DYNAMIC VISUALIZATION:
The Significance of Motion in
Architectural Design Model
the Visualization of the
by
NILOOFAR TASHAKORI
Bachelor of Fine Arts
Rhode Island School of Design
Providence, R.I.
1981
Bachelor of Architecture
Rhode Island School of Design
Providence,
R.I.
1982
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN PARTIAL
FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES
AT THE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JUNE 1986
®Niloofar
Tashakori 1986
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission
to reproduce and to distribute publicly copies
of this
thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of
Author
Niloofar Tashakori
Department of Architecture.
May 9, 1986
Certified
by
Thesis Superviser
Edward Robbins:
Assistant Professor of Anthropology in Architecture
Accepted
by
Chairman
Juli \Veinart:
Departmenta -Committee on Graduate Students
MASSACHUSETTS INSTTUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
Rotci JUN 0 4 1986
LIBRARI1
DYNAMIC VISUALIZATION:
The Significance of Motion in the Visualization of the
Architectural
Design Model
by
Niloofar Tashakori
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 9th, 1986
in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Architecture Studies.
ABSTRACT
The visual expression of architectural ideas, specifically
in
the preliminary stages of design, has generally been by means
of static images on two dimensional surfaces. Our perception
of a building
or an urban context compared to what actually
is communicated by most visual
tools,
indicates
to us that
most representation media lack an essential quality, that of
movement. Not until recently were we able to introduce this
quality
within our methods of representation.
Computer
graphics as a new tool for visual expression can provide us
with the means to examine spatial
ideas dynamically.
This
can increaser an observer's understanding and enable designers
to manipulate their ideas in a more reactive and dynamic
environment.
This thesis
will
examine the more conventional
convey form and space,
and discuss
disadvantages associated with them.
the
media used to
advantages
and
The central
issue to this
thesis
is the aspect of movement;
that motion is an essential part of spatial understanding and
that
of visual perception. As a base for my arguments I have
chosen some theories of perception relevant to architecture,
and tried
to find parallels
which could give rise
to a better
understanding of architectural
form and space and to it's
representation.
in computer
of the art
Finally,
I have looked at the state
graphics;
the difficulties involved in creating computer
the potential
images, how they are being overcome and lastly
for
visualization
that
computers can offer
in
the future.
Thesis Superviser, Edward Robbins
Assistant Professor of Anthropology in Architecture
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2
4
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
ISSUES IN ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION
8
1.1
History
8
1.2
Movement and Architectural Space
12
Footnotes
17
VISUAL PERCEPTION
18
2.1
Surrogates as Representations
20
2.2
The Retinal Image
25
Footnotes
27
VISUAL SENSE OF SPACE
28
3.1
Depth Perception
30
3.2
Perceptual Constancies
35
3.3
Perceptual Errors and Illusions
38
3.4
Organizational Factors
39
Footnotes
45
VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES WITH COMPUTERS
47
4.1
Image Transformation
54
4.2
Interactive Design Systems
62
4.3
Economic Feasibility
65
4.4
Practical Application
66
Footnotes
70
Section 1.0
Section 2.0
Section 3.0
Section 4.0
72
73
81
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3
DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS.
MANY THANKS
MAHIN & GODRATOLLAH TASHAKORI
LISA PINKHAM
TO:
3a
INTRODUCTION
A great deal of discussion concerning the significance of
architectural representation, has led us to an increasing
awareness
the importance of the
of
way
architectural form
what qualities each type
and space are visually represented;
of representation is capable of communicating, and if the
means constitute the end, how efficient are the means.
Each era has given birth to
example;
new forms of representation. For
during the Renaissance perspective
became the method
without which the concepts of the period could never have
been developed.
This thesis
of
space
will
and
disadvantages
examine the
form,
and
associated
media involved in
look
with
at
each
the
the design
advantages
of them.
Although
and
there
are many factors influencing the outcome of an architectural
design,
(such
architectural
as
the
thought)
which give shape to
ideological
the focus will
issues
which
form
be on the visual tools
ideas.
The reduction of certain qualities is inherent in the process
of representation.
This leaves the designer to choose the
visual tool that will convey the qualities
significant.
fine arts,
fulfillment
This can prove to
be valuable
he feels are most
in
the
world of
but the architect who hopes to see an objectified
of his concept, knows that the representation is
4
itself.
an end in
not
the
desired
the
tool
the
proposed
concept.
will
environment,
not
thesis
issue of this
The central
argue that
an
most accuratly
of movement;
of spatial
part
essential
the
necessarily
the aspect
is
motion is
Therefore
of his concept.
media that
the
intended
produce
will
is
that
structure
completed
be the ultimate realization
will
I
is
It
the experience of architecture as a
understanding and that
three dimensional object is a perceptual occurance involving
Architecture comes
movement.
into
existance
of individual and active impressions,
infinity
through an
which
create
its total image.
