MIT LIBRARIES . ,,„,,f>iJP'- 3 9080 02239 2390 BASEMENT iii.> >,v4\,/ f:y-i ... HD28 .M414 DEWEY 00 ALFRED P. WORKING PAPER SLOAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT Hardware and Software Customer Satisfaction in Japan A Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Vendors by Michael Cusumano WP 2101-88 Dec, MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 50 MEMORIAL DRIVE CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139 1988 : Japan: Ha rdware and Software Customer Satisfaction in A Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Vendors by Michael Cusumano WP 2101-88 Dec, 1988 MASf^' •^'^ ""^flTUTE NOV 2 1 2000 LIBRARIES Michael A. Cusumano M.I.T. Sloan School of Management December 18, 1988 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN JAPAN: A COMPARISON OF U.S. AND JAPANESE VENDORS Annual surveys Nikkei Computer , of Japanese computer users by the leading industry journal, make possible to determine approximate market shares of it the installed base of computers by placement value and number of units, as well as to evaluate responses of Japanese users to hardware, software, and system- engineering (SE) services provided by both Japanese and U.S. -owned vendors. The Japanese market continued to be dominated by large computers, smaller office computers accounting for approximately 23"o of installed was highly competitive, with large computers alone divided among numerous product It and lines. Fujitsu: M Japan IBM: 43XX, 308X, 3090 Hitachi: M NEC: ACQS Series, SX Series COSMO Series, EX Series Mitsubishi: with units. 7 firms ' Series, Series, VP series H-8600, H-6700, S-800 V-8400-8600, 1-9000, ITX/9000, NCR980n, NCRXL Unisys Univac/Sperry: 1100 Series, System 11, 2200 Series, 80 Series, 90 Series Burroughs: B1800-7800, B1900-7900, A Series, V Series NCR: There were also several other vendors of office computers and minicomputers, such as Toshiba and Oki Electric, and U.S. firms such as Digital Equipment Corporation, although they had small market shares. By far the major foreign-owned computer firm was Japan IBM, which held approximately 21% of the 1988 installed base by value. vendors were Burroughs), Unisys, with and NCR, with about 10% (split The other major U.S. between Sperry-Univac and about 2% of placements by value. 1 The foreign computer vendors designed software and language, Japan in U.S., the in mafketed hat direct competition in dw-Ti » systems modified system-engineering provided development services primatily development, the U.S. -owned firms generally followed parents for the Japanese thf» cu-; tr.mi;'"' with Japario«;<^ systems Iia<;ic haiKJIr lo and aru! applications I fiirii<^ cini'lnjinn'; In software set by their the U.S., where appropriate, such as for morlifyinr) opr int ing systems in They Japanese market. customers in also provided specialized the information service, finance, and di<;1 ril nil system engineering and liardwair as those requiring '^nqineering for <;y<;tPiTi ion as well ':'-f-lor-s, offiro .mtriination foi and computer-aided manufacturing and design. Japan IBM, had assembly, a which history aggressive in including personal a in dating large computer back to computer tailored specifically Japan Unisys included components of the former Nihon Llnivar, former Japanese subsidiary of Burroughs International Univac, Oki drives, printers, venture with joint a software. The Electric and terminals designed by Sperry, product development center last Tokyo focused on in were strong Unisys divisions Oki major U.S. in lai-ge (POS), host for venture well as w^W softw.-iio the worked closely maintained -t' p.i disk .< lucts . a Both machines and sporinlizr.l applications player, Japan computers market. ni.TiMif.-irtured NCR, foim<lr'l wa<^ primarily sold automated teller machines (ATMs), cash Hi<=pon<;pi registers .t; al<;i-> tli.il a''. computers, joint .t Hiril, It <- Jap.-inpse tli^ in especially w.t<; offir nn'l to established between Sperry-Rand and Mitsui Trading with nnd }9?