times when
across
(sometimes
large)
distances.
there ways in which groupware can help business
Are
teams meet when the members are not at the same location?
most common tool for such cross-distance communication
The
also
is
most
the
common
Although
telephone.
the
medium
person-to-person
"terminal"
telephone
generally
is
than
rather
group
a
--
office
the
in
the
viewed as a
medium,
this
perception is changing.
with
Quietly,
taken
place
calls
often- surly
left
what.
each
customers
network
public
plugged
them
straining
wanted
who
were
to
greeted
place
by
an
into an ancient bridge
to
hear who was saying
conference call requests on AT&T's public network
through
allows
an advanced digital bridge, called Alliance,
team members to talk to each other with a very "hot"
where
signal,
who
a fundamental change has
couple of years in the U.S. telephone
participants
Today,
that
the
operator,
most
routed
are
on
fanfare,
AT&T
Previously,
conference
that
last
the
in
network.
minimal
everyone can be heard well, and can even interrupt
other in very natural ways.
In addition. Alliance can carry
a
computer
a
team can share both dialogue and computer-generated information
across
signal in parallel with the voice conversation.
multiple
advanced
digital
sites
through
bridges
the
telephone
network.
Such
increasing in capabilities and in
are
generality of access, both for public and private networks.
-
Thus
15
-
Communications,
Optel
computer-based
(or
either
drawings
communications
other
a
personal
Business teams can
graphics.
annotate
and
to allow exchange of
systems)
presentation
or
graphic
a
developed
has
graphics system that can be used over the Alliance
bridge
discuss
Inc.
it
on
the fly through such a
system.
Communications software for PCs is rapidly e.xpanding its
capacity
to
provide
telephone
across
many
teams
For
example,
tend
work
Using
Optel
work and communicate with graphics.
Imaging
Network provides pre-press color
advertisers and store promotional displays.
for
system
(often composed of people from
team
a
an advertiser such as General Foods, and an advertising
Techtron,
agency
graphic information
of
is particularly important since
This
think,
to
exchange
the
lines.
Techtron
production
the
for
such
as
Walter Thompson) can exchange draft layouts,
J.
make revisions and review final versions of advertisements.
notion
The
of personal computer screen sharing among team
Where word processing
members
is
systems
are often described in terms of WYSIWYG ("What You See Is
What
You
refer
Get"),
to
members
just
different
conference
track
of
call
on
who
while
the
off the ground.
sharing provides what Xerox researchers
screen
WYSIWIS
as
at
graphics
getting
--
"What
You
See
locations
can
be
makes
tied
viewing
simultaneously
personal
Is What
computer screens.
which
changes
organize the communication visually.
-
16
-
at
what
I
See",
together
Team
with a
and manipulating
The software keeps
time and helps to
Most
scheduled
an
advance
in
many
However,
around
electronic
pots
use
to
communications,
built
a
24-hour
with
important
ideas
even
Xerox,
some
now
some
to
encourage
spontaneous
video
audio,
and
California
Alto,
teams
data
link
and
team
link
two
Oregon.
The researchers
phenomenon, so they designed a
this
to simulate an informal "coffee pot" meeting
though the two ends of the zone were 580 miles apart.
but
it
now
has
provided
ended
an
because
of a reorganization at
early look at what is possible, and
early guidelines for how it might be done.
pursuing
time
In
suggested that some of the most
has
study
to
between
Portland,
come out of unplanned meetings.
experiment
This
technology
R&D
wanted
communications
zone,
have to be
or in other socially conducive settings.
Palo
Experience
Xerox
still
to be sure everyone is present.
order
in
teams
researchers at Xerox's System Concepts Laboratory
locations:
at
among
important team meetings occur spontaneously, often
coffee
attempt
meetings
these
Other groups are
ideas although we expect that they will take
to develop.
The electronic coffee klatch for business
teams is still not quite there.
We
expect
geographically
cross-distance
that
scattered
business
rather
teams
than less.
however,
collaboration,
powerful, more available and less expensive.