The basis for my arguments rest on the theories of perception
relevant
to
architecture.
In order to provoke a
greater
interest in the
understanding of architectural form and its
representation,
I have attempted to find parallels
the
process
of
perception
These theories
architecture.
and
the
between
representation
are generally
of
overlooked by
architects, but a more detailed examintion of these theories
new
may indicate
if
possibilities
we adopt new techniques
for analysis and the illustration of urban and architectural
phenomena.
Our
generation
technology
-
a
stands
symbol
under
of our era.
almost every walk of life.
the
banner
Computers
of
computer
have permeated
Yet they have not found a major
niche within the architectural
5
field, computers
are not
considered an acceptable design solution.
intimidating
aspect of these computers,
One reason is the
they are not user-
friendly enough.
Drawing on paper still
than translating
an image onto the screen.
comes more naturally
A closer look at the state of the art in computer graphics
can illustrate
geared to
some of the advantages if
a
less
sophisticated
visual expression,
operator.
the systems could be
As an instrument of
a system with movement capability could be
to our era what perspective was to the Renaissance.
The problems related
to image synthesis will
be discussed;
How these problems are being dealt with and what is expected
in
the near future, along with some examples of projects
architectural
firms involved with computers,
computer generated imaging.
6
specifically
by
"The process
of
visual
understanding
phenomena,
or
visual
thinking, characterizes both the experience of the seen world
and the
artistic
invention of new experiences.
Both are ways
understand and
to
order
in
metaphorically
of seeing
communicate. But perceptions change according to the
and just as
moment,
and historical
place
particular
intellectual history is characterized by differing styles of
change."
thought, visual thinking is tied to cultural
Gilbert
7
Cass
Section
1.0
ISSUES IN ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION
Architects are constantly simulating objects and environments
because
of their need for visualization and explanation.
perspectives
Models,
plans
and
make
inadequecy,
measured
as
against
the
simulations
the experience
often
laymen
to
interpret.
selective
the
of
an
short
when
product.
Plans
therefore
Perspective
because
fall
of the final
have their own language and are
bulk
This creates a problem
architects representational devices.
of
the
up
difficult for
views
architect
are
chooses
by
the
nature
most
complimentary views and images for what he feels can best
communicate the intentions of the design.
look like.
hope that
i.e.
what it
should
So on the one hand you have an architect full of
his
presentation
be
eventually
presentation
a
information is
reality;
it
is
other
and on the
hand you have a
Under
misleading.1.1
can be
that
circumstances
can convey some sense of what will
surprising
that
more
not required before a project is
these
substantial
approved.
1.1
HISTORY
of the
The nature
that
it
laymen.
creates
The
renderings
barriers
abstractness
and elevations
is
of architecture
'language'
which
of
prevent
environmental
architects
that
8
it's
so specific
understanding
media,
use to
plans,
convey their
by
do not by themselves encourage comprehension by an
designs,
(in
public;
untrained
these
by
deceived
architectural
The
the
designer
is
forms.)
design
also
Until
architect would
make
a
laborious
so as to
aspects,
reproduce them in his building.
be
kept
study
of
accurately
The introduction of the
scale model enabled the architect to convey
and to determine
will
The research would include measuring
of particular
proportions
decisions
opinion.
exclude public
of buildings.
examples
the
representational
manner
and will
medieval
cases
representations can be displayed in a more
self-explanatory
selective
some
the cost of the project.
his intentions
The end of the
Gothic period saw the architect constructing models of parts
of buildings,
possibly for testing purposes.
As the Renaissance architect was inspired by the Graeco-Roman
period, in order to test the practicality of his more dynamic
proposals, he had to construct working models.
the very materials
intended for the building.
models were common practice.
With the gradual
These were useful tools for
separation of
art and
architect committed himself to an intellectual
sake'.
Elaborate
coordinating mass and space.
visually
design,
Often using
leaving the fine artist
This
perspective on
committed to 'art
for art's
new outlook on design became seated in the need
for developing skills
a result,
architecture the
and conventions for drafting space.
As
the architects primary concern was how to draw the
9
1.1
Perspective
figure
from
Vredeman
de
Artis Perspectivae,
building
-
case,
instead
of what to
1568
always the
it was customary to strive to portray the experiential
of an
qualities
would
affect
outcome
Architecture
environment.
and more affected
The
draw. This was not
Vries,
,
the
by methods of depiction.
structure
of
ideas
and
becoming
more
Methods that
predestine
the
of the architecture.
innovation of perspective
towards
was
two dimensional
led 'to a
representations.
of emphasis
shift
This,
in turn,
started a fad for drawing buildings and even entire cities as
visionary images.
Brunelleschi's
contribution
to
perspective
had the architect
on the outside of his image; By saying there must be distance
between
the viewer
and
the object.
10
The word,
per.spective.
