Bswey
Historical Perspective:
l-lalos In Social Researcfi
Seeing Througti
Barbara
WP
1232-81
S.
Lawrence
November
1981
As pastor X steps out of bed he slips a neat disguise on.
That halo round his priestly head is really his horizon.
(Hein,
Like the pastor
by
limiting horizons as far away as possible.
As
halos are hard to recognize.
blend
able.
researchers are often afflicted
grook,
Understanding any phenomenon depends on the
"halos."
push
Piet Hein's
in
in
of these
but that historical perspective
is
contemporary studies.
how devaluing history
limits
why
history
is
is
to
that
seeming desir-
to the point of
devaluing the history of social
is
not valued at
is
in
The purpose
of this
paper
is
social research.
devalued and define what
to
show how
research horizons, and to
in
all,
the design and interpre-
underutilized
perspective helps see through this halo
to explain
ability
difficulty
the case of the priestly disguise, they
horizons
limiting
The
This does not mean that historical study
phenomena.
tation of
in
everyday world, even
well with the
One
1966)
I
examine
historical
First,
mean by
I
need
historical
perspective.
Historical
its
perspective refers to understanding
earliest phases
and subsequent evolution.
a
subject
fers from history because the object of historical perspective
en one's vision of the present,
and
artifacts
research,
to
study
not the past.
attitudes
during
the
in
light of
Historical perspective difis
sharp-
to
Using written documents
Depression
is
historical
whereas using historical information about the Depression
explain differences
in
attitudes
today
074 36;?^ ^
is
historical perspective.
-
to
History
''^SC^.''
*"
.
provides the raw materials for historical perspective.
that
fact
seems reasonable and
it
light of its past,
for
One reason
research.
social
which historical perspective
understand any subject
frequently overlooked as
is
for this
made,
is
to
logical
perspective
historical
ii.
in
a tool
the stuff of
that history,
devalued because
is
despite the
Yet,
tied to the
is
it
notion of progress
The
notion of historic progress
the
time
Greeks
the
of
is
deeply ingrained
in
the culture of
Nisbet (1980) states that the idea of progress, from
the Western world.
consists of an assumption of
the present,
to
inexorable change over time from lower to higher states of knowledge and
well-being.
America, this idea results
In
The history
progress
is
ideology
of
of this
country
is
in
devaluing the past.
steeped
in
divine
endure
mission--to
stones illustrating that
Early settlers adopted an
the mission of the American people.
conquer
and
World--as much from the reality of the situation as from
ize their
harsh
the
a
need to rational-
emigration and to promote their adopted land to those
behind.
"Later
and
statesmen,
politicians,
New
who stayed
publicists ... continued
to
terms of conquest of the continent and
think of the history of America
in
ultimately of the diffusion of
ideology throughout the world" (Handlin,
1979,
p.
riding
the
The cinematic image
54).
into the
future
its
will
sunset,
and facing,
bring.
astronauts
are
progress.
Status
is
idealized
within
This
one
with
young man on horseback,
of a
picture survives today.
because
these
they
whatever
great determination,
risk
occupations
their
is
Test pilots and
lives
accorded
in
pursuit of
to those
who
explore the "outside of the envelope," who push their aircraft to the very
limits
of
its
technical
capability
(Wolfe,
1979).
The legend
is
one of
a
land where there
in
no looking back, where the fate of the nation
is
the hands of young warriors, and where the battlecry
The preeminence of progress as
and,
the
at
same
An example
present.
way," which,
the present
like
is
value
time,
is
it
physical sciences,
difference
most statements linked
in
it
an electron
is
is
to
is
a
as primi-
understanding the
to
research has come
long
a
progress, presupposes that
Such state-
widely shared assumption that the
its
ability to emulate the physical
appropriate
is
less useful in the social sciences
because
not a fundamental unit for study
Every electron
is.
man-made explanations
cates that the
bunk."
in
the
of a bas-
the subjects of study.
A human being
is
of physical
exactly like
in
the same way
every other; and, although
laws have changed,
all
evidence indi-
phenomena these laws explain have remained unaltered
years.
billions
of
beings
(Wilford,
So far,
1981),
genetic possibilities.
location,
key
a
Although the idea of historic progress
sciences.
"is
In
antithetical to the
is
both different from and better than the past.
legitimacy of social science depends on
enced by
as
the statement "social
ments are often made because there
ic
cultural value
One cannot both dismiss the past
use of historical perspective.
tive
a
progress.
is
American vision, "history," as Henry Ford once said,
this
laid
is
In
there have been
and
perhaps
we are not even
fifty
billion
human
close to exhausting
addition, the behavior of each individual
is
for
the
influ-
multitude of changing factors, such as culture, geographical
a
age,
and weather.