17
-
will
become
more
The tools to assist
are
becoming
more
ONGOING COORDINATION NEEDS
While
business
of
teams
are
importajit,
it is
what goes on between meetings (or what does not go on) that
often
clean-sounding
a
designation
for the often-messy process of
business team members along in the same direction.
hustling
coordination
process
members
rarely
are
can
relief
Ongoing coordination
success or failure for the team.
determines
is
meetings
increases
for
teams whose
place at the same time.
perspective
groupware
the
same
the
at
difficulty
in
This
bring
What
to business teams
wrestling with the pains of coordination?
involves
When
review.
marginal
any
number
group
easy,
not
of
packages
software
tools
"swap"
who
drafts
suggested
currently
series of scrawled
the final product emerges.
until
these
cannot
and
software
earlier
a
centralized onto one copy and rekeyed
gradually
times,
via
done
Rarely
writing is made more difficult when team members are
co-located
remembering
typically
is
notes,
teams
business team is located in the same building,
a
authorship
group
business
for
process of joint authorship, editing and
difficult
the
problem
coordination
typical
One
are
help
each
reach
addressing
to
other
easily.
this process directly.
structure
reviews
and
Several
These
revisions
by
made which changes, at what time; by maintaining
for
changes
tools
using
by
review;
into
exist
-
and
out
windowing
of
the
technology to
text.
While
as specialized products, we expect
18 -
will
functionalities
such
that
built
be
into word processing
tools in the near future.
Group
document
assist
from
the
working
shared
generating
a
formal
of yellow sticky notes.
introduction
or other devices are also used by
notes,
Electronic mail has become more common, although today's
teams.
systems
Distributions
creation
for
organize
these
mail
storage
messages
of
been
"computer
on
available
person-to-person
possible
are
and
folder
individual basis help to
an
Gradually we expect electronic
communications.
communication
group
for
lists
messages
storing
adopt
to
designed
typically
are
communication.
have
toward
Today, hand written notes are the primary medium, with
great
Memos,
aimed
is
of some kind, but many important team communications are
informal.
a
authorship
functionalities,
by group or topic.
such
as
Such group capabilities
in some companies for years (usually called
conferencing"),
but the concept has been slow to catch
on.
We think the installed base of personal computers and local
area
networks
provide
will
a
critical
infrastructure
for
group-oriented messaging.
One
category
incorporates
to
facilitate
Coordinator"
group
members
of
groupware
tools
beginning
to
emerge
the unusual approach of "conversational structuring"
team
(Action
productivity.
Technologies,
One example of this is "The
Inc.),
which
requires
the
to adhere to explicit forms of communication which
-
19 -
enforced
are
This product imposes strict
on team conversations turning casual agreements into formal
If such rules are too heavy handed for the taste of
commitments.
a
Most groups are extremely casual
the process of team meetings.
during
rules
the software.
by
particular
there will be problems.
team,
But the general area
of conversational structuring is very hopeful indeed.
Ongoing
performance
help
will
will
have
to
and
groupware
and
Such
tools
coordination
are critical to business team
needs
tools
are
well
positioned to help.
not come easily, however, since all team members
committed
be
all
the use of the chosen groupware
to
will have to go through whatever behavior changes
are necessary.
CATEGORIES OF NEEDS
The
teams
into
previous
and
groupware
tools.
be
clearly
present
which
at
are
technology
basic
four
categories
discussion
has placed the needs of business
categories.
highlights
with
each
Figure
a
1
summarizes these
listing of illustrative
The first category, "Face-to-Face Meetings" can
defined
as those occasions when the business team is
the same time in the same place.
The groupware tools
listed here, all fall into the category of information
which
enhances
the activities taking place during an
in-person meeting.
20
-
LU
I-
Z
LLi
LU
UJ
ILU
<
second
The
can
Needs,
work
and
manage
ways.
First these are the
that will be used or referenced when the
has face-to-face meetings.
team
that are carried out at different times, in
needs
as
In this sense they can
of team members that are at the same physical location. A
support
which
two
in
Many of these tools are used to organize
information
viewed
second
of
must take place in the background to support the
that
of business teams.
business
be
thought
be
activities
grouping. Administrative, Filing and Filtering
way
viewing
of
carried
are
"virtual"
place,
out
these activities is that these are needs
different
at
computing
the
i.e.,
times
but
system
the
in
supporting
same
the
business team.