1.2
from the
it
"Imaginary City" from PerspectiveThe Most Famous Art of EyesIghtL 1604
means
literally
Latin,
means the drawing is
a
into
drawing
was
the viewer.
image.
not
through seeing.
Oriental
universal.
art
uses
a
out and away from
radiating
This allows the artist
Essentially
The concept of looking
a window.
with lines
perspective
reverse
his
Vredeman de Vries,
to visualize from inside
1 .2
perspective
Brunelleschi's
was
contrary to the nature of
perception because it required the viewer to freeze in time.
The development of linear perspective during the Renaissance,
was due to an extraordinary combination of sense experience
abstractions.
and mathematical
such as dimunition;
that we take for granted,
will
appear
smaller
into
relation
in
to
its
that an object
distance;
and
were all elementary awarenesses which were
foreshortening,
brought
of perspective
Principles
a
system
at
that
11
time.
This
system
soon
dominated the pictorial presentation
arts,
such a
any deviation
that
arts,
hold over the visual
controlling
had gained
Linear perspective
architecture.
including
visual
of the
from the norm was regarded by even the most naive viewers as
the
Due to
distorted.1.3
and
unnatural
in
experiencing
painter,
post-renaissance
is
located
other
on the
"The architect
of view also.
point
this
the world ,
This constrains the viewer to
one defined view point.
share
the
perspective,
of one point
nature
restrictive
hand, does not have such a station point, ...
one does not
physically and aesthetically experience a building simply by
at
looking
it
-perhaps
because the
facade very
-
one experiences
painting
being
of
part
a
its
of all
least
by looking
the
most resembles
often
by being in
it
a facade,
at
it,
of a
plane
in
living
1 4
reality."
1.2
MOVEMENT AND ARCHITECTURAL SPACE
"The
of
look
a
building
it,
when
seen
at
close
hand
is
one
thing, on a height it is another, not the same in an enclosed
space,
still
different in
For the most part,
the cpen." Vitruvius
we perceive an architectural
sensory occurance involving movement,
through
an environment
sensations,
we experience
each takes us
from one
another.
12
space as a
for as we proceed
a myriad of changing
spatial
impression to
"The history of articulated space, the special space
periods, have been determined by the
conceptions of different
three or more dimensions.
two,
grasp of one,
The magnificence of the Egyptian temple could be comprehended
by walking through a basically one dimensional straight line,
the
leading towards
sphinx alley,
its
facade.
a two
designed
Acropolis
of the
Greek architects
the
Later
had
the visitors
dimensional approach to the temple so that
and
Erechteion
the
Propytaen, between the
to
move through
Parthenon, around the colonnades toward the main entrance.
The
also
cathedral
gothic
applied
concept
this
most
was placed in the
The spectator
to the interior.
intrigingly
center
and became the
nave, balcony and choir,
of the
midst
of coordinated space cells of all directions.
The
Renaissance
and the
man
brought
baroque
into
closer
Apart
contact with the inside and outside of the building.
from the hanging gardens of Semiramis and the moorish-spanish
attempts
were man's first
architecture,
these
and
building
surrounding.
nature,
not
fit
merely
to
integrate
building
into
its
In our age architecture is viewed not only frontally and from
The birds
in motion.
but also
from above - vision
the sides,
eye view, and its
opposites,
the
worm's and fish-eye
views,
Architecture appears no
experience.
have become a daily
longer static but, if we think in terms of airpl nes and
a
linked with movement." '
is
motor cars, architecture
experience of an architectural
The visual
existence
through
its
going through
The
is
interior,
image being a
total
perceptual
impressions
put into
perceptions
the
what.gives
sequential
composite of all
received by the viewer.
effect
observer
the
scene or object.
architectural
image of a particular
total
impressions and
individual
Moving towards and around a building or
projections.
visual
infinity of
an
setting comes into
by a viewer's
the
The order of
passage
from one
room to another is as authentic a quality of architecture as
are
simple
the
static
forms
array
such
of spaces.
as a
cube or a
13
Although the percept of
cylinder
can be easily
1.3
understood in
all
Le Corbusier.
views.
different angles and views;
of their
du Haut,
Ronchamp:
Three
without having to experience
totality,
their
Notre Dame
When a building is
structured in such a complex way that it cannot be broken
simple geometric
down into
viewing
one particular
forms,
the shapes
point would make it impossible to distinguish
attributed to the physical
perception.
which to
will
As an example, there is almost no angle from
shape;1.6
its
to verify
form.
only
can
at
chapel
photograph Le Corbusier's
capture it's
image
structure and those created by
One has to encircle the building
So in a case such as this,
attained
be
Ronchamp that
through
a
a full
wide
mental
range
of
projections.