Physics does not need to distinguish 14th
from 20th century electrons, rich ones from poor ones, because they are
all
the same.
presence
of
But when we study people, despite the continuing historical
"war,
taxes,
brigandage,
bad
government,
(and)
(Tuchman,
insurrection"
1979,
between the human experience
the 1980's,
the 1930's, or the 1330's.
to a social
and historical context,
it
unfortunate that
is
research often uses the past only as an index for measuring historic
social
Past work provides the references and backdrop against which
progress.
current work
is
contrasted as new and better.
summary,
In
history
and
of looking at the past.
torical
is
of
we cannot ignore differences
perspective reminds us that explanations for human behavior
Historical
must be linked
ways
xiii),
p.
perspective
limited
historical
History
not studied:
is
it
is
perspective are two different
studied as an end
is
used.
Without
it,
in
social research
by the culturally embedded and seemingly desirable halo
may be accurate
His-
itself.
of the
present.
What
situations
and for the people studied today, but whether these findings
will
social
researchers
in
the specific
be useful twenty years from now or whether they would have been
useful fifty years ago cannot be
used.
in
learn
I
social research in
identification
Second,
using
known unless
historical
believe that historical perspective can play
it
of
three ways.
the
relative
First,
a
perspective
more important
historical perspective permits the
stability
or
instability
of
provides alternative explanations for phenomena;
historical
areas of research
perspective
in
its
own
in
right.
is
role
phenomena.
and third,
the formulation of problems opens
new
The
Stability of
Phenomena Over Time:
Historical Perspective
and
Midlife
Although many factors that influence human behavior change slowly
and
cannot
viewed over
be
a
seen from "up close," they quickly become clear when
sufficient span of time.
that one should not design
a
It
seems obvious now, for example,
study attempting
choice using only male college students.
in
to
understand occupational
But the fact that many studies
the past twenty years did just that shows that the obvious was not
The exclusive use
always so obvious.
tional
research led to theories
fixed
life
decision
development
that
changes
over the
made
in
lives
in
entire
late
in
of
such subjects
adolescence.
Eventually,
does not end at age
life
early occupa-
in
which occupational choice was seen as
span.
Schein's
a
people realized
and began studying
21
(1978)
work
on
career
anchors, for example, explicitly recognizes that occupational self-concepts
are not only unfixed at age 21, but emerge only as
work experiences over
ual's actual
et al.
are
many different
in
situations,
one
is
in
1972.)
If
findings can be
more confident that theories
based on stable as opposed to changing characteristics.
sorts of questions,
using the historical record as
an ideal method for testing findings
tion
result of an individ-
(See also the work of Ginzberg
time.
(1951) and Ginzberg's later refutation
repeated
a
of
the
historical
dependence
in
a
different situations.
of
For some
point of comparison
presumably
is
An examina-
universal
midlife
characteristics provides an example.
When
I
studied people making midlife career changes (1980, 1979),
was struck by the
ture.
People
in
list
of characteristics of midlife
midlife are
entrapment, changes
in
presented
presumed, for example,
in
1
the litera-
to face feelings of job
family relationships as children leave home, know-
.
ledge
awareness
I
of physical aging
became interested
midlife characteristics
of
and
the limitations of their ultimate career success,
of
in
when
the stability of these presumably inevitable
subject told me she would not have thought
a
to
private industry) twenty years ago because of differences
order
In
examined
several
to explore the
17th
critical
and death.
making her career change (public school administrator
climate.
a
and
18th
stability
of
midlife
century diaries,
writings of Cotton Mather and Samuel Sewall.
marketing
in
in
the social
characteristics,
I
including the midlife
Observations
in
the lives of
these diarists suggest differences between their experience and present
day descriptions
Advances
of the midlife experience.
in
medical technology affecting birth and death rates are
responsible for significant changes
years.
Birth rates were high
experience
the
midlife
between generations.
lar
empty
experiences over the past 300
colonial times;
thus, these men did not
nest syndrome since there were no gaps
at
regu-
between the time he was 25 and 50 years old, and Cotton
intervals
at
life
Samuel Sewall had fourteen children born
Mather had fifteen children.
Sewall
in
in
age
44
was
As shown
simultaneously
in
the following excerpts, Samuel
concerned
adulthood of his eldest son and the death of
a
with the approaching
young daughter:
Kept a Day of Fasting with Prayer for the Conversion of my Son,
and his settlement m a Trade that might be good for Soul and
body,
am very sorrowfull by reason of the unsettledness of my
Samuel
(January/February 1696) Samuel Sewall, Jr., Age 17.
i
This day
remove poor little Sarah into my Bed-Chamber, where
about Break of Day December 23 she gives up the Ghost in Nurse
Cowell's arms.
