SAJTH, July 2015, Vol. 8, No. 2
Pilgrimage Tourism in Mountain Regions: Socio-Economic
and Environmental Implications in the Garhwal Himalaya
VISHWAMBHAR PRASAD SATI*
*Vishwambhar Prasad Sati, Department of Geography and Resource Management, Mizoram
University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India
ABSTRACT
Mountains of the world are known for their different landscapes, highly elevated peaks, river
valleys, dense forest cover, innocent people and the highland sacred pilgrimages. Pilgrimage
tourism is one of the most cultural and socio-economic activities in mountain regions; has
been practicing from time immemorial and is the major source of income, as about 40 per
cent of the total income is earned from its practices. It has also impact on the environment, as
a large-scale degradation of landscape along the pilgrim routes and the pilgrimages are
enormous. In the Garhwal Himalaya, the pilgrimage centres are located on the base of the
lofty snow clad mountain peaks and on the course of the major rivers. This paper examines
socio-economic and environmental implications of pilgrimage tourism in the Garhwal
Himalaya. The pilgrimage circuit ‘Char Dham’ has been divided into five pilgrim routes and
socio-economic and environmental impact of pilgrimage tourism has been illustrated. Data on
pilgrimage tourism were collected from the primary and secondary sources and as well as
from observation after rapid field visit of the pilgrimage centres. A case study of the four
villages/service centres was conducted to compare income of the people earned from
practicing agriculture and from the services, providing to the pilgrims. It was noticed from
the case study that the number of people involving in providing services to pilgrims are
although less in these villages yet; the income earned from its practices is higher than
practicing agriculture. This study reveals that the socio-economic development of the region
can be attained through practicing pilgrimage tourism along with keeping the environmental
sustainability is mind.
Keywords: Pilgrimage tourism; socio-economic development; culture; mountain
region; Garhwal Himalaya.
Introduction
The term ‘pilgrimage’ can be defined as a journey to a holy place, undertaken for
religious reason or a journey to a place with special significance. Singh (2013a)
defines pilgrimage tourism as an act, which provides deep feelings, faith, belief and
respect to the divine and above all sincerity of devotee(s). Similarly, pilgrim means
who goes on a journey to a holy place for religious reason. Laidlaw (2008) describes
pilgrims as existing along a continuum: at one end are urban travellers that have
been seduced by brochures of tranquil scenery and mythic tales of communion with
nature, in a way that resonates with notions found in the Western based deepecology movements. Meanwhile, tourism can be defined as the activity of travelling
for pleasure and business and a tourist is a traveller who visits places away from
© South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
165
home for pleasure. There has been a lot of discussion over the past decades about
the relationship between tourists and pilgrims (Graburn, 2001; Smith, 1992). The
image of the 'pious pilgrim' has often been contrasted with that of the tourist as a
'superficial hedonist' (Badone & Roseman, 2004). Dube (2001) establishes
relationship between society and pilgrimage and describes that social structure is
preserved in pilgrimage. However, many other scholars find that tourism and
pilgrimage share many characteristics Gladstone (2005).
Pilgrimage to the mountain regions is the oldest forms of tourism that has been
practicing from time immemorial. Mountains of the world are known for their
serene landscape and sanctity, and they are the major centres of recreation and
spirituality. The Himalaya in India, Mt. Kailash in Tibet, Mt. Kii in Japan, Mt.
Coropuna in Andes, Volcano Llullaillaco in Argentina and Sinaqara glacier in Peru
are the best examples of spirituality. The personality of mountains (strange shape)
makes them different and they are called the sacred mountains. The Hindus believe
the Himalaya as a holy place, an abode of Gods and Goddesses and a centre for
renunciation, Buddhists Worship Mountain by circumambulation (circling of sacred
mountains) and the Andean culture practices human sacrifice on the top of the
mountains to appease the mountain Gods (Inca Empire).