In
Meetings.
team
third grouping we find the needs of Cross-Distance
the
members
different
bring
described
As
these are instances when the
plan to "meet" at the same time, but are located in
places.
these
to
earlier,
hastily-arranged
simultaneously,
The valuable capabilities that groupware tools
include
meetings
meetings
at
a
the
distance,
ability
view
to
hold
information
manipulate text and graphics information from any
location, and at times, see the other meeting participants.
Finally
there
Coordination.
capabilities
Here
the
is
where
is
grouping
we
find
titled
those
Ongoing
electronic
that to date have been most often used in support of
business
teams,
computer
conferencing.
specifically
group writing, electronic mail and
As these examples illustrate,
-
22
-
the power
of
work
groupware
moving
tools
in
this category is the ability to keep the
in a productive manner when the team members are not
actually in face-to-face contact.
We
understanding
possible
found
have
current
future
illustrative
(not
two-by-two
this
groupware
matrix
products
directions.
The
exhaustive),
but
they
and
23
-
in
examples
provide
specific areas of need where groupware can make
-
very
a
helpful in
anticipating
we
a
list
are
taste for
difference.
Future Groupware Tools
III.
Beyond
important
of
to
groupware,
it
is
consider possible future directions that are worthy
to
Building from the needs of business teams, we have
pursuit.
developed
approaches
current
simple
a
idea generation grid, shown in Figure
We
2.
start with two primary characteristics of group work:
process
o
way
the
-
interaction
the
is carried
out and facilitated;
content
o
the subject matter being considered,
-
discussed, or manipulated
We
look at groupware products and services which exist today
can
and
each according to the extent to which the concept
categorize
incorporates
therefore,
about the process and/or the content, and
knowledge
facilitates accomplishing the work.
More importantly,
this grid can be used to suggest new groupware tool ideas.
The
groupware
content
used
lower
products
built
in
computer
any
into
the
communication
takes
most
the
general
These products can therefore be
tool.
application
around
represents
box
there is no knowledge about process or
where
conferencing
communications
hand
left
For
areas.
provides
topics
place
a
-
24
generalized
without
what
or
-
example,
unstructured
environment
constraining
subjects
are
how
for
that
discussed.
o
At
products;
and
upper
the
process.
Metaphor,
integrated
the
also
incorporate
example
One
brand teams.
supports
might
which
those
knowledge about both content
this
of
system
category
(referred
to
of groupware is
earlier)
that
The calendering software described earlier
classified
be
hand corner are the most specialized
right
in that its design incorporates
here
about what kind of information and what procedures must
knowledge
be carried out to facilitate calendar management.
A
third group of tools in this category are administrative
software
products which are directed at facilitating the standard
office
in
administration tasks.
which
directory
telephone
timed
The
perform
to
various tasks such as calendar management,
maintenance, "things to do" lists, dated and
messages,
"tickler"
These tools provide one environment
electronic
mail and reference notes.
best products in this class also tie all the entries together
using
database
marketplace
Some of the tools available in the
techniques.
include
from Cone tic Systems, IBM's PROFS,
Higgins,
and All-in-One from DEC.
Also
tools.
used
design
tasks
here
Most
we find another class of products called design
of
these existing today are quite specialized and
by teams of experts for systems design.
environments
to
assist
These tools provide
a team of people in carrying out
that range from modeling and documentation to communication
and automatic generation of computer code.
-
26 -
and
content.
the
behavior
is
gauges,
to train people in how to operate a steam plant,
the simulated plant, the status of different valves and
in
the pressures in different places."*
and
the
displays
learn
and
potential
marketplace,
principles
or
groupware
for
Teams of users
consequences
the
provided
diagnostics
from
considerable
AI
an expert support
This tool "has colorful graphic displays of the schematic
actions
of
Program,
Steamer
The
example of the type of tool that would be categorized
good
manipulate
systems
use by one person would fit here if used
for
teams.
designed
here.
flows
an expert in a particular situation), which are
of
business
a
fall into the
However, expert support systems (those which model
designed
generally
system
not
of incorporating a great deal of knowledge about process
category
by
would
today
products
groupware
Most
by
the
spinoffs
tool.
of their
We
see
from the expert
particularly where small-scale applications
techniques can have large-scale impacts on
business teams.