(December 1696) Sarah Sewall, Age 2.
I
Certainly the colonists had much more experience with death than do
individuals
rates
of
children
and mothers
died during
The two
vived him.
The difference
modern times.
in
children
his
lifetime
lies
primarily
the death
in
Nine of Sewall's fourteen
childbirth.
in
and only two
of Mather's children
sur-
diarists exhibit a fascination with death, and appar-
ently this attitude was not
uncommon
at the time
Both
(Vinovskis, 1978).
report many deaths, yet few marriages and births are recorded,
diaries
This
particularly noteworthy
except for those
in
ry of
who certainly was involved
minister,
a
the family.
is
in
sacraments
of
the dia-
in
all
kinds.
Sickness and death were somewhat mystifying to 17th century Americans.
These people did not have access
disease and the confidence
constrained to
ple
were said
disorder."
in
in
treatment so commonplace
Other than describing physical symptoms,
ry.
a limited
to
It
is
to
be
in
to
have "convulsions,
describe
a
"
in
ills.
all
the 2Uth centu-
and Mather were
Sewall
For example, peo-
bad "flux," "cholic,
'
or
a
"sickly
no wonder that although doctors and nurses were called
to heal the sick,
ered
vocabulary
knowledge about
to the medical
the alternatives of getting well or dying were consid-
the
hands
of
The following
God.
is
Cotton Mather's
description of the illness and subsequent death of his mother-in-law.
My
Wife's Mother
took her Bed, very sick of a Feavour, that
Night...
Shee dyed, on the Friday Night about ten o'clock.
Now
count it a singular Favour of God unto mee, (and it might
bee so unto her! ) that tho' shee were delirious the first Night of
her Illness, yett shee had the free Use of Reason, all the rest of
her little Time.
And hereby,
enjoy'd an Opportunity for two
Dayes together, to talk with her, and pray with her, and do all
that it was possible for mee to do, in assisting her, about the
great Acts of resigning her Spirit unto the Lord.
,
,
I
1
(February 1698)
also
supported by Aries' (1981) recent book The Hour of Our Death.
death
sume
changed over the centuries
notion that images of death have
The
is
perceived so differently now than
characteristic that appears
.,
historical time period instead of being an immutable
tied to a
The use
acteristic?
comparison point
of historical data as a
hypothesis testing as well as
general
a
If
was then, how can we pre-
it
to base a theory of midlife behavior on
is
help
in
human charis
critical for
understanding what we
have learned.
Alternative Explanation:
Historical
Historical Perspective
and Job Satisfaction
perspective provides one of many paths to understanding
why people behave
Moreover, because
as they do.
it
frequently remains
unused, historical perspective helps bring forth alternative explanations.
How
in
a
historical
perspective generates alternative explanations can be seen
survey
recently conducted
I
includes 488 exempt employees
in
who range
age from 22 to 65 and whose
in
tenure with the company varies from one to 44 years.
questions,
satisfaction
organization
this
The
one series
of
increases
literature on job satisfaction generally shows
the
(Andrisani et al.,
longer
1977;
an
individual
Qumn
company suggest the opposite conclusion.
One problem with studies
relationship
between
et al.,
age
and
has
been with an
1974), but data from
^
of job satisfaction
rate the effects of organizational tenure
positive
In
subjects were asked about levels of satisfaction with various
aspects of their work.
that
The sample
large electric utility.
a
is
that they rarely sepa-
and age on satisfaction.
job
satisfaction
has
Since
also
a
been
observed (Andrisani
et
Janson
1977;
al.,
S-
Martin,
1981),
it
possible
is
that the positive relationship between organizational tenure and satisfaction
is
a
function of the subject's age.
Weick's
(1979)
concept of retained histories supports the findings
that both organizational tenure and
argues
that
through
retained
which
interpreted.
the
histories
are
ambiguity
of
age are related
important
an
enacted
He
to satisfaction.
selection
events
is
mechanism
and
reduced
"Most efforts at sensemaking involve interpretation of previ-
ous happenings and of writing plausible histories that link these previous
happenings with current outcomes"
(Weick,
about people interpreting the present,
they see the present
nance
both
of
in
we are
terms of the past.
individual
and
1979,
collective
When we
talk
talking about
how
13).
p.
really
The generation and mainteinterpretations
can
be
thus
understood as an outcome of historical perspective.