The Garhwal Himalaya is well known for its pilgrimage tourism worldwide,
which is practiced in the forms of visiting highland shrines, organizing local fairs
and festivals and through performing rituals. It is a centuries old practice that has
become a way of life, as it provides livelihoods to the local people. The Garhwal
Himalaya is very far away from the main stream of development and from the
modern waves of civilization and therefore, the people of this region is economically
underdeveloped and socially backward, as they are fully dependent on the output of
traditional agriculture farming for carrying their livelihoods. Although, the
biological resources are abundant yet, their uses have become scars and the people
do not get the optimal benefit from them. Further, sustaining livelihood through
traditional agriculture has limited scope. Practicing pilgrimage tourism, therefore,
may be a promising sector for socio-economic development. The pilgrimage tourism
has both positive and negative impacts on socio-economy and on the environment;
respectively. On the one hand, pilgrimage tourism provides employment
opportunities for the local people and thus, socio-economic status of the people is
enhanced, on the other, it degrades the cultural and natural environments of the
affected areas. It has already been noticed that the areas where pilgrimage tourism
is performed, have attained a reasonable socio-economic development in the
Garhwal Himalaya. The main objective of this paper is to examine the scope of
pilgrimage tourism in socio-economic development. It also exhibits the impact of
pilgrimage tourism on the natural and cultural environments. Further, this study
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VISHWAMBHAR PRASAD SATI
divides the main pilgrimage circuit (char dhams) of the Garhwal Himalaya into the
major pilgrim routes.
Cultural and Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Study Area
Culture, on the course of time, is woven by the fabrics of the two divine cults i.e.
Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The devotees of the Lord Shiva are called Shaiv thus; this
cult is known as Shaivism. Kedar is another name of the Lord Shiva and there are
Panch (five) Kedars, located in different highland places in the Garhwal Himalaya
(Figure 1). Similarly, the devotees of the Lord Vishnu are called Vaishnav and this
cult is, therefore, known as Vaishnavism. The Lord Vishnu is also known as Badri
and there are Panch Badris. These pilgrimages have several temples of Gods –
mainly Shiva and Vishnu, which are known as Shivalaya and Devalaya, respectively.
The whole Garhwal region is believed to be a holy place and is an abode of the Gods,
Goddesses and local deities. The traditional believe of the Hindus depicts that the
Lord Shiva and his wife Goddesses Sati reside in the lofty and snow clad peaks of the
Himalaya, especially in the Mt. Kailash. In addition, the entire Garhwal Himalaya
characterizes of rich cultural heritage in the forms of fairs, festivals and traditional
rituals, which have been performing from time immemorial. The devotees of both
cults worship all forms of nature – water, forest and land. Panch Prayag (prayag
denotes the meeting point of the two rivers) such as Vishnuprayag, Nandprayag,
Karnprayag, Rudraprayag and Devprayag; Panch Badirs – Badrinath, Yogadhyan
Badri, Vrida Badri, Bhavishya Badri and Adi Badri; and Panch Kedars - Kedarnath,
Madhyamaheshwar, Tungnath, Rudranath and Kalpeshwar; and Rishikesh (a Yoga
capital of the world) and Hardwar (Gateway to God) are the major pilgrimage
centres in the Garhwal Himalaya.
Social structure is woven by the presence of various religious fabrics – Hindus
(outnumbered) Muslims, Sikhs, Buddhists and Christians; and various castes and
creeds. In Hindus, the society is divided into four castes/varnas viz. Brahmin,
Rajput, Vaishya and Shudra. Population distribution is very sparse in the montane
mainland (126 persons/sq. km) and in the plains of tarai and Doon, population
density is high (671 persons/sq. km). Average population density is 189. Literacy
rate is 79.74 per cent and sex ratio is 997 (Census of India, 2011). Most of the people
living in mountain regions are economically vulnerable and socially backward
(ICIMOD, 2007a). The Garhwal Himalaya is characterised by the domination of
farming society, as about 70 per cent of the total population is living in the rural
areas and their main occupation is agricultural practices. The economic output from
agriculture is insufficient and thus, the people are economically vulnerable. During
the recent period, a large number of rural people have been engaged in providing
services to the pilgrims in the forms of providing accommodation and
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
167
transportation along the major routes that lead to the highlands and the valley
regions pilgrimage centres.
Methodology
This study was conducted through using a set of qualitative and quantitative
approaches. Data were gathered from the primary and secondary sources, mainly on
socio-economic and environmental impacts of pilgrimage tourism in the major
highlands and valleys pilgrimages/shrines of the Garhwal Himalaya. A survey on
number of pilgrims visited the highland shrines – Badrinath and Kedarnath in a day
during the yatra1 season at Joshimath and Gaurikund respectively was carried out in
June 2008. Further, a case study of the four villages/service centres, located on the
way to Badrinath shrine was carried out, and a household level survey was
conducted. These villages/service providing centres are Ratura, Gaucher,
Nandaprayg and Chamoli. Total 40 households (HHs) were selected for detailed
survey. The people, who are engaged in practicing agriculture and providing
services to the pilgrims/tourists, were interviewed and data on income earned from
both activities was calculated. The major questions that have primarily been raised
were mainly concentrated on the income and occupation of the interviewees. The
author visited all the pilgrimage centres of the Garhwal Himalaya. Further, he used
participatory appraisal approach to understand the socio-economic and
environmental implications of pilgrimage tourism. The secondary data were
gathered from the Directorate of Tourism, Uttarakhand on the flow of pilgrims
during the period from 2000 to 2010. The main pilgrimage circuits i.e. Yamnotri,
Gangotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Rishikesh and Haridwar were divided into five
pilgrim routes according to their locations.