The
facilitate
joint
lower
meetings,
writing.
accomplish
right
the
.In
task)
hand
like
Colab
cases
these
is
describes
box
or
the
systems
used
to
GDSS, or software used for
process (what goes on to
built in, but content does not matter.
Colab contains specific modules that help in structuring how each
*Luconi,
F.L.,
Malone.
T.W.
and Scott Morton, M.S., "Expert
Systems and Expert Support Systems:
The Next Challenge for
Management,"
CISR WP #122, MIT Center for Information Systems
Research, Cambridge, MA, 12/84, ppl9-20.
,
-
27 -
.
task is carried out in
there
organization
the
Argnoter,
ideas,
of
ForComment,
reviews
by
and
another
module called
which is a tool to help organize and evaluate argimients
when considering the presentation of
code
and
leaving
a proposal.
collaborative writing tool, helps structure
a
revisions
and
created
files
For example
a brainstorming module called Cognoter designed to help
is
manage
face-to-face team meeting.
a
content
but
is
irrelevant.
It imports
a
word processing system; designates reviewers
color;
uses windows for text comments and changes,
in
the document as is; and records date of change with every
comment.
ForComment provides a structure and process
Therefore
for the collaborative writing task.
great
Some
groupware
deal
of
structuring
unusual
tool
approach
which
provided
different
is
knowledge
Coordinator,"
"The
products
are
beginning
about process.
One example of this is
earlier, which is a conversational
discussed
used to facilitate group productivity.
is
the
the
the
Another
"electronic hallway" described earlier
which
by
process
lab
geographic locations communicated.
irrelevent;
to incorporate a
power
system's
is
personnel
in
two
Here again, content
focussed
on
only
the
process
It
existing
is
today
clear
from
this
view of groupware that the tools
cover a wide range of alternatives for supporting
-
28 -
business
The tools in each of these groupings contribute
teams.
however,
value;
question
the
where
of
such
tools
should
concentrate their power can be addressed.
way
One
into
of
capabilities which should be provided for all members
those
specialized
and
would
Looking
the
matrix in Figure
are
at
that
more
are
by subsets of the organization.
used
be
those
2,
the tools in the lower boxes
the most generalized and can be designated as those which all
workers
can
employ
organizations
issue
and
community,
organizational
the
about these tools is to divide them
thinking
of
of
developing
developers
the "corporate team."
of
Some
we have been working with are addressing this
that
information technology makes sense as a universal
what
facilitating
members
as
an
consider
also
community
questions
these
as
technology strategic plan.
information
should
organizational
using
and
tool,
the
needs
of
part
of
Groupware
the
total
scoping the requirements for future
in
products in this category.
The
groupware
where
well
upper
tools
content
boxes
which
knowledge
Figure
in
can
be
2
best
specific.
is
contain
more specialized
employed in an environment
If tools can be designed
to contain both content and process knowledge, they have the
potential to be extremely valuable to specialized business teams.
-
29 -
Pros and Cons
IV.
Groupware
preceding
As
the
be
applied
of
resource
both
to
assist in making business teams successful.
can
examples suggest, however, groupware tools can
many facets of cooperative work involving a range
commitment.
potential
the
It
important for managers to weigh
is
benefits
and
the possible pitfalls, before
jumping to specific action steps.
benefits
The
of
business
business
teams
teams
groupware
many
most:
its
is
tools
aimed
are
at
More specifically,
saving what managers value
such
in
and
way
a
that
a
business
can
team
Group writing seeks to make a difficult
goals.
making it less time consuming.
by
conversational
Text
structuring tools seek to organize
or
communications so that they can be better managed within
team.
While time savings is sometimes not the overt goal, it
data
a
their objectives.
difficult
less
filtering
accomplish
time
accomplish
process
If it works, groupware helps
(see Figure 3).
Project and calendar management, for example, seek
time.
organize
to
groupware are directly tied to the goals
of
an
overriding
coordination
particularly
theme,
activities.
in
Typically, teams have
the
a
course
of
big job to do
within an almost-impossible time constraint.
Productivity
related
to
time.
of
teams
business
is,
of
course,
often
What can be accomplished within the given unit
-
30
-
tn
But there are also other aspects of productivity that
time?
of
potentially
can
decision
benefit from groupware.
support
decisions
are
more
or
to
produce
often
linked
to
both
team.