Both organizational tenure and age imply
that influences the individual's
an overlap
there
is
those
that
in
constitute
related to satisfaction,
distinction
set of retained histories
interpretation of present events.
the retained
age,
a
histories that constitute tenure and
one would expect that
the other
will
Since
if
either variable
also be related to satisfaction.
is
The
between individual and collective retained histories suggests
that there might be differences between the impact of organizational ten-
The retained memories about organizational
ure and age on satisfaction.
life
that come from working
in
an organization over time are more likely to
be shared among people who have similar organizational tenure than are
the retained memories about
life
shared by people who are the same age.
Theories of organizational socialization also support this view, particularly
in
where employees are
situations
Schein,
socialized
collectively
(Van Maanen
S-
Therefore, people of the same age who have long organ-
1979).
izational
tenure might be expected to share different views about organ-
izational
life
than
a
comparable group of people with short organizational
tenure.
In
order to examine the hypothesis that organizational tenure has
unique influence on satisfaction apart from age,
viduals
who have been with the company
matched each subject with
ization for
two years or
level, functional area,
The
results
I
a
identified thirteen indi-
for fifteen
years or more and
second subject who has been with the organ-
a
less.
Subjects were matched on age, sex, career
and education.^
show that there
faction levels of the two groups.
is
a
significant difference
in
the satis-
Subjects with longer organizational ten-
ure are less satisfied than subjects with shorter organizational tenure on
job
satisfaction,
current occupation, and about feelings of personal suc-
cess and career progress.
Although
the
sample
hypothesis that differences
tional
the findings do not contradict the
is
small,
in
satisfaction can be attributed to organiza-
tenure alone and that retained histories explain those differences.
why
The question remains
as to
obtained
information about the history of the company sheds
in
this case,
retained histories generated the results
light on this question.
In
the early 1900's this
religious group.
People came
utility
in
was run by
ground and they worked their way up
were
part
of
a particular ethnic
and
by knowing others from the same back-
the dominant culture.
in
the organization only
This created
a
if
they
strong association
10
As described by one employee,
between the company and the community.
You took care
"This place was paternalistic.
of
your own."
As the city
grew, as sources of cheap energy became scarce, and as government reg-
became more pervasive, the character
ulation of the industry
Today, efficient management
pany changed.
than community
tial
and affirmative action
ties
"connections"
than
getting
for
is
com-
seen as more important
perceived to be more influen-
is
Before
job.
a
of the
hardly
1970,
any
employees other than those just starting work were hired from outside.
Now
fifteen percent
Based
observed
on
have not spent their entire careers
the
information,
historical
this
between
and
tenure
organizational
in
the company.
negative
relationship
with
satisfaction
career
progress might be explained by the fact that employees with longer tenure
are well aware of the recent increase
own
progress
career
1981).
group
be
will
rewards
are
In
unfavorably
comparing
as
that
with
of
the
Relative deprivation theory suggests that those with longer
newcomers.
tenure
hiring from outside and see their
in
less
not
satisfied
comparable
this electric utility,
of significant others
because
to
believe
they
those
occupational
their
significant others.
of
identification of
newcomers
(Martin,
as the relevant
was suggested by historical information on the
company.
In
tions
summary,
in
historical perspective
examining job satisfaction.
pushes one to look for interpreta-
In
this
provides an explanation for why variables
age are related to satisfaction.
variable,
cumulative
like
organizational
experience,
Whenever the
tenure or age,
research
results
case,
historical
like organizational
perspective
tenure and
definition of an explanatory
represents an
are automatically
a
individual's
function of
n
retained
histories.
alternative
using
addition,
In
Knowing
explanations.
historical
company
the
perspective suggests
for example,
history,
helps identify the relevant group of significant others that makes relative
theory
deprivation
useful
interpreting
in
negative
the
association
observed between organizational tenure and satisfaction.
The Generation
In
to test the
for
Research Problems and Design
of
addition to aiding interpretation and providing situations
findings,
of
stability
perspective
historical
research design and problem formulation.
the generalizability of results should be
The study
of past
events
is
is
in
which
also important
For example, concern for
part of any research design.
a
necessary to estimate the period during which
findings are relatively stable.
the time boundaries of present
Usually,
inquiry are defined by default as the length of time during which the
study was conducted.
but
not outside of
their
results
apply
assuming historical
frame
is
Findings can be generalized within that time period
it.
in
If
a
asked,
most researchers probably would say
larger time frame,
stability of findings,
appropriate.
For example,
it
description of an organization's culture
during which the data were collected.
description valid?
we can get some
a
it
but given the difficulties
is
not clear
how large
of
time
is
reasonable to assume that the
is
valid
beyond the
But how far
in
specific time
the past
is
We cannot know the future, but by examining
idea of
a
whether we are watching
a fast
the same
the past
moving stream or
slow moving glacier.