Development of Pilgrimage Centres as Pilgrim Routes
Pilgrimages to the Himalaya are century’s old event and have been an important
part of the Hindus tradition from time immemorial, as it has been seen in the
writings of many scholars worldwide (Bharati, 1978; Hausner, 2007; Singh, 2013b).
Similarly, the Garhwal Himalaya has several worlds’ famous pilgrimage centres,
providing sanctity to the Hindu devotees and enhancing socio-economic status of
the native people. From the valleys to the mid-altitudes and the highlands, there are
numerous shrines located all through the Garhwal Himalaya. It is mentioned in the
Hindu religious wisdom that whoever visits these shrines even once in his lifetime,
gets rid of from the cycle of birth and death. This strong believe has made this land
so religious that the people from all walks of life and all age group visit these holy
1
A procession of pilgrims to pilgrimages
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shrines to achieve sanctity, renunciation and immortality. Among the major
highland pilgrimages, Yamnotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath are very famous
and they are nomenclature as Char Dhams. The two other pilgrimages i.e. Rishikesh
and Hardwar are located on the bank of the River Ganga.
Figure 1: Major pilgrim routes in the Garhwal Himalaya
The four highlands and the two valleys pilgrimages are visited by a number of
pilgrims coming from the Indian sub-continent and abroad. The followers of
Hinduism from the south and south-east Asia simultaneously visit these
pilgrimages. Further, these pilgrimages are located in the panoramic landscape of
the highlands and on the picturesque river bank of the Ganga thus; the tourists
coming from all over the world also visit them. During the past, the pilgrims and
tourists walked miles to visit these pilgrimages, as there were no means of
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
169
transportation. After Chinese aggression in 1962, a road was constructed upto
Badrinath pilgrimage. Now, Gangotri and Badrinath are well connected by road but,
to visit Yamnotri and Kedarnath, there is a trek of around 14 km to each pilgrimage.
Airways are available in all the pilgrimages where the helicopters transport the
pilgrims and tourists. These pilgrimages are not only the centre of faith on the Gods
and Goddesses but also are the way of life, and the major source of income and
employment in this region. It was experienced that a number of pilgrims and
tourists visited the pilgrimages of Garhwal region during the past was quite less. As
a result, its impact on socio-economic development was minimal. However, during
the recent past, infrastructural facilities are enhanced and a number of pilgrims and
tourists are increased. This has a significant impact on the socio-economic activities
as a large number of people have been engaged in tourism activities. The future
development of the region is also dependent on the activities related to pilgrimages
and tourism, as the whole Garhwal region is bestowed with plenty of natural locales
and pilgrimages. Table 1 shows the major pilgrimages and pilgrim routes in the
Garhwal Himalaya.
Route – 1
This route includes the two famous Dhams among the ‘Char Dhams’. These are
Yamnotri and Gangotri. Yamnotri is located at about 4421 m, is the origin place of
the river Yamuna in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand state. It can be reached from
Uttarkashi, a town located in the bank of the river Yamuna. From Uttarkashi upto
Hanumanchatti, a motor road is constructed. After Hanumanchatti, there is a 14 km
trek to reach Yamnotri. It is a rough and rugged trek. The other Dham, ‘Gangotri’
(3293) is located in the same district. A national highway number 104 goes upto
Gangotri. From Gangotri temple to Gangotri glacier (Gomukh), a 19 km trek goes.
These two Dhams have natural beauty and they are very famous shrines. Total four
days are required to visit this route and the main season is from May to October.
Route - 2
The second route is known as ‘Panch Kedar’. There are five highland
pilgrimages. The first one is Kedarnath. One amongst the pilgrimages of the
Himalayan region, Kedarnath has been on the centre of discussion in the Western
academy through a process of symbolic association (Jonathan & Sukanya, 2011). It is
located at 3553 m in Okhimath tahsil of Rudra Prayag district. It has religious
importance and is known for its picturesque landscape. The Mandakini River
originates from the Chaurabari glacier (Kedar peak) and flows from the right side of
Kedarnath temple. For around six months, the Kedar temple and its surrounding
areas remain covered by snow from mid-October to mid- April. Snow fall also occurs
during the summer, which is the main pilgrim season. There is a small township that
provides services to pilgrims. People migrate with their animals for summer
pastures in surrounding of Kedarnath. During the same time, the Pandas (religious
teachers) and the owners of small hotels/shops migrate to Kedarnath for the
worship of Lord Shiva and for running their small-businesses, respectively.