In an essay
qualities
music,
written by R. Arnheim, he compares the temporal
experienced
dance and film.
as
an object,
the
experience
exists
of it
in architecture
He argues
in
space
is
an event
14
that
to those
although
outside of
found
in
architecture
the time dimension,
or a happening occuring in
architecture.
only to
particular
of a
listener
of a dance or the
as an observer
For example,
But there are aspects
sheet of paper;"
confines of a
born within the
is
"architecture
that
the belief
dispells
This
film.
music and the
of dance,
that
to
similar
time;
piece -of music, one experiences them from the outside, never
becoming a
of
part
the viewer
architecture
moving through
participant,
actual
but in
it;
the
time
in
it's
of
appearance
the
spaces.
it's
Another difference distinct to architecture
sequence
is
is that as a
are
components
transformed; a specific order for viewing can cause a part of
a
to
building
his
observer alters
a
causes
the
in
change
appearance
of
he
sequence,
an architectural
in
position
As an
outward appearances.
several
exhibit
the
all
of
parts
a
building.
other
The
connection
difference
worth
between the
order
that
circumstances
experience
in
an image
of the
makes
timeless
being."I'7
it.
the building
is
architecture
the
overall
"...the
must be firmly embedded
totality
an aspect of the
only as
It
In
spatial
building's
sense
sequence
of a sequence and the
creates
of traversing
to
relates
mentioning,
because the
building's
important to get a cognitive map
of the whole through an ordered sequence of impressions,
in
whereas
in
order
to
film
one
understand
can
have
and appreciate
several
sequence.
15
a
building,
unrelated
shots
creating a
is
"It
spatial structure and
of the interplay between timeless
time-bound
of the
of
baroque,
late
the building.
through
avenues
as
remarkable
part of
of
sights.
The
the indispensable counter
is
true
that
in
also,
music
elements of a composition to
but
are the
as
and
It
the
whole,
sequential,
action
is
the perturbing complexity of the directly given
must fit
the
ground plan.
building's
order of the skeleton is
particular
listener
a way that
in
structure
the
in
visible
most clearly
as works
sequences and perspectives are
total
the
fitting
the
Certain churches
can be understood
for example,
art only when the various
perceived
become aware
viewers
that
indispensable
aesthetically
music
in
parts.
the
The
being
timeless
is
of exploratory
interplay
is
an image
structure
whole
the
characteristically
architectural. ,,1.8
Thus we can conclude that it is the perceptual experience of
through movement that
a structure
understanding
theorists
the
of
have sought to
process
acknowledgement
an
perceptual
intricate
a
more
of detached objects,
part
the
persuade us that
is
leads
that
process.
16
us to
recent years,
In
perceiver and the object is
perceptual
is
architecture.
lead
will
a fuller
perceptual
line
between
formidable
one and the
just
cognitive
than
but that the perceiver
to the
success
of the
FOOTNOTES
1.1
Visual Simulation
D. Appleyard,
p.1
1979
Planning and Design.
1.2
Tom Porter,
1.3
Wolfgang M. Zucker,
Architect.
How Architects
p.
1.4
Rudolf Arnheim,
1.5
L.
1.6
Rudolf
Arnheim,
1.7
Ibid.
p.15
1.8
Ibid.
p.17
Moholy-Nagy,
in
Visualize.
Environmental
p.7
The Image and Imagination of the
73
"Buildings as Percepts."
Vision in
"Buildings
17
Motion.
as
p.17
p.244
Percepts."
p.16
Section
2.0
VISUAL PERCEPTION
Does the
Is what you see what you get?
way we visually
experience a structure determine the degree of understanding?
questions are dependent
Both these
perception.
visual
We
infered by
on what is
know perception is more
a
on intelligence and the
relies
sensory experience because it
than
ability to rationalize between possible solutions to
discrepencies.2.1
perceptual
In
order
to
totality
experience the
involved,
issues
visual
of
it
would be necessary to
architectural
Although
into
delve
the
of perception and those
concerning the theories
architecture.
an
to understand the many essential
object or urban environment,
properties
of
there
are
many
conflicting
theories about how we perceive what we perceive,
for the
most part, my arguments are based on the perceptual
theories
and Julian
of J.J.Gibson
are
most applicable
to
the
of architecture.
representation
Their work
enables us to analyze and examine
existing in
the perception of form
media
move
to
architectural
the
issue
of
we
how
form and space.
18
may
most
the properties
relation to the
and their
representation.
of architectural
theories
because their
Hochberg;
With this,
fully
we can
represent
second hand experience the individual
in
aware of something,
what
is
refer
we
to
and its
hand experience
First
made aware of something.
process
and second hand
In first hand experience the individual becomes
experience.
is
first
into
can be broken down
Experience
direct
as
The
perception.
process of second hand experience is much more complex and it
This
of a second person upon the
action
the
involves
stage
double
a vehicle
to convey
Language is the primary means of such
perception indirectly;
But pictures and models may also serve to convey
awareness.
indirect
requires
process
perceiver.
perception.