12
The study
recognized as
of adult lives
a
moving phenomena.
introduced
a
one area
in
in
which historical perspective
is
designing studies to observe slow
in
Schaie (1965) and Baltes (1968)
the mid-1960's,
three-factor model for use
changes
of true
In
is
component
crucial
the description and explanation
in
These
adult development.
led to a continuing
articles
discussion and exploration of how the effects of the three factors, age,
and period,
cohort,
Palmore,
be untangled
can
Schaie & Baltes,
1978;
to the
individual's
by the
similarities
Age
1975).
in
1977;
and peri-
time,
the historical period during
for developing this type
the study of individuals was to unravel the interconnected
effects of age,
cohort,
social
group
of a
their age, the fact that they were
experienced the same
How can one
and period.
whether an observation made
(cohort),
in
The reason
which the observations were made.
Glenn,
effects are those attributable
among individuals born during the same
od effects are those attributable to events
of analysis
1974;
cohort effects are those explained
age,
chronological
Buss,
(e.g.
all
of 40
decide,
year olds
is
for example,
the result of
born during the same year and have
and historical influences during
tlieir
lives
or the characteristics of the historical time during which the
Many examples
observations were made (period)?
that historical comparison can be very useful
lowing are two examples showing that
if
in this
in
the literature show
The
untangling.
fol-
these effects are not taken into
account, erroneous conclusions would have been drawn.
Kuhlen (1968) cites
a
group
of college
a
study
students over
trend toward liberalism.
in
a
which comparison of attitude scores of
fourteen year interval showed
At the time of the retest,
however,
a
marked
a
second
sample of college students also was tested and their scores were almost
13
Without the comparison
the same as the retest scores of the first group.
of
two groups of the same age during different historical times,
have been impossible to say whether "increasing liberalism" was
it
would
a
result
of aging, or of cohort or period effects.
Schaie and Parham (1974) describe findings on changes
toward
Attitudes were measured using
responsibility.
social
attitudes
in
a
44 item
version of the Social Responsibility Scale from the California Psychological
Subjects indicated their level of agreement on
Inventory (Gough, 1955).
items such as:
I
get too
1)
A person who does not vote
much change
in
a
right to get around the law
70 at three different times;
sample N=2,151).
that
161
a
if
In
always give
of individuals
1956,
addition,
I
not
it
a
1963,
good citizen,
back, and 3)
you don't actually break
random sample
collected from a
from
store
is
it.
2)
all
is
It
If
The data were
between the ages
and
of 21
and 1970 (population N = 18,000;
repeated measurement data were collected
Their results indicate
subjects during the same three years.
study conducted without the multiple time and cohort comparisons
possible
in
this
study would have concluded that attitudes toward
are stable over the adult
responsibility
life
span.
Instead,
social
through
a
research design based on historical perspective, they found that attitudes
toward
responsibility exhibit several
social
cern for social
subtle changes.
Second, although overall concern declines, younger men
ment periods had higher concern for
men
in
earlier
First,
measurement periods.
social
in
later
measure-
responsibility than younger
Also, older
men
in
later
measurement
periods had lower concern for social responsibility than older men
earlier
con-
responsibility drops over the three measurement periods.
in
the
measurement periods.
14
Schaie and Parham speculate that these differences may be the result
of social
and historical events.
Perhaps there is a greater opportunity for more political and
In
social involvement recently on the part of the younger male.
the case of older men, perhaps they are relied upon by society to
lesser extent and, due to changes in retirement laws, for
a
instance, disengage at an earlier age. (p. 491)
This study
of
ways.
an example of the use of historical perspective
is
cannot generalize findings about change over the adult
cross-sectional
only
Second,
data.
responsibility.
Finally,
historical
of
groups
social
perspective was used to interpret the
The discovery that attitudes
similar age
of
groups appear
differential
to
impact of
and historical conditions on each birth cohort.
What
time
span using
life
by comparing responses
change over time was explained by discussing the
social
variety
the study examines the stability of attitudes toward
across time,
findings.
a
using the assumption that one
the study was designed
First,
in
is
units
studies,
still
missing
selected
for
in
these studies
study
are
an understanding that the
is
relevant
to
longitudinal data were collected at more
and age cohorts were selected on the basis
of
the findings.
In
both
or less arbitrary times,
convenience rather than any
assumption that these particular age groups were meaningfully different.
We
learn
in
the study cited by Kuhlen that liberalism does appear to be
affected by the social-historical climate,
more about liberalism.