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According to a myth, the Kedarnath temple was established by the Pandawas before
Swarga Rohan (departing to heaven) during 3200 BC (approximate). It is believed
that the Adi Guru Shankara Charya was travelling to visit this temple but while on
the way, he died at Bhairav Jaap. The other Kedars are Tungnath,
Madhyamaheshwar, Rudranath and Kalpeshwar. All these highland shrines are
located very far from the road head. Trekking for these shrines vary from four km
(Tungnath) to 24 km (Madhyamaheshwar). Total eight days are required to visit
these shrines. The ideal season to visit this route is from May to October.
Table 1: Major Pilgrimages and pilgrim routes in the Garhwal Himalaya
SubMajor
Main Pilgrim
Altitude
Days
Pilgrim
Pilgrim
Accessibility
Circuit
(in M)*
Required
Routes
Centres
14 km trek
Yamnotri
4421
Route–1
On the road Four Days
Gangotri
3293
head
Kedarnath
3553
14 km trek
Tungnath
3680
4 km trek
24
km trek
Route–2 Madhyamaheshwar 3497
Eight Days
20 km trek
Rudranath
2286
Kalpeshwar
Route–3
“Char Dham” viz.
Yamnotri,
Gangotri,
Kedarnath &
Badrinath
2134
Badrinath
3415
Bhavishya Badri
2744
Yogadhyan Badri
1829
Vridha Badri
1380
Vishnuprayag
3133
Nandprayag
1358
Karnprayag
1451
Adi Badri
1460
Rudraprayag
895
Devprayag
830
Rishikesh
372
Haridwar
314
Route–4
Route–5
Source: Compiled by the author; *average altitude
2 km trek
On the road
head
6 km trek
On the road
head
7 km trek
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
On the road
head
Four Days
Two Days
Two Days
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
171
Route – 3
The third route is ‘Panch Badris’ that includes Badrinath, Bhavishya Badri,
Yogdhyan Badri and Vrida Badri. Although, Adi Badri is one amongst the Panch
Badris yet, due to its location, it has been included in the pilgrim route – 4. Lying on
the lap of the Nar and Narain Parvats (mountains), Badrinath is located on the right
bank of the Vishnu Ganga (Alaknanda River) at 3100 m. Adi Gugu Shankaracharya
established this temple. It is a seat of Lord Vishnu. Badrinath and Yogadhyan Badri
are located on the road head, and Bhavishya Badri and Vridha Badri can be reached
after trekking six and seven km, respectively. May to October is the ideal season to
visit these pilgrimages. Total four days are required to complete this route.
Route - 4
This route includes ‘Panch Prayag’ – Vishnuprayag, Nandprayag, Karnprayag,
Rudraprayag and Devprayag, and ‘Adi Badri’. Although, there are seven prayags
including Keshavprayag and Sonprayag in the Garhwal Himalaya yet, only Panch
Prayags are known in the Hindu religious wisdom. In Vishnuprayag, Dauli Ganga
meets with the Alaknanda River. Second prayag is Nandaprayag where the
Nandakini and Alaknanda Rivers confluence. The Pindar River meets with the
Alaknanda River at Karnprayag. From Karnprayag, a way goes to Adi Badri, 18 km
away, on the way to Ranikhet. Rudraprayag is located at the confluence of the
Mandakini and the Alaknanda rivers. The last and famous prayag among the Panch
Prayags is ‘Devprayag’, where the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers meet. This place
has a religious importance because from this place, after confluence of the
Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers, it is called ‘the Mother Ganga’. This pilgrim route
can be visited throughout the year and total two days are required to complete the
route.
Route – 5
This is the last route that includes Hardwar (Haridwar) and Rishikesh
pilgrimages. These two shrines are the gateway to the Garhwal Himalaya and to
Char Dhams. The holy river Ganga enters into the plain area from Hardwar. These
shrines are influenced by the saffron cult and now have become twin cities. They are
believed to be existed from time immemorial as the description about their
existence has been mentioned in the ancient religious wisdom of Hindus. The two
days are required to visit these shrines.
Pilgrims Flow in the Garhwal Himalaya
Visiting pilgrimage centres is a centuries old form of tourism in this region. The
worshipping of the ‘Char Dhams’, holy rivers and nature deities has its roots in the
Aryan culture and was later integrated into Hinduism. The whole Himalayan region
has an important spiritual meaning for Hindus as a ‘sacral space’ (Grotzbach, E.