>7 systems and man'if-irtnting hatrlwni^ local Japan very selling some did also these terminaU, \u 1920 and point-of-sale - high priced office computers, and system-engineering services. The 1988 surveys of approximately 6800 Japanese minicomputers, and office computers suggests that ii<^prs Japat)r>«;o of mainframes, firms competed on the basis of superior and cheaper hardware; they offctcrl loss well perceived systems software but superior applications, and offered rhonpoi system-engineering services overall. It seems apparent tli-it, software and where matters it most to customers, the leading Japanese computer manufacturers imd achieved least parity with IBM -- superiority some areas, and inferiority in Specialized U.S. producers -- especially Unisys/Sperry-Univar. nnd rated very highly by Japanese customers very percentages small many market. the of in at others. in NCR -- were areas, Liut thev accounted for Below some are more specific observations and some of the more important tables summarizing the survey data (more details of the surveys, are presented also in this section, (1) Japanese Lead in summarized in in tabular Appendix C). Hardware Market Share Japanese computer manufacturers dominated their domestic of placement value (67.6%) and units (77.4), with largest market share (32. 7% and 36.0%, respectively) 1). IBM had Fujitsu was nnd referenced fr>tni a slight far ahead lead in over Fujitsu mid-sized in , large systems, tnarl<et in Fujitsu terms holding the as of July 1988 (Table nirTinf while although r;>mes, NF' led in small mainframes (Table C.l). Information services, finance, government, and accounted for 61% of system placements by value in distribution Ihe Japanese market. Four companies dominated these sectors and the industry overall: IBM, Hitachi, industry and segment, NEC. Japanese vendors dominated each except for financial customers, sectors wlieii^ Fujitsu, individual IBM was the market leader and U.S. firms held 53% of placements by value versus 47% for the Japanese. Japanese firms held 95% of the government market and this helped their overall shares, for only 13% of the total market. vendors still although goveinment F>lacemo(its accounted Minus the governmpiit soctor, Japanese accounted for 63.51 of placements by value (lables C.2 and C.3). COMPUTER MARKET-SHARE COMPARIS ON Table 1: Units: Million IN JAPAN (J ULY 1988) ^ Table 2: USER SATISFACTION LEVELS BY MANUFA CTUR E R J 1 Point Scalel^ Notes: Scale: Company C odes F = = I H N :l Fujitsu IBM = Hitachi = NEC S = Unisys/Sperry-Llnivac Bold = Above Average = System Engineering SE B R = Unisys/Biirrouglis = NCR M = Mitsubishi Japanese users also cited price/performance as the in')<;t influencing purchasing decisions (Table C.4). w;^-; leader, although it IBM achieved this on average by arlu.^lly the price however, the average price paid by users per MIP very large inoslly seliinri systems, where prices per processing power tended nnpoitant factor In doclino. yen (about r)8n,()fin vv.t<; $4600) for Japanese machines, compared to 730,000 yow [pt\u>iii Overall, S58O0) from U.S. vendors (Table 3) (3) U.S. Advantage S ystems Sof t ware. In M arketing U.S. vendors, led by Unisys and IBM, had firms in a and Hitachi, however compatibility -- why Japanese major reason hardware when they made it clear adv.Tiitagf "VPr Japanese customer satisfaction with systems softwarr fT^hlo software was also made a and GonrrnI Sa tisfaction . -- for (Part of this choice. <; them the early in wait to until 1970<; software was only the fourth to fc>llow IBM product at least in p^i purchasing decisions, trailing price/performance, iipwni where Japanese vendors were either supei their U.S. counterparts (Table C.4). U.S. firms scored slightly higher for software development in in user-satisfaction for Fujitsu nuse available influencing compatibility, and -I foi this ) far|'>i ioi IBM; IBM- innouncements hf-f \ most frequently citnd reliability, -made aimnrl at full before they could complete systems software developmrrtt Japanese firms remained market leaders Available rho*;^ U.S. prol,ilnm th<^ and especially Fujitsu, wliich was the decision necessary custoitmi ?) . rlo<;o, or equal to tnrhnica! support "system system-engineering" (basic hardware and software configuration), and slightly