Did changes
specific
in
the
When
initial
but we do not know very much
did the significant attitude changes occur?
group occur over
a
short time
historical events or did they occur slowly over
Schaie and Parham conclude that people
in
in
a
response
to
longer time?
different generations respond
15
but generations are defined
differently on the social responsibility scale,
a
What we do not know
priori by seven year age cohorts.
is
whether each
seven year period defines an age cohort whose members have similar social
and
and
experiences,
historical
whether
or
responsibilty,
thus
simik
r
attitudes
significant differences
towards
social
attitudes occurred
in
within cohorts.
The
perspective provided by the age, period, and cohort
historical
methodology combined with this concern for defining meaningful units
be used to generate new research questions as well as
time can
current areas of research by looking
For example,
in
career research,
occupations
organizational
distinctive
with
1980).
It
to the life
ers
new
a
is
in
is
a fairly
questions
We
are
used
to
characteristics
clear set of characteristics.
different
at
to
stages
study
thinking of
Howev-
life
(Kimberly
cycles
et
al.,
possible that the organizational career of "manager" adjusts
characteristics
to
new ways.
would be interesting
stage of the organization, and thus
organizations
in
literature suggesting that organizations have
middle-aged organizations,
research
it
longitudinally.
managerial careers as having
er, there
at old
of
expand
we take
we always study manag-
may be that the managerial career
for granted are really the result of the age of the
we study
study
it
if
and
not
managerial
the career
itself.
careers over the
life
Using longitudinal
of
an organization
would help answer that question.
A cross-sectional approach
tional
life
cohorts.
occupation
to
separating out career from organiza-
cycle characteristics would be to study organizational career
In
in
this case,
one might compare the characteristics
organizations of different ages.
of a single
For example, assuming that
16
police stations are one of the first municipal occupations
one could compare the career of police
munity,
town with the same career
rural
examine
which
career
in
an older,
characteristics
a
in
any new com-
newly incorporated
established
police
of
in
rural town to
are independent of the
organization's stage of development.
addition,
In
it
is
lected.
am aware
I
meaning
of
of
period during which the data were col-
one unpublished study showing how changes
work were the result
flight attendants,
observed career characteristics
also possible that
are the result of the historical
of period effects.
In
a
Roberta Lessor (1981) found that, as
study
a
of
in
the
women
result of
new
Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity regulations, flight
attendants experienced
What they once saw
dramatic change
a
in
the meaning of their work.
temporary job, because
as a
with marriage or pregnancy,
is
now seen
of
mandatory retirement
as a career.
interesting to study how the tremendous drop
in
It
demand
would also be
for engineers
in
the late 1960's and early 1970's influenced companies' perceptions of the
technological obsolescence of their engineers.
lescence
is
a
major issue
in
R & D organizations, but
companies' perceptions of obsolescence are
demand
such
a
so
low
in
the 1960's,
serious problem.
Today, technological obso-
a
function of
it
is
possible that
demand, and with
obsolescence might not have been seen as
Certainly, one would expect that the
number and
type of people who chose to enter engineering changed during that time.
These are
historical
just
a
perspective.
few examples of questions that are suggested by
The
analysis
research design and problem formulation
made
in
possible
by
thinking
of
terms of longitudinal, cohort,
and period effects would be particularly useful for anchoring our findings
17
more clearly
origins
to their
The Halo
About Japanese Business Success
In Effect: Conclusions
An
example
important
unsupported by
current
of
historical perspective
the "Japanese way''
does
occupational, organizational, and social
individual,
.
in
efficient,
incomes than their counterparts
(Abegglen,
ferences
assumed
is
in
(Kraar,
1975;
to believe that
in
the West,
nobody
Time, March 30, 1981).
of their personal
severely testing the Wests
the area of "work."
frequently attributed to East-West cultural difOuchi,
1958;
the cultures.
1981).
Distinct
characteristics are
and widely-shared within each culture, but
to be long-standing
not between
reaches conclusions
more productive, and save more
feeling of moral superiority
Japanese success
that
The press seems
business.
better than the Japanese
it
They are more
work
comes from the recent literature on
Thus,
it
has
been noted with surprise that
Japanese management styles can be transplanted successfully
to this
coun-
try (Ouchi & Jaeger, 1978).