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VISHWAMBHAR PRASAD SATI
1994). Table 2 shows pilgrims’ flow in the major pilgrimage centres. A number of
pilgrims visited the pilgrimages during the two different periods – 2000 and 2010,
have shown tremendous increase (Table 2). The highest number of pilgrims visited
Hardwar followed by Badrinath and Kedarnath. The lowest number of pilgrims
visited Yamnotri, which is followed by Gangotri. A total 54.14 per cent increase in a
number of pilgrims in the major pilgrimage centres of the Garhwal Himalaya was
noticed. The highest increase was noticed in Yamnotri (224.44 per cent) followed by
Gangotri (57.91 per cent) and Hardwar (55.14 per cent). Badrinath and Kedarnath
have received 32.59 and 33.33 per cent increase respectively. Apart from the abovementioned Hindu pilgrimages, Govind Ghat (1829 m) and Hemkund Sahib (4329 m),
the famous pilgrimages for the Sikhs, are located on the way to Badrinath. A survey
was conducted by Nirmala and Mansoori (2010) showing that within 14 hours
duration, 14980 pilgrims visited Kedarnath out of which, about 45 per cent pilgrims
used pony or mule or wooden palanquin, and the rest walked in, in a peak month of
June, 2008. Meanwhile to Badrinath shrine, about 22000 pilgrims visited in a day, in
the same month. Bathrinath shrine is approached by road therefore; the pilgrims
are outnumbered than to Kedarnath shrine, where pilgrims have to trek about 14
km (Sati, 2013a). During April 2005 – March 2006, the total number of visitors in
Garhwal was 11619457, out of which, 9130397 were domestic, 109084 were
foreigner and 2379994 were day visitors (Nielsen, AC ORG-MRG, 2007).
Table 2: Pilgrims flow in the major pilgrimage centres
Year
Places
Altitude (in M)*
2000
2010
Increase in %
Hardwar
314
5324639
8261078
55.14
Gangotri
3293
208407
329111
57.91
Badrinath
3415
695332
921950
32.59
Kedarnath
3553
300000
400014
33.33
Yamnotri
4421
88672
287688
224.44
Total
6617050
10199841
54.14
Source: Directorate of Tourism, Uttarakhand, Dehradun, 2011; Sati, 2013
*Survey of India Toposeets
Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Pilgrimage Tourism
The highland pilgrimages are not only the centres of holy faith and for attaining
spirituality but they also provide livelihoods to the mountain people. Mountains
have ecological, aesthetic and socioeconomic significance both as natural ecosystems and people’s living place (ICIMOD, 2007b). About 10 per cent of the world’s
population’s livelihoods and well-beings rely directly on mountainous resources
including tourism and they are the major sources of biological and cultural diversity
(UNU, 2002; Messerli & Ives, 1989; Sati, 2014).
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
173
Socio-Economic Impacts
Tourism has been one of the global economic success stories in the last 40 years
(Coccossis & Parpaires, 1995). It is the world’s largest industry, accounting for about
5.5 per cent of the world’s Gross National Product (GNP) and 6 per cent of the
employment (Glasson et al., 1995). The pilgrimage tourism has both positive and
negative impacts on socio-economy and environment (Figure 2). Although,
pilgrimage tourism is performed mainly for the peace of mind and prosperity of life
yet, it also contributes to socio-economic development of the region. In the Garhwal
Himalaya, pilgrimage tourism has acquired a significant place in socio-economic
development, recently. Most of the native people who were engaged in practicing
agriculture earlier have now been migrated to the major pilgrims and tourists
routes and providing services to the pilgrims and tourists. These services are
transportation, accommodation and institutional. Augmentation of employment and
income generation including earning of foreign currency is the major economic
impact of pilgrimage tourism in the Garhwal Himalaya. The economy of the people
of the Garhwal Himalaya is largely dependent on the farming of traditional
agriculture, its production and yield is quite low therefore, the people have outmigrated either to the plain region of country or in the river valleys service centres
that are located along the major pilgrimages routes. Yatra season generally starts in
April and end in October when a large number of pilgrims visit the highland
pilgrimages. During winter, tourists visit the Garhwal Himalaya for river-rafting,
mountaineering, trekking and skiing. This practice has led to mushrooming of
hotels, motels, dhabas and tea-stalls along the roadsides. The author observed that
there are about hundred services providing centres, located within 300 km between
Rishikesh and Badrinath. Pilgrimage tourism helps for cultural strengthen
(belongingness) and adaptation habit besides augmenting employment and
generating income and the same implies with the native people of the Garhwal
Himalaya.