higher in goneial satisfaction in system and application system engineering (Tables U.S. vendors also scored slightly better in 2, C.r>, C.6). product salesman relations, information, and general satisfaction levels, although these types of factors (specifically, saieii.ian enthusiasm, perception of technology excellence, reputation) had little impact on actual purchasing decisions (Tables 2, and C.4, C.5, C.6). f4) Japanese Advantage Software and System Eng ineering In Applications Japanese firms were clear leaders in Japanese-languagp processing as as superior in application system-engineering support for large users. Japanese vendors were especially strong market of system-engineering shares. applications, IBM was of the 2, in NEC were in both areas, especially stronn in especially Japanese- C.5, C.6). Parity or Near-Parity in Other Software- Rela ted Areas In system system-engineering support, software maintenance, and system- software version-up support, Japanese and U.S. customer satisfaction scores (Tables (6) knowledge applications, although both had small in somewhat weak while Fujitsu and language processing (Tables (51 computer Unisys/Sperry-Univac and Mitsubishi were bc^t perceived applications. two surveys in well 2, vendors had identical C.5, C.G). Lower Japanese Prices for Software and Support S ervices IBM charged the highest prices for its payments for leased programs such applications. Even adjusting for software, based on average monthly as the operating systems or standard price-performance levels of its hardware, IBM for its still software. charged more than twice Overall, the as much as any other vendor average Japaneso monthly 1,220,000 yen (about $10,000), compared to 2, charge was 190,000 yen ($in,000) f or U S . vendors (Table 3) Table 3: NOTES: MIPS AVERAGE SYSTEM C ONFIGURATI ON AND SOFTWARE PRICES ^ = Million Instructions Per Second Yen (Discounted) Price/Performance = Million Yen/MIP (Discounted Price) Software = Monthly Charge in Units of 10,000 Yen Ratio = Software Charge/Price-Performance Price = In Million . market shares of the charges varied vendors, although the range relatively little systom-engineering of by industry segment, except consulting (Table C.8). Table 4: Units: SYSTEM SE SERVICE CH ARG E S^8 % of Service Provided Free of Charge 10,000 Yen Per Man-Month Service Fee Gratis (%) Average SE Charges Fixed Contract Weighted Averages: Japanese 65 % U.S. 74 Toshiba IBM 87 82 NEC 71 Unisys/Burroughs 68 Hitachi 73 93 Yen Discounted 67 65 Yen in system The effect of this apparent neglect leaders the Japanese market in in was that IBM, Unisys, and both systems and applications system engineering for office computers (Table C.9, C.IO). fact that Hitachi survey of (7) NEC was This was despite the in also the leader office in computers in a personal computers with approximately 60% of the domestic mai ket during the sold in Japan, mid-1980s had the largest placement share 1600 users. NCR were JO Continued Shortage of Personnel and Rel iance on Manufacturers Despite efforts made to train and support software personnel, more than 80% of the firms responding to the March 1988 Nikkei Com puter survey reported shortage a programming. system In personnel software of design, 37% of systoiii in reported firms design and they were "extremely short" (C.11) Partially as a result of this personnel shortage, uspis rolind heavily on computer manufacturers for general system-engineering support, averaging U.S. -based firms' nearly 88% for the vendors users. users, and 68". for the Japanese Dealers were relied on more heavily by customers of the Japanese vendors (18.5% compared to 7%) (Table C 12). In applications development, between 25% and 50% of the users responding claimed they that relied on outside system planning, programming. In manufacturers, although in personnel, most notably for they relied mainly on the computer other phases, from system design through maintenance, they relied most heavily on software houses, followed by the 10 manufacturers and then dealers (C.13). Japanese customers were not, however, equally satisfied with the services of dealers and software houses compared with the computer makers. This appears to reflect the severe shortage of skilled software personnel Japan, especially outside of the major computer companies (C.14). 