The most recognizable feature of perception is that it varies
circumstances.
under differing
distinguish
among
for
environment
the
specific
purpose
we identify
discrimination
enable
Our percepts
features
of
our
places,
we are confronted with them again.
physical
Through this
of recognition.
objects,
us to
and events when
Learning is
basically
a
process of discriminating and identifying through sensitivity
to the appropriate stimuli and answering with the appropriate
response.
order to communicate a second hand experience
In
situation.
words,
successfully
has
substitute
an acceptable
one must provide
The use
often
of additional
proved
the
specific
substitutes other than
beneficial
discriminating and identifying
19
for
to assist
situations.
someone
in
2.1
Durer's Version of Alberti's Veil.
SURROGATES AS REPRESENTATIONS
The term surrogate
is
2.1
defined by J.J.Gibson as "a
stimulus
produced by another individual which is relatively specific
to some object,
sense
To
organs
the
'substitute
a
or event,
of the perceiving
clarify
not
place,
above
stimulus'
surrogate
not at present affecting the
2
individual."
statement;
A
.2
surrogate
is
or a 'conditioned stimulus'.
for
cold
weather,
or
a
not
a
Snow is
window
is
not
a
surrogate for light.
These are simultaneous occurances of
physical
merely signs.
events only,
Signs represent objects
and events
and conditions other than themselves.
surrogates,
signs are used to elicit
"The
specificity
of
Unlike
and formulate behavior.
surrogates
to
other
referents
is
analogous to what was called an obvious fact about direct
perception,that
physical
is,
things.
that
We
it
is
assume
20
different
that
direct
for
different
perceptions
they come more and
that
or rather
correspond to realities,
more to do so as the perceiver learns." 2
3
With this in mind
our main concern is how surrogates can arbitrate or regulate
our
surrounding
reality;
Keeping in mind that the psychological
state of the
producer
can have
our
perceptions
on
bearing
to
equal
be
still
and
the
precise
intention of
a
cannot convey emotive
surrogate but that the surrogate itself
or expressive signs, or transfer any other reaction specific
to
the psychological
We
can
of the producer.
state
motor acts which constitute and
two fundamental
list
produce surrogates.
extreme cases writing ( such as Heiroglyphics.)
substances
surrogates,
secondary
operations,
less
cinematography;
made,
is
fitting
Shaping
pieces
from more
complex
aided) the producer has
i.e.
photography,
or
Primary surrogates can be classified as man
machine made.
represent a primary surrogate,
a secondary
Surrogate
involvement.
secondary surrogates,
renderings
result
mechanically
(usually
hands-on
which
2.
physical models.
This includes sculpture and all
together;
In
or
cutting,
through molding,
and in
painting,
These are 1. drawing,
thus an artists
while a photograph
surrogate.
making
is
dependent
on
self
stimulation.
Stimulation feeds into a producer simultaneously with his
action.
pencil
For example a draftsman sees the movement of his own
while
rendering;
The
perceptual
process
and the
surrogate making process lead into each other and the two
21
become
intertwined.
the individual becomes more involved with the actual
making)
the
architecture
For
issue.
configuration
and/or
of elements,
relation
what
paper,
on
drawing
while
created;
being
form
total
(for model
clay
with
working
when
example
For
outcome.
The medium influences the
are different.
the end results
yet
of sculpting,
The same would be- true
the
of detail
becomes
can
bring the
medium
representation closer to the actual building will
architect's
design.
be of utmost use in
prove to
and those
convention
Those created
cases of surrogates;
two polar
There are
created by projection.
by
Language or
mathematical symbols tend to fall under the conventional
example would be a plan. Models
an architectural
surrogates;
"The
projection.
object
and
2
relation."
.4
is
It
theorized
category
the
name have
its
of
an extrinsic
picture have an intrinsic
whereas the object and its
relation
to
related
are
and motion pictures
pictures
nonconven-
that
tional,
or replicative surrogates have the capability to
projective,
become more and more like the original until neither are
from the other.
distinguishable
In visual
perception, a
model under specific viewing guidelines can be improved upon
to the point that it is no different than what it is supposed
to be representing.
Under severe guidelines a motion picture
might be altered leading the viewer to believe that he is
seeing
a
realistic
situation
do not offer
Conventional
surrogates
can make the
following assumptions
22
and
this
not
an
enactment.
characteristic.
We
from the above statement.
1.
Pictures and models give a more efficient representation
of direct perception than words or symbols can.
2.
Projective or replicative surrogates are less capable of
refering to abstractions,
3.
are
There
also
we
what
and projective
both
characteristics
to
refer
as
mixed
of both conventional
fidelity
the
usually physical.
For example chinese characters
surrogates;
retain
which
will
qualities
which incorporate
surrogates,
4.
the referent is
of
a
picture
the
and
of a word.
When we introduce graphic symbolization into a picture we
sacrifice
the picture's
trying
to
gain
ability
to represent (in
abstractness
the
picture
full).
In
loses
its
concreteness.
Thus we can conclude that mixed surrogates can
not
extreme qualities
share
the
of something abstract
and
something concrete at the same time.