Pilgrimage tourism has multiple impacts on local economy as it increases
employment opportunities and living standard of the people and thus, there is an
increase in the national income (Sati & Kumar 2004). Tourism is a major source of
income in the Garhwal region as Rangan (2000) reported that Garhwal region
earned between 10-15 per cent of its revenue from taxes and levies imposed on
pilgrims each year. In India, tourism is the second-largest source of foreign currency
behind the gem and jewelry business. A study (Sati, 2013a) reveals that the villages
that lie on the major routes to the pilgrimages are now fully dependent on the
income from the pilgrims and tourists.
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VISHWAMBHAR PRASAD SATI
Case Study
A case study of the four villages/service providing centres – Ratura, Gauchar,
Nandaprayag and Chamoli – located along the road that leads to the Badrinath
pilgrimage, was carried out (Table 3). Total 40 households (HHs) were surveyed.
Out of the total HHs, 42.5 per cent HHs were working in agriculture, 37.5 per cent
HHs were working in service providing to the pilgrims and 20 per cent HHs were
working both in agriculture and service providing. It was noticed from the study
that income of the HHs, those are involved in providing services to the pilgrims is
higher than those who are working in agriculture or are engaged in both activities.
Average seasonal income of HHs of all villages/service centres varies depending
upon the availability of land – agricultural practices and other amenities, which they
provide to the pilgrims. Village Gaucher has the highest average income both from
agricultural practices and from providing services, due to its location, as it has vast
agricultural land as well as enough space to park the vehicles and to provide basic
amenities to pilgrims. In contrast, village Ratura has comparatively less agricultural
land and less space to serve the pilgrims consequently. It was observed during the
study that the villages located along the major pilgrim routes have the higher
income than to the villages that are located in the mid-altitudes and the highlands,
not on the major pilgrim routes.
Table 3: Descriptive analysis of case study villages/service providing services
Std.
Variables
N
Minimum Maximum Mean
Deviation
Household Size
40
4
10
6.60
1.722
Number of persons
40
4
7
5.20
1.067
educated/family
Income from Agriculture* 17 42.5% 12000
17000 1.44E4 1578.812
Income from Service
15 37.5% 22000
26000 2.38E4 1146.423
Providing*
Both*
8 20.0% 19000
24000 2.11E4 1726.888
Source: Surveyed by author (Nov. 2008), Income is in INR
*Average seasonal income/households
Cultural Impacts
Pilgrimage tourism has not only impact on economy but it has also impact on
culture. As the pilgrims visit the holy shrines they come up with their own culture
and tradition and therefore, the local people are influenced by them. It leads to
degeneration of local culture and therefore, cultural erosion takes place. It also leads
to changes in food habits, clothing and lifestyle. Since, many tourists’ destinations
are located in the vicinity of the shrines in the Garhwal region, the tourists also visit
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
175
these shrines during the ‘yatra’ season and therefore, they have tremendous impact
on society and culture of the local people. Oppermann & Chon (1997a) observed
that cultural impact of tourism is significantly high in the developing countries. As
Glasson et al. (1995) examines that socio-cultural impacts are the ‘people impacts’
of tourism, with a focus on changes in the day-to-day quality of life of residents in
tourist destinations, and cultural impacts concerned with changes in traditional
ideas and values, norms and identities resulting from tourism. Social and cultural
changes to host societies include changes in value systems, traditional lifestyles,
family relationships, individual behaviour or community structure (Ratz, 2000).
Socio-cultural impacts of tourism results from the interaction between ‘host’, or
local people, and ‘guests’, or tourists (Smith, 1995). In reality, socio-cultural impacts
tend to contain a mixture of both positive and negative strands and affect both hosts
and guests (Cooper et al., 1998; Oppermann & Chon, 1997b).