11 in APPENDIX C JAPANESE CUSTOMER SURVEY DATA Table C.I: PLACEMFNT-VALUE MARKET SHARE S BY SYSTEM SIZE 11 Systems (including peripherals) were divided as follows: large" were those costing 500 million yen and above ($4 million (a Note: $1.00 = 125 yen); "mid-size" from 100 million yen ($800,000) to 500 million; and "small" below 100 million yen. Unit: % Table C.2: PLACEMENT VALUE OF SYSTEMS BY NDUSTRY: ^^ MANUFACTURER MARKET SHAR ES I Computer-Maker Codes: F = Fujitsu S = Unisys/Sperry-Univac = IBM B = Unisys/Burroughs I H N NCR = Hitachi R = NEC M = Mitsubishi = Unit: Note: % Totals may not add up to 100% due to rounding. 100% = 1,645 Billion Yen Companies: Table C.3: Units: Note: MANUFACTURER PLACEMENT VALUF RR FAKDOWN fW NDUSTRY ^^ I Same as in Total = Companies: Services Previous Table Industry Segment as F I 17 24 Finance 14 25 Government 19 2 Distribution 13 6 5 10 Info. Machinery Chemicals Elec. Machinery Energy Institutions H 26 16 14 11 9 N Percent of a S B R M 5 18 13 13 19 13 11 9 10 7 1 7 36 34 59 22 5 16 8 24 7 4 2 9 3 6 4 1 1 11 Value Total 19 19 67659222 6 I'l-^cemnut 23 18 11 Tot.ij 6 FACTORS INFLUENCING SYSTEM Table C.4: Unit: Note: S ELECTION (%)^ ^ % Users were asked to choose the two most important factors in their purchase decisions. The percentages refer to the influencing number of responses citing each factor. Companies: Fi HNSBJRM Price/ 46 28 43 43 29 25 21 33 40 44 26 32 33 37 27 36 49 46 29 33 31 39 33 41 38 27 22 22 29 24 32 32 32 21 31 14 18 33 33 25 19 21 19 30 14 11 23 19 7 6 1 1 30 16 18 9 13 7 12 17 23 13 9 20 14 14 11 Same Industry 13 Operating Results 9 5 12 10 16 14 10 11 11 12 14 2 4 6 8 1 3 2 8 4 3 1 2 Weighted Averages Japan U.S. All Performance Upward Compatibility Reliability, Fault Tolerance Available Software Boss's Orders, Business Contacts System Engineering Support Maintenance Service Technology 3 1 Excellence Salesman Enthusiasm 2 Installation 2 Conditions 3 1112 Reputation 110 10 Other 5658 10 15 12 2 10 656 1 6 11 11 Appendix C lable C.5: SYSTEM SE-SERVICE P R OVIDED BY C OMPUTFR MAKERS: ^^ GENERAL-PURPOSE COMPUTER USER S 10-Point Scale Unit: Questions: Explanation of New Products 1 System Software Version-Up Support 2 New System Configuration Support 3. Proposals for Solving Problems Related to Improvinrj System Efficiency 4. Technical Support for Software Development 5. Technical Support for Machine Security 6. Promptness in Responding to Requests to Fix Defects 7. Technical Support in Communications Areas 8. Offering of Broad Information from a Neutral Standpnint 9 . 10. Businessman-Engineer Morality 11. Total Satisfaction Questions: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 6.5 Weighted Averages: Total 5.9 7.1 7.3 6.1 5.5 5.1 6.9 5.9 4.8 7.2 Japan U.S. 5.9 6.2 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.4 6.0 6.3 5.5 5.6 5.1 6.9 6.9 5.9 5.9 4.7 4.9 7.1 6.4 5.3 7.4 6.6 Fujitsu 5.8 6.9 7.2 5.8 5.3 5.0 6.9 5.7 4.6 6.9 6.3 IBM 6.4 7.0 7.2 6.0 5.2 5.1 6.9 5.7 4.4 7.4 6.5 NEC 5.8 7.0 7.3 6.0 5.7 4.9 6.6 6.0 4.6 7.0 6.4 Hitachi 6.2 7.5 7.5 6.2 5.7 5.5 7.3 6.0 5.0 7 5 6.6 Unisys/Burroughs5.6 6.9 7.2 6.2 5.9 5.4 6.6 5.7 5.1 /.3 6.6 Unisys/Sperry 6.7 8.0 8.2 7.1 6.6 6.3 7.4 7.0 6.1 7.9 7.3 NCR 5.1 6.6 7.0 6.3 4.9 4.6 6.2 5.3 4.7 7.1 6.1 Mitsubishi 4.3 6.9 7.4 6.3 5.0 4.3 6.8 5.7 4.G 7.1 6.3 User Base: 16 Appendix C Table C.6: APPLICATIONS SE-SERVICE PROVIDED B Y COMPUTER MAKER: GENERAL-PURPOSE COMPUTE R USE R S 10-Point Scale (0-1 dissatisfied, 9-10 satisfied) Unit: Ouestions: 1 Proposals for System Planning and Design Understanding of Business Strategy 2. Knowledge Regarding the Application 3. 4. Knowledge of Industry Trends Ease of Understanding Product Documentation 5. . 