As
tools,
used
systems
For example, some group
increase the quality of
to
creative ideas.
Productivity is
quality and amount of ideas produced by a
coordination needs are met with time-saving groupware
effort
more
can
be
concentrated
on
the
"real" work,
achieving overall productivity gains.
Groupware
business
to
also
that
meeting
productivity.
If
face-to-face
meeting,
walk
and
of
New
memory
for
a
meeting
often
is
major
a
block to
facilitation tools are used during a
everyone
can
see what is being agreed to
communications
At the next meeting, or
that
might
occur
between
Thus a business team can have a permanent record
members.
progress (or lack of progress) and management can stay in
its
touch
group
the shared notes and agreements can be available to any
meetings,
team
again?")
away with a copy of the notes.
electronic
during
provide
to
The lack of such memory ("what was it we agreed
team.
during
seeks
with
team
proceedings
the
members
can
without
also
great investments of time.
come on board very quickly, since a
history of the team is accessible-
Some
objectivity
For
example,
groupware
or
also
systems
seek
to
provide a kind of
depersonalization of the decision-making process.
some group decision support systems allow anonymous
32
-
voting
on
designed
issues
where
by
religiously)
steps
groupware
process
group,
the
participation
of
Other
desired.
decision-making
explicit
Other groupware systems are
decided.
equality
facilitate
to
members,
be
to
tools
among
include
team
an
that is followed (more or less
order
in
to ensure that objective
In such cases, the groupware is embodying basic
are taken.
that management (or someone else) wishes the business team
values
to follow.
addition
In
consider
Groupware
zeal
can
many
very
be
Overselling
of groupware.
computer
the
Several such pitfalls
The first and last pitfall is a
4.
industry:
overselling.
is
likely to be sold with the same
of its ancestors.
Groupware products and services
sorts
to business teams, but they are only tools.
useful
such
members
team
within
various
of
as
Figure
in
disease
common
pitfalls
possible
summarized
are
benefits, it is important for managers to
to
tools
and
their
unrealistic
creates
expectations among
managers,
which can lead ultimately to
doors
into the delicate domains of
disappointment
Groupware
group
who
open
process and structure. Such software can be used to specify
can
purposes.
of
tools
talk to whom, in what way, with what resources, for what
There is the potential here for overstructure or abuse
power.
democratic
Groupware
or
more
tools
themselves are not inherently more
authoritarian than other media that business
-
33
-
might
teams
possibilities
both
in
here
consider
These tools do, however, increase the range of
use.
appropriate
what
regarding
for
given
a
There are serious issues to
directions.
types of group structure are most
business
team,
in
a given corporate
environment.
need
All
the special software in the world will not replace the
for
good
management.
will
groupware
In
new
require
teams
using
of management leadership and
forms
business
business
fact,
teams
provide
expertise.
While
organizational
structure that allows a company to respond quickly
to
change,
company
a
overzealousness
Such
scale.
lead
by
very
flexible
become awash in business teams. Such
can
problems
used
systems
can
a
coordination
to
problems
on a grand
made worse, of course, if groupware
are
different
teams
are
not compatible with each
other.
Another
teams
the
is
either
delegation
place,
of
business
appropriate
of
do
no
get
to
the job done.
Such assignments
with management or with the team process itself.
cynicism
to
power
degenerate from excitement to frustration, resulting in
creation
time
pitfall related to the use of business
in some cases teams are given assignments without
that
commensurate
typically
The
management
the
form
job
of
teams
powers,
must
be
accompanied
by
the
as well as the allocation of
well.
If these prerequisites are not in
groupware
will be adequate to help the team
recover.
-
35 -
V.
An Action Plan for Managers
This
is
possibilities
The
time
a
specific
actively
to
pursue
the
teams and groupware to support them.
business
for
following
managers
for
suggest
actions
a
structure
for this
pursuit:
BEGIN
1.