Figure 2: Socio-economic and environmental impacts of pilgrimage tourism in
the Garhwal Himalaya
Impact of Pilgrimage Tourism
Socio-Economic
Impact
Positive
1. Employment
Augmentation
2. Income Generation
3. Cultural Strengthen
(Belongingness)
4. Adaptation
Environmental
Impact
Negative
1. Land Degradation
2. Forest Depletion
3. Env. Pollution
1. Land Transformation
2. Land Abandonment
3. Cultural Erosion
4. Over and Under
Population
Environmental Impacts
All types of tourism – natural, adventurer and pilgrimage – have severe impact
on the environment and ecology. It is not only the tourists who degrade
environment but the construction of infrastructural facilities has also negative
impact on the environment. Construction of hotels, motels, dhabas and tea stalls all
along the roads, mostly in the river valleys, has adverse implications on the fragile
landscapes. The entire Garhwal region receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon
season and the rivers flow above danger marks that lead to occurrences of severe
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disasters. Further, this region is highly prone to debris flow, flashfloods, landslides
and mass movements. Because, the service providing centres are located along the
course of these rivers and streams, they are highly influenced by the natural
calamities. In addition, many settlements are located on the debris, deposited by the
rivers and streams, are potentially danger. The pilgrims and tourists further
accentuate the magnitude of these catastrophes. Environmental pollution is high. In
the highland pilgrimages, dumping of waste and litter in the open spaces and in the
water bodies leads to air and water pollution. Large-scale soil erosion, due to
construction of settlements and roads, has been occurred during the past. Land
degradation, due to long trekking to the pilgrimages, further accentuates this
problem. The highland pilgrimages are located mostly in the alpine meadows, which
are ecologically fragile. There are many instances when severe disasters took place
and resulted in to heavy loss of life and property. On 16 th and 17th June 2013,
cloudburst followed by debris-flow and flashfloods occurred in the Badrinath and
Kedarnath pilgrimages, killed >10,000 pilgrims and the local people, and lost
hundreds of thousands of property (Sati, 2013). This devastating disaster on the
route of these two highland shrines was occurred mainly due to a large-scale
construction along the course of the perennial rivers flowing through this region.
The construction of settlements, business avenues and institutions on the high slope
gradient and fragile landscape along the road sides is not suitable. Further,
excessive soil erosion due to large-scale felling of trees and changes in land use
pattern has made the land unstable and vulnerable. It has been observed that the
two important factors that are the major threads to the highland pilgrimages are
tourism and climate change. The highlands are highly vulnerable to climate change
and since the most of the pilgrimages are located in the highlands, the climate
change impact is enormous. An increase in the number of pilgrims and tourists,
visiting the Garhwal Himalaya, has also created problems for the highland
pilgrimages. Pilgrimage to the Garhwal region has a long tradition. But the dawn of
modern tourism, induced by the extension of modern transportation deep into the
region, has had serious consequences for the local economy, ecology and society; in
fact, its impact fell badly on the environment and the holy places and pilgrimages
have received severe environmental implications (Sati 2013b).
Land transformation in the valleys for construction of settlements – hotels and
motels and to provide accommodation to the pilgrims all along the road heads, and
land abandonment in the mid-altitude and the highlands due to outmigration are the
several other consequences of pilgrimage tourism. This follows over population in
the valleys and under population in the mid-altitudes and the highlands.
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
177
Discussion and Conclusions
Sacred travel motivated by religious or spiritual purposes continues to be
practiced in traditional religious centres (Reader, 2007). Research suggests that
sacred travel has experienced growth in many parts of the world - from quasireligious visits to Stonehenge and Machu Picchu, to neo-pagan goddess pilgrimage
in Malta, the el Camino Santiago in Spain, and the perennial pilgrimages to the river
Ganges and Mecca (Cohen, 1992; Coleman & Elsner, 1995; Devereux & Carnegie,
2006; Digance, 2003; Fox, 2008; Rountree, 2002, 2005; Swatos, 2006). Turner and
Turner (1978) described modern pilgrimage as a meta-social commentary on the
troubles of the epoch and a search for the roots of ancient, almost vanishing virtues.
Greenwood (1989) claims that many middle-class tourists thirst for cultural
authenticity due to the cultural impoverishment that has accompanied economic
success. Since the 11th century BC, wandering ascetics were drawn to holy
sanctuaries located amidst the secluded valleys, glacial rivers and hot springs of the
world’s highest mountain range (Bhardwaj, 1973a; Singh, 2005a).
In the Himalayan region, Hindu pilgrimages became institutionalized and
accessible to greater numbers of visitors. As Bharadwaj (1973b) noticed, the
exquisite location of the Himalaya was consecrated as shrines for Hindu pilgrimages
where nature overwhelmed the human psyche intro prayerful submission and
existential humility. Similarly, Singh (2005b) observed that the middle Himalayas in
all their awesome scenery and awful solitude became a perfect sacrosanct for
theosophizing, learning and writing. As a number of pilgrims are increasing in the
whole Himalayan region, pilgrimage has become a Hindu institution, marked by the
construction of temples and shrines, formal employment of priests and the
establishment of rituals, ceremonies and a donation system. Pilgrimages to the
Himalaya has been continued from the 11th to 5th century B.C., the period of the
Mahabharatha and the Puranas that has become an inevitable ritual of Hindu living
(Singh, 2005c). Himalaya has long been represented as an enchanted land, a utopia
and as the spiritual antithesis of the modern world (Bishop 2000). It appears as a
therapeutic landscape (Hoyez 2007), a place which promises adventure, escape and
spiritual well being. Travelling to the Himalaya could indeed be called pilgrimage in
the sense that it was a quest for valued ideals (Morinis 1992).