The construction
of working models that
movement
replicate
and the course of events which can simulate total
to fabricate, (they coul.d go on indefinitely
aredifficult
terms
situations,
of
detail)
and
are
not
If
economical.
a
model
in
is
needed to serve only as a visual surrogate, a more practical
solution
would be pictures,
you can limit
A model
or motion pictures,
as long as
the perceivers view to one position.
retains loyalty to the referent on many levels,
as shape, proportion, color, texture, etc.
It is not always
necessary to recreate all the attributes of a model
23
such
in order
to
to
learn
such
a delimited physical surface processed
picture is
"A faithful
it
way that
a
sheaf
of
the
from
rays
a
(or transmits)
reflects
rays to a given point which is
light
simulated, will be
chapters.
later
discussed in
be
what
models,
architectural
As for
fidelity need to
of
properties
in
it.
utilize
original
of
sheaf
the same as would be the
This
to that point.
definition is intended to apply to paintings, drawings, color
prints,
pure
projected
transparencies,
prints,
television and the like when taken as cases
movies,
slides,
of
photographic
representation."
2
.5
Thus
we
understand
that
a
picture is a projection of a three dimensional body onto a
two
on
dependent
composition
the
of
degree
the
of
accuracy to
is
referent
of
fidelity
The
surface.
dimensional
and
boundaries
picture's
limited by its edges.
how
Yet another
It applies to a
is
surface
flat
tonal
visually
Panoramic views and holograms are some
to overcome this
of the efforts
a
is
picture
which the
reproduced.
important property for pictures is scope;
a
limitation.
Scope can affect
a viewers perception of the subject'through discriminatory
Scope can bring a viewers attention to focus
representation;
on desirable characteristics of a scene that a producer feels
merit
When
scrutiny.
viewing
a
picture
there
are
two
perceptions occuring simultaneously;
perception
recieved through the picture,
24
distinct
types
of
one is the mediated
the other is
the
S=KD tan 0
CCS
------
D-----Perception
2.2 Hochberg,"Visual
direct
perception of the actual
simply
in
levels,
the act of
one
the other,
is
is
the
picture's
awareness
the experience
Architecture".
surface
of your
itself.
information
you receive
viewing,
in
physical
Put
on two
surroundings,
of a proposed environment.
2.2
THE RETINAL IMAGE
The perceptual
with the
begins
world,
retina,
and how we perceive
process,
which is
of the eye.
image of the
the
the light sensitive tissue area at the back
Only a
fraction
of the retina,
called
the
fovea,
In order to
of a scene or an object of normal
the eye must be continuously moving.
size,
An optic
the
the details
all
on the
or layout
object
is specifically sensitive to small details;
capture
physical
array
scene
Perception,
to
is
the
defined
eye.
the retinal
as the
As
pattern
Hochberg
image is
25
explains
by
provided
of light
in
his
book,
a composite of the pattern
by
projected
the
optic
and
actual
the
physical
i.e. what the eye is
focusing at within
The optic array and the retinal
image are both
direction of the eye;
the array.
array,
two dimensional by nature and consist of patterns of light
That this interface takes place without the need of
energy.
is
any three dimensional aspects,
the most important point of
perception relating to architecture and other visual media.
A three
dimensional
object
a
picture,
by
replaced
flat
surrogate.
dimensional
If
or
scene can be successfully
or
mural
both scenes
other
such
two
create the same optic
array only from one specific viewing position;
A slight
movement can reveal to the observer the two dimensionality of
The procedure for creating such surrogates, was
the surface.
first implemented during the Renaissance by artists such as
Leonardo
da Vinci and Brunelleschi.
Alternatively, when
confronted with actual physical depth,
necessarily
and thusly
choose to
will
would convey.
design a
take advantage of his
information
deny additional
At this
the viewer may not
allowed mobility,
that
this
space
time the architect should undertake to
space that by its
physical
s.tructure would delegate
the pathways of viewpoint and the desired rate
In
the
way would the architects
space be realized.
26
of view;2.6
intended perception of the
FOOTNOTES
2.1
Although ideological
perception
the
effect
paper
process
I
have
to see do
issues and what we learn
for
the
purpose of the
process,
concentrated
mostly on the perceptual
than
phenomena rather
as a discrete
personal
understanding of objects.
Gibson,
2.2
J.J.
2.3
Ibid.
p.94
2.4
Ibid.
p.93
2.4
Ibid.
p.99
2.5
Ibid.
2.6
Julian
p.28
"A Theory
Hochberg,
of
"Visual
27
Pictorial
Perception
Perception."
in
p.93
Architecture."