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Communication Ability Application-System Development Methodology Technical Support in Communications Areas Businessman-Engineer Morality Total Satisfaction Ouestions: ^ Table C.7: Units: AVERAGE SE CHARG ES 10,000 Yen/Man-Month, System Consulting ( ) = R EPORTED B Y Number of USERS UY P HASE ^^ Responses System Design Program ming Opera 77 (295) 58 43 52 84 (376) (327) (11) (10) 75 (185) 57 (239) 41 41 58 (171) (9) (4) Training lions System Audit We ighted Av e rages: Total Japan 94 (114) 91 (71) Fujitsu Table C.8: Unit: ( ) = AVERAGE SE CHARGES BY 10,000 Yen/Man-Month Number of Responses IN DUSTRY 18 Table C.9: SYSTEM SE SERVICE PROVIDED BY COMPUTER MA KERS: ^^ OFFICE-CO MP UTER USE R 1()-Point Scale Unit: Questions: Explanation of New Products 1. System Software Version-Up Support 2. New System Configuration Support 3. Proposals for Solving Problems Related to Improving System Efficiency 4. Technical Support for Software Development 5. Technical Support for Machine Security 6. Promptness in Responding to Requests to Fix Defects 7. Technical Support in Communications Areas 8. Offering of Broad Information from a Neutral Standpoint 9 10. 11. Businessman-Engineer Morality Total Satisfaction Questions: 1234567891011 Weighted Averages: Total 5.5 6.4 6.7 5.5 5.0 4.9 6.8 5.4 4.6 1.3 6.2 Japan U.S. 5.1 5.6 7.3 6.3 4.9 6.2 4.6 5.5 4.4 5.4 6.2 7.3 4.9 6.0 4.2 5.1 G.9 7.9 5.8 6.8 User Base: Fujitsu 6.0 7.0 PROVIDED B Y COMPUTER MAKERS: ^Q OFFICE-COMPUTER USERS Table CIO: APPLICATIONS SE SERVICE Unit: 10-Point Scale Questions: Proposals for System Planning and Design 1 Understanding of Business Strategy 2. Knowledge of the Product 3. 4. Knowledge of tlie Application 5. Knowledge of Industry Trends 6. Ease of Understanding Product Documentation . 7. 8. 9. 10. Communication Ability Application-System Development Methodology Businessman-Engineer Morality Total Satisfaction Questions: Table C.ll: Unit: SOFTWARE PERSONNEL Percent of Responses in Each Category S UmC I ENCY ('{,)- Table C.12: SYSTEM SE SERVICE UTILIZATI ON RATES L%}^^ Compute r Dealers Makers Software Houses Consulting Othei No Response Companies Weighted Averages: Total 72.4 14.0 5.3 0.4 2.7 5.2 Japan U.S. 68.3 87.7 18.5 7.0 5.5 4.4 0.6 1.0 2.9 0.8 4.5 3.6 Large Computers 80.8 8.4 4.1 0.3 lA 4.1 Office 48 32.3 9.4 0.5 3.2 6.5 29.6 5.4 3.2 5.1 . Computers User Base: Fujitsu 56.7 IBM U/Sperry 95.5 U/Burroughs97.4 NCR 84.6 Mitsubishi 37.9 Table C.13: USE OF OUTSIDE SERVICE Unit: % of Service (Man-Months) System Planning % Using Outside Service; 25.5 Yes 68.6 No 5.7 No ResfXJnse IN Provided by Manufacturer System Design 39.8 Programming 55.1 5.2 50.8 44.6 4.7 37.4 41.8 10.5 2.0 6.8 4.5 19.7 57.3 9.6 0.5 7.9 5.0 U Major Source of Outside Service: Computer Makers 50.2 Software Houses 21 1 11.1 Dealers Consultants 7 8 Computer Centers 5.4 Other/No Answer 4.1 A PPLICATIONS^^ Maintenance 28, Table C.14: APPLICATIONS SE SERVICE SATISF ACTION BY S.OURCE^^ Unit: 10-Point Scale Questions: Proposals for System Planning and Design 1 Understanding of Business Strategy 2. 3. Knowledge of the Product 4. Knowledge of the Application Knowledge of Industry Trenas 5. 6. Ease of Understanding Product Documentation . 7. 8. 9. 10. Communication Ability Application-System Development Methodology Businessman-Engineer Morality Total Satisfaction Questions: REFERENCES This section relies on data from two issues of Nikkei Compute r. The first, published on 26 September 1988, pp. 66-99, was a survey of general-purpose mainframe users and is based on questionnaires sent to 14,407 sites in Japan-excluding in-house departments of the computer manufacturers. Responses came from 5,422 sites, for a response rate of 37.6%. Excluding unclear answers, the effective responses were 5,226. Weighted averages for the weie calculated on the basis of the unit shares of the sample, which are also used to estimate placement market shares by unit (see Table 1). The second Nikkei Ccxnputer survey, published in the 14 March 1988 issue, pp. 58-86, focuses on system engineering (SE) services for general-purpose and office computers, provided mainly by the computer manufacturers but also by dealers, software houses, consultants, and other sources. Surveys were sent to the information systems departments of 6000 large firms, including those listed in the first and second sections of the Tokyo Stock Exchange, and 448 non-listed companies with