Pilgrimage tourism in mountain regions has multiple impacts on the socioeconomic conditions and on the environment. On the one hand, it enhances the
economic development of the native people and the influenced region as a whole,
and on the other; it has negative impact on the environment in terms of pollution
and land degradation, as it has been noticed largely in the pilgrimage centres of the
Garhwal region. The Garhwal region is socially backward, economically
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VISHWAMBHAR PRASAD SATI
underdeveloped and environmentally sensitive. Pilgrimage tourism has the vast
potential to enhance its socio-economic conditions, as it can be noticed during the
recent past. Meanwhile, the fragile ecosystems of the highlands and alpine
meadows, where these shrines are located, have largely been influenced by the
pilgrims and tourists. Thus, the sustainable development approach to planning
tourism becomes important because most tourism development, involving
stakeholders such as pilgrims, tourists, tourist businesses and community residents,
depends on attractions and activities related to the natural environment, heritage
and culture (Ahn et al., 2002). Further, sustainable tourism should adhere to
economic, social, environmental and ethnic considerations in host regions (Mbaiwa
2008). For conservation of nature and socio-economic development of the local
people, it is necessary to develop a concerted strategy that depends on travel
regulation including patterning of flow, education and awakening of visitors and
stakeholders, wide dissemination of codes of visitors’ conduct in the Himalaya,
development and marketing of alternative destinations and targeted marketing
(Singh 2002). Tourism and pilgrimage in the Himalaya during the past was
influenced by the certain code of conducts that promoted the conservation of nature
and kept consumerist culture at a distance. However, during the recent past, the
scenario has been changed, as the number of tourists and pilgrims have been
increased largely and the government policy towards promoting pilgrimages to the
Himalaya has turned into earn revenue and it has been resulted in exploitation and
natural and cultural resources.
The Garhwal Himalaya has a number of highland pilgrimages where every year
hundreds of thousands of pilgrims visit for the peace of mind and prosperity of life.
Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamnotri and Gangotri are the world famous four
pilgrimages, have their own religious importance and they are well-known for their
natural and scenic landscapes as well. Due to high potential of pilgrimage tourism in
terms of socio-economic development, it may become a major source of income to
the local people and it can further enhance the regional economy. During the recent
past, the whole Garhwal region received a substantial number of tourists and
pilgrims and now pilgrimage tourism has become a major source of income to the
local people; and a source of earning foreign currency and revenue to the State, as it
is contributing about 40 per cent of the total annual income. A case study of the four
villages/service providing centres shows that the people involved in providing
services to the pilgrims have earned the higher income than to those who are
involved in agricultural farming even, the number of people engaged in service
providing to pilgrims is comparatively less. Similarly, economic development due to
pilgrimage tourism can be seen along the road sides that lead to the highland
pilgrimages. Apart from this, pilgrimage tourism has a significant impact on society
PILGRIMAGE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS
179
and culture in terms of transformation of traditional cultural wisdom into the
modernization. Changes in living standard, food habits, clothing, house types,
occupation and education are the major consequences of tourism.
Simultaneously, its impact on environment as a degradation of natural
landscape is enormous. The entire Garhwal Himalaya comprises of fragile
landscape. Mass pilgrimage tourism has further accelerated its fragility and
vulnerability. Unusual changes in climate pattern have led to increase in frequency
and intensity of natural hazards. Infrastructural facilities are inadequate and
carrying capacity of pilgrimage centres is low. Further, institutional supports and
proper policy measures are lagging behind. Thus, these negative drivers altogether
impede in strengthening of pilgrimage tourism.
Development of pilgrimage tourism is largely dependent on the various driving
forces – natural and manmade. Providing proper infrastructural facilities – lodging,
boarding, transportation and institutional services, keeping landscape
fragility/vulnerability and carrying capacity of pilgrimage centres in mind, will
enhance the socio-economic development and reduce landscape degradation. Any
unscientific activities such as construction of settlements and roads along the fragile
landscape of the rivers will lead to the severe natural disasters, as it was seen in
many natural events during the past. Pilgrimage tourism is one of the most
significant sources of income and the major options of livelihood in the Garhwal
Himalaya thus, an exclusive policy measure should be adopted that should be
economically viable and environmentally sound.
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