Using historical perspective shows that there
may be more than meets the
cultural eye to understanding
firms are so productive.
of
bility
phenomena
historical perspective
One
and
the
suggest
a
alternative
explanations
significant difference frequently discussed
life-time
employment,
provided
by
very different conclusion.
between Japanese managers and workers.
expect
why Japanese
Specifically, both the ability to examine the sta-
is
the relationship
Japanese workers are said
seniority-based
compensation,
paternalistic or family oriented attitude from their employers.
and
to
a
Japanese
18
managers are expected
them for
beside
know the names
to
some
portion
of
and to be aware
the day,
of
their employees,
the
with
same
company
throughout
their
lives,
this
increases their usefulness and contribution to the company.
acteristics have led to the family analogy for
of
labor
and
a
Since these managers
resource for employees having personal problems.
remain
to
approach
These char-
Japanese companies.
However, recent work by Fruin (1980, 1978) suggests that the family
analogy does not hold up under the scrutiny of history.
According
to
Fruin's examination of the personnel records of the Kikkoman Shoyu Com-
pany,
there
life-time
has
been
employment,
considerable variation
in
the actual
seniority-based compensation,
ideology since the company was incorporated
in
and the family-firm
1918.^ His study suggests
that the length of time groups of employees stay with the
directly with their educational
level,
company, and economic conditions
ing the
and
less
company during periods
educated.
training and
of
These groups
have the
least
at
practice of
company varies
their average age on entering the
the time of entry.
Employees enter-
economic upswing tend to be younger
of
employees receive the most in-house
transferrable skills,
so
it
is
not surprising
that they are also the groups that come closest to life-time employment.
Only 16.1
percent of
all
employees entering the firm between 1918 and
1948 with eight years of education were likely to leave the firm within ten
years.
In
during
the
contrast, fifty-two percent of
all
employees entering the firm
same period with sixteen years of education were
likely
to
leave the firm within ten years.
Economics, World War
community
had
a
II,
and an increasingly Westernized industrial
tremendous impact on Japanese employment practices.
19
General
became
labor
scarce
after the war,
partly as
result of the
a
knowledge-based industry, standardization
intensification of
of the educa-
system, and adoption of the American ideology of "equal treatment
tional
for equally trained employees" (Fruin, 1978, p. 294).
the employment group for
tions,
description
priate
reversed
whom
life-time
completely.
stayed longer than those having less.
between 1949 and 1976,
Under these condi-
employment was an appro-
Those
having more education
For employees entering the firm
forty-four percent of those with eight years of
education were likely to leave the firm within ten years as opposed to only
6.3 percent of those with sixteen years of education.
Our picture
compensation
Japanese system suggests that seniority-based
long-standing custom.
a
is
of the
Company had two completely
system
for
based on
status
and
cated
The ideology
authority
This produced
a
in
its
reward
One was based on seniority but the other was
employees.
skills.
Before the war, Kikkoman Shoyu
different rationales operating
of
of the "firm as a family" dictated that the
managers
depended on tradition and service.
system of seniority-based compensation for the more edu-
employee who was expected
to
provide leadership
But economically difficult times concurrently put
workers with specific in-house knowledge
of
a
in
the future.
premium on keeping
Kikkoman, and here, senior-
ity-based compensation gave way to skills-based compensation.
Adherence
to the family-firm ideology has also
changed dramatically.
Before the war, most business organizations were family owned and operated,
so that the
ideological
authority for leadership was vested
family values of tradition and service.
ownership
became
Starting late
in
in
the
the prewar period,
increasingly separated from control of the company.
20
"
Government regulation during the war
itself
authority within the firm and
addition,
In
diversification
effort forced
Kikl<oman to divest
"prestige and
diminishing the families'
of several major operations,
the community"
in
and expansion
in
(Fruin,
1978,
p.
296).
the mid-1960s reduced the
stock share of the original owner families to around twenty-five percent.
As
result, family
a
ees were
"bottom
hired
members withdrew from active management and employ-
increasingly on their ability to perform
in
terms of the
line.
As a consequence organizational leadership has become more
The organization is held together more
formal and less personal.
by rules and regulations and less by ideology and tradition.
(Fruin, 1978, p. 296-297)
Fluctuations
ology
in
the meaning of and adherence to the family-firm ide-
appear throughout the history
of
the Kikkoman Shoyu
Company.
These changes are linked to the historical relationship between actual and
ideological family
in
participation
the company.
in
some form, for three hundred years.
This firm has operated,
An examination
of
four major
phases of ownership and management directly contradicts the assumption
that employer-employee relationships
ized
by
In
early
had
a
the first phase,
Japan have always been character-
lasting from the late seventeenth century to the
nineteenth century,
little
in
family-like holistic concern.
to
owners financially supported the company but
Operations were handled by represen-
do with operations.
tatives of the owners:
banto,
toji
,
and oyakata.
With so little direct involvement on the part of owners and with so
many separate yet equal spheres of management, workers suffered.