PROGRAM OF TRACKING AND EVALUATING BUSINESS
A
TEAM PERFORMANCE IN YOUR OWN COMPANY AND IN COMPETING COMPANIES.
notion
The
variety
stage
forms,
of
business
it
of
important
with
haphazardly,
experiences.
sometimes
guideline
fact
that
little
mistakes.
even
wide
the basics of
At this
to experiment freely and learn from that
Consequently,
old
the
of
a
In most companies business teams are happening
experimentation-
remaking
spite
are quite natural to most organizations.
teams
is
in
business teams can be played out in
when
documentation.
newly-formed
or
business
sharing
of
teams
are
Cross-company learning is also possible,
competitors
are
involved.
The
first
is simply to understand what is already going on within
your company and elsewhere.
2.
ENCOURAGE EXPLORATION OF NEW WAYS TO MANAGE TEAMS.
Beyond
plant
what
is
already
underway, this is a good time to
new seeds and give them the protection necessary to see how
-
36
-
they
as
important
the
as
groupware
technologies that are employed.
leaders will be more effective than others and it will
team
Some
be
The styles of managing business teams will often be
grow.
useful
As these understandings emerge, it
to understand why.
is important to share them within your company.
PILOT TEST NEW GROUPWARE PRODUCTS AS THEY APPEAR.
3.
Many
new
groupware products will appear over the next few
although most will be offered by small companies that have
years,
uncertain
futures.
services
provide
,
These
tools
early
both
products,
software and
for experimentation within your company
without major investment.
AVOID
4.
LARGE-SCALE
INVESTMENTS
IN
GROUPWARE
UNTIL
SMALL-SCALE SUCCESSES HAVE OCCURRED.
Gambling
on
small
software
companies
is
always
high-roller
game and groupware companies are no exception.
simply
early to pick the winners.
too
business
useful
be
them
to
business
mean,
avoided.
still
It is
This is not all bad since
teams are still learning what type of tools will be most
specific
not
a
yield
anyway.
This is a time to focus on supporting
teams, not on company-wide efforts.
This does
however, that important or highly visible teams should
On the contrary, a small-scale groupware effort can
large-scale business benefits.
37 -
The search should be
high-leverage
for
where groupware tools can be explored and
teaims
evaluated without massive investment or risk.
GROUPWARE
EMPHASIZE
5.
EXISTING
INFORMATION
APPLICATIONS
SYSTEMS
AND
THAT
BUILD
UPON
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
INFRASTRUCTURE.
Consistent
not
to
deliver
that
guidelines
and five above, this is
four
to invest in expensive new infrastructure in order
time
the
with
groupware
Beware of vendors who argue
capabilities.
their product is "completely new" and therefore requires its
own
new
environment.
Such
closed
architectures
have
their
attractions and are justifiable within some narrow niche markets.
In
general, however, it is better to stay with groupware products
and services that build upon existing infrastructures.
AN INCENTIVE STRUCTURE THAT WILL REWARD TEAM
DEVELOP
6.
PERFORMANCE, NOT JUST PERFORMANCE OF INDIVIDUAL TEAM MEMBERS.
Too
with
It
and
often
have been introduced
important to distinguish here between corporate incentives
individual
conferencing,
to
systems
thought regarding why people would want to use them.
little
is
information
new
use
corporate
the
user
incentives.
In
the
early days of video
for example, there was a strong corporate incentive
technology
image
(for
building)
,
-
example,
but
38
-
overall
little
cost savings or
individual
incentive
(particularly
In
personal
of
the personal computer, there were strong
incentives
to
purchase
was
little
while
going,
there
corporate
DP
With
growth
the
of
to
support
specifics
of
just
from
own budget and get
your
corporate
incentive,
resisted
the personal computer
business
teams
groups
groupware
This
wanted to keep their travel budgets).
days
early
the
managers
if
why
and
the
-
and most
at first.
introduction
of
them, it is important to think through the
team members will want to work this way.
indeed a time to reward team performance, and to address
is
the question of what type of rewards will be most effective.
V.
Summary
The
use
for
keys
looks
global
economic
managerial
of
skills
team members.
leading
tools
of
and
for
teams is accelerating as management
business
to achieving success in an increasingly complex,
environment.
Business
teams
require
new
to facilitate and enhance the cooperative work
Managers will have to learn new methods of both
working.
unlocking
Groupware provides an important new set of
potential
the
-
39 -
of
business
teams.
MIT
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