Section 3.0
THE VISUAL SENSE OF SPACE
to
better
to
help
and
research
promote
in
which enable
a
one gets
perspective
texture/density
distribution
in depth
converging
linear
the
of parallel
are depicted accurately according
by misleading
replaced
in
of depth if
and triangularity
Conversly if
referent.
their
are depth
They
impression
stronger
viewer
the static
example,
For
space.
real
about
informations
are
depth cues are the clues given
definitive
comprehend the space depicted.
to better
to
of
representation,
any pictorial
lines
methods
more
into
Pictorial
representation.
work,
may
how representations
understand
architects
can be useful
This information
space.
understand
the
functions or cues enable the observer
These
physical world.
with
contact
by visual
off
set
functions,
optical
of
on an ordered system
dependent
sense of space is
Man's visual
angles
depth cues
such pictorial
distribution,
and texture
even a three dimensional space would be misinterpreted for a
flat surface.
One type of visual cue which aids in our perception of depth
is
motion parallax.
For example,
gradually
an apparent change in
of an object caused by a change in
the direction
fence,
Motion parallax is
if
you were to
you would observe
became
less
an apparent
as
to
walk perpendicular
your
28
shift
distance
in
movement.
a picket
each post that
from
the
fence
3.1
The
increased.
fence
J.J.Gibson,
itself
Perception of the Visual World.
An example of motion Parallax.
would
also
smaller. 3 . 1 Along with being an example
appear
to
get
of motion parallax,
this is a valuable depth cue because your movement past the
fence
fence,
allows you to confirm the three dimensionality
by showing all
architectural
setting.
of the
in
The same holds true
sides of it.
an
It is your movement past a building
or through it which gives you the most information about the
space;
spatial
because your senses recieve
information about
the depth and relation of objects to their
surroundings.
cue is
not available.
two dimensional' static
must
look
to
other
images this
methods
dimensions.
29
to
discern
depth
in
In
We
two
Man 3
Scan*
BoyI
6 AflBoy2
DEPTH PERCEPTION
The architect is
3.1
responsible for designing all
differences in
view that
are brought about by the viewer's motion around and
through a
designated
interface
between
is
His primary concern
viewer
refered to as a "vista";
array that
a
the
area.
and his
3
.2
world.
should be the
This
interface
It pertains to the
a viewer receives while in
motion.
optic
In other words
viewer's awareness of a series of events.
The act
object
of one object
is
occlusion.
cue,
what we call
interfering
with the
occlusion.
array
of another
We recognize two types of
Static occlusion which is also a pictorial depth
and kinetic occlusion.
Kinetic occlusion is related to
actual motion.
30
X-
Y
Z
Y
Ali
4
2'
2"
3'
3"1
4'
4"
2
3.3 The depth cues as cases
of organizational simplicity.(A) a simple
picture
using four monocular depth cues:(1) relative
size;
(2) linear
perspective;
(3)
interposition
;and (4)texture density gradient. (B)
Compare each cue as a flat
pattern in an upright plane (column I) and as
the tridimensional arrangement it represents (Column II). Which seems
simpler in each case, the arrangement in (I) or (II).
If organizational
simplicity were an innate operating characteristic of the nervous system,
what would this
figure imply about depth perception?
31
3.4
St Paul's Cathedral,
Your vision of an environment
(
London.
Elevation in sillohette)
An example of occlusion.
is interfered with temporarily
by other objects or barriers, thus as you progress through an
environment, in turn passing each obstacle, you are presented
with a
new vista
of the scene.
When our vision
of a
scene is
interrupted, the next scene we are presented with is examined
and
superimposed
With this
of
the
cognitive
The
done,
old
on our previous
the
vista.
new vista
The
is
memory
accepted
link of
of
the
environment.
and takes
these
vistas
the
place
create
a
map of the environment.
characteristics of a
stimulus and
viewer moving through space,
its
flow against a
called the kinetic optic array,
have not been studied as extensively as the static array;
Therefore there is not a thorough
language to measure and
quantify the features relating to the transformation of a
view
closely
in
an architectural
related
languages
architecture are in film.
space
that
or a
scene.
Some of the more
could be developed
for
Two examples can be given:
32
use in
3
1
3
2
3.5
3
2
J.Hochberg,
Visual Perception in Architecture.
Examples of (A) Pan shot. (B) Tracking shot.
One type of kinetic optic array is acheived when an observer
revolves
is
called
at a
a
stationary point.
pan shot.
actually
viewer
The other
moves
from
a tracking shot in
called
This camera action in film
one
kinetic
point
station
the film language.
could be showing the same scene,
is
to
when the
another
Although they
the amount of information
each offer about the three dimensional
number of new vistas
array
depth layout and the
they open to view is
very different.
Pan shots are limiting because they do not enable the viewer
to confirm depth.