Responses came back from 1589 companies, a annual sales over 50 billion yen. rate of 26.5%. Including multiple responses from one company, there were 1600 effective responses. Approximately 91% of Japanese customers reported themselves as using machines from one vendor only in the categories in the survey, and only 5.6% claimed to be multi-vendor users. The remainder of the responses were unclear. Weighted averages were calculated from the survey responses as follows (p. 85): 1 . USER RESPONSES BY INDUSTRY 1 600 Total 124 Materials Manufacturing 165 Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing Other Manufacturing 490 166 259 258 Distribution 14 109 15 Government and Education Other No RespK>nse Finance Service USER RESPONSES BY COMPUTER MAKER NCR Mitsubishi 39 32 21. Nikkei Compute r, 14 March 1988, p. 84. 22. Nikkei Computer , 14 March 1988, p. 75. 23 Nikkei Computer , 14 March 1988, p 73 24. Nikkei Computer . 14 March 1988, 74. p. 28 Appendix C MJ.T. Sloan School of Management Working Paper Series Papers by Michael Cusumano Assistant Professor of Behavioral and Policy Sciences Paper # Date 3182 7/90 3159 7/90 TillelAulhoris) "Japanese Investment and Influence in Thai Development," Ichikawa, N., Cusumano, M., and Polenske, K.R. "Supplier Management and Performance at Japanese, JapaneseCusumano, M., and Takeishi, Transplant, and U.S. Auto Plants," 3150 4/90 A. "Strategy, Structure, and Performance in Product Development: Observations from the Auto Industry," Cusumano, M.A., and Nobeoka, K. 3026 1/90 "A Model of Cooperative Cusumano, R&D Among Competitors," Sinha, D.k., M 3088 10/89 3087 10/89 "The Factory Appraoch to Software Development: Overveiw," Cusumano, M. R&D "Japanese Cooperative A Strategic Projects in Software Technology," Cusumano, M. 3022 7/89 2044 6/89 "A Quantative Analysis of U.S. and Japanese Software Engineering Practice and Performance," Cusumano, M., and Kemerer, C. "Fujitsu Software: Process Control to Automated Customization," Cusumano, M. An 2611 4/89 "The Process Spectrum in Software Development: Survey and Interpretation," Cusumano, M. 3095 1/89 "Factory Concepts and Practices in Software Development: Historical Overview," 2101 12/88 1972 9/88 7/88 An Cusumano, M. "Hardware and Software Customer Satisfaction in Japan: Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Vendors," Cusumano, M. A "Software Technology Management: 'Worst' Problems and Solutions," 2036 Exploratory 'Best' Cusumano, M. "The Software Factory: Origins and Popularity in Japan," Cusumano, M.A. 2012 5/88 "Shifting Economies: Cusumano, M. Craft Production to the Flexible Factory," MJ.T. Sloan School of Management Working Paper Series Papers by Michael Paper # Date 1954 11/87 Cusumano TitklAuthcHs) "NEC: Standardization Strategy for Cusumano, M. a Distributed 'Software Factory' Structure," 1939 10/87 Fuchu Software Factory Strategy, Technology, and Organization," Cusumano, M. 1885 9/87 "The 'Factory' Approach "Toshiba's to Large-Scale Software Development: Implications for Strategy, Technology, and Structure," Cusumano, M. 1887 5/87 "A U.S. 'Software Factory' Experiment: System Development Corporation, Cusumano, M. ' Pioneering the 'Factory Model' for Large-Scale Software Development," Cusumano, M. 1886 5/87 "Hitachi: 1841 12/86 "Small-Lot Production: Key to High Productivity and Utility in Japanese Auto Manufacturing," Cusumano, M. Please Use Attached Form When Ordering Papers MIT Sloan School of Management Working Paper Series Order Form Company:_ Name: Title: Address: WPn First Two Words WP Qly of Title # First Two Words Payment Must Accompany This Order Make Checks Payable (in U.S. Funds Only) to: MFT Sloan (Sorry, we do not accept credit cards) @ $10.00/Paper International Number of Papers Ordered Mail Order To: Qty School $ — Rate: $ — @ $8.00/Paper Domestic Rate: Number of Papers Ordered of Title School of Management Working Papers, E52-403 50 Memorial Drive MIT Sloan Attn: Cambridge, MA 02139 Please allow 4-6 weeks for delivery. If you require express delivery, please enclose a self-addressed, pre-paid express envelope with your order. 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