Oyakata benefited mainly by fees paid for placing
workers, tojj concerned themselves with technique and not with
industrial relations, and banto worried not at all about workers'
21
development,
...Obviously,
at
this
stage of
no
welfare.
firm-family analogy would be appropriate to describe an enterprise so fragmented and divided. (Fruin, 1980, p. 443)
A relationship between the actual and
ideological family-firm
becomes
appropriate for the first time during the third phase of development.
1918,
joint stock
a
the actual management, making the "firm as
analogy.
During
was transformed
a
family"
a
relevant biological
the labor strife of the late 1920's, this biological analogy
what
into
an effort to quell
a
seen today as the family-firm ideology.
is
the ideology of the firm as family
on
efforts
national
a
patriarchal state became
century and the end
dominant as
a
In
strike of 218 days, Kikkoman fired 1300 employees and
began an employee reeducation program specifically dedicated to
similar
In
company was formed and family-related owners became
of
in
its
workers.
instilling
This effort mirrored
level where the emperor as father of the
central Japanese ideology between the late 19th
a
World War
biological entity
II.
and as
The family-firm was simultaneously
a political
ideology.
Thus, the family-firm ideology, as practiced
in
the Kikkoman Shoyu
Company, has changed considerably over the past 300 years.
the description of employer-employee relationships
in
Although
more recent times
adheres to the traditional picture we hold of the Japanese, description
these
relationships
in
times
earlier
sounds
very
much
employer-employee relationships (labor vs. management)
of
late
of
the
like
19th
or
early 20th century America where factory workers were considered additional
machines
(Rodgers,
American companies
family-firm
ideology.
electric utility
I
in
1978).
However,
it
is
also true that
many
the past sixty years have adhered to the Japanese
If
Fruin's description
am studying
fits
is
representative,
the Japanese model, and
it
is
then the
probable,
22
given the many family-owned businesses
in
the United States (Beckhard £
Dyer, 1981), that many other American firms
argues
Fruin
work
in
dominance
However,
tandem.
the same description.
fit
both articles that Japanese ideology and economics
in
his
such
examples,
of the family-firm ideology,
as
color economic decisions, ultimately, economics has the
In
over
change
the
upper hand.
summary, Japanese employment practices have varied
Although
time.
worker-employer
culture
relationships,
had
has
these
in
suggest that although ideology may
strong
a
influence
have
relationships
great deal
a
on
been affected
even more directly by economic and demographic factors, such as employee's educational
the
level,
the supply and demand for labor, and war.
Thus,
effective Japanese management practices may come more
genesis of
from cultural similarities--in responses
to
economic situations--than from
cultural differences--in adherence to different cultural ideologies.
Using
historical perspective in present inquiry puts into relief the complexity of
the
issues
at
hand.
In
this
case,
it
shows
that
attribution of
the
Japanese productivity solely to iong-standing cultural differences leading
to differing personnel practices in
East and West
is,
at best,
a simplistic
explanation warranting further study.
The Future
of Historical Perspective
To conclude,
understanding
it
seems to me that historical perspective
the work we do
in
the present.
about alternative explanations for phenomena;
and
less
stable
concepts,
which
is
critical
It
is
pushes us
crucial to
to
think
helps us to identify more
for
building theory;
expands our research horizons by suggesting new ways
of
and
studying old
23
questions
and
controlling for
cohort,
longitudinal,
and period effects.
Considerable research has been done on factors within the person, within
the occupation,
scale
stood.
social
and
and within the organization, but the influence
historical factors on
Devaluing history
will
human oehavior
cease to be
horizons once historical perspective
is
a
is
of larger
not well under-
"halo" limiting our research
included as an everyday consider-
ation in our methodological thinking.
24
Footnotes
Van Maanen and Katz's (1976) study
of cross-sectional data from
subjects in different occupations suggests that obtaining a positive
relationship
between organizational tenure and satisfaction is
dependent on occupation. However, their results still support the
expectation that this positive relationship exists for administrators.
age and tenure often have a strong positive
(Pfeffer, 1980).
The strength of this relationship in
(r=.84) makes analysis of the entire sample impossible
because of problems with multicollinearity
Responses of the thirteen matched pairs were compared using the Wilcoxon ranked-sign
Unfortunately,
relationship
these data
.
test.
Fruin
discusses
the
generalizability
Kikkoman Shoyu Company by comparing
of
it
his findings about the
with employee and indus-
try characteristics on a national level.
He suggests that, if anything, this company should adhere strongly to the traditional
conception of Japanese industry, making any deviation from the
traditional picture more notable.
25
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