For architecture
the movement parrallax
information offered by a tracking shot can be more useful. It
provides
the necessary information
to distinguish. what lies
behind an object or any depth information which could be
hidden
from
view. 3 .3
33
3.6
Perceptual
Charles
Csuri,
"Computer
Graphics and Art"
Proceedings of the IEEE .K4
theorists have known for a
long time
that the
motion of objects and their relation to other objects is a
reliable
cue
measure
for
an objects
Helmholtz
standing
depth,
good
condition
of
how
to
"Suppose, for instance, that a person is
a thick woods,
distinguish,
a
distance.
writes;
in
and
where it
is
impossible for him to
except vaguely and roughly,
foliage and branches all
in the mass of
around him what belongs to one tree
and what to another, or how far apart the seperate trees are,
But the moment he begins to move forward,
etc.
disentangles
itself,
everything
and immediately he gets an apperception
of the material contents of the woods and their relations to
each other
in
space,
does
as if
he were
not mean that
the movement
of the
automatically allow us to discover which
which is
could
a real
then
looking at
a good
4
view of it."3 .
stereographic
This
just
three dimensional space.
ignore
the
retinal
image
'vista'
viewer will
is
Were this
and
the
flat
and
true we
study
of
perception. The following are examples of the ways optic
array can fail
to foretell
or account for what we perceive.
34
3.2
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
It
is
for objects to share the same retinal
possible
physical
in
different
even when they are distinctly
size,
image
size, and objects of like size can produce varied retinal
images.
Both types of image depend on the distance from the
viewer.
Thus we discover that the retinal
size,
perceived
determine
accurately
image size cannot
should
and
familiar, known
accurately
the
architectural
sized objects, we
size
and
distance
representation
objects
of
space,
can measure more
other
human figures
are used to convey the size,
the use
such as,
alone but by incorporating with other data,
of
not be used
objects.
In
and other familiar
scale,
or the depth of a
or a scene.
Size
constancy
is the term psychologists use to explain how
the
image
an
of
dramatically
in
object
size,
and
our
yet
optic
array
we will
still
see large
when their
proximal
objects
constancy;
perspective
even
as small
boys,
and other
(and recognize them as clues for depth),
might be led to believe
unfamiliar
our
ar'e equal.
we know the true size of men,
Given that
familiar
sizes
stimulus
change
Likewise we
objects
and small
as large
objects
can
retain
impression of the objects form and size.
initial
Yet
in
that
objects
Further
this
can
more,
is
why constancy occurs.
also be
subjected
through
the
use
we can create an image of two familiar
35
we
of
to
size
false
objects of
3.7
equal size,
existing
apparent size
actually
size
validity
If
next to each other,
difference;
When in
some distance apart.
constancy
The effect of
Perception.
context on apparent size.
J.Hochberg,
through deception;
of familiar
but having a well
reality
the objects are
In this way we can promote
3.5
and also question the
objects as concrete depth cues.
you could measure the relationships between the sizes and
shapes of building surfaces, and contrast them with apparent
perceptual
changes
that
occur as you approach
you would note greater differences
in
the buildings,
the foreground,
while
changes in the background could be less detectable; and still
these
are changes
can still
in
the
image and recognizable
as
such.
We
acknowledge a shapes actual properties even when we
cannot see it
from its
optimum viewpoint.
36
-l
- 2
3
3.8
Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems
J.J.Gibson,
representation of an object or a scene and how
A pictorial
closely we can get to the actual perceptual
real scene is
such as
use of
constancy of the
dependent on the effective usage of depth cues;
linear
familiar
density
texture
perspective,
gradient,
or the
objects.
In order to have a retinal image that is an exact perception
of the actual physical shape of an object, you would (in
to one specific
theory) be restricted
With
position, *the information relayed
each progressive change in
contains
vantage point.
less of the attributes of the original physical
shape. Eventhough a shapes retinal image is not absolute, we
know that
simple
design
considerations
Not
also
would
Without this
is;
a shape itself
be
a
formidable
task,
with
a
design
being given to every possible vantage point;
only could this prove to be
aesthetically,
image rational
impossible structurally but
and economically.
37
Wundt
Poggendorfi
Hering
2
3
(A)
Muller Lyer
Wundt
Experimental
From E.B.Titchener,
3.9
Psychology.
3.3
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ILLUSIONS
Another example of how an optic array cannot explain what we
has to
perceive
do with perceptual
errors which psychologists have
such optical
examples of
There are many
illusions.-
studied.
"According to
for
Illusion,
example,
Mueller-Lyer
the
converging
lines
of 1 and 2 in
Since 1-2 appears near
shorter than
This would explain
2-3.
it
angle,
same visual
the
subtending
depth cue of
the
suggest
to
nearer than segment 2-3;
appears
while
of the
Therefore it has been reasoned, segment
linear perspective.
1-2
theory
perspective
have been thought
3.9-A
figure
the
the
should
appear
as being
illusion
due to the unconscious use of a depth cue where there is,
no
fact,
horizontal
real
depth."
.6
As
the retinal
size
of
the
section 2 remains constant, should the distance
appear to decrease,
This
3
in
the size would also
reasoning would
also
illusions.
38
apply
to
appear to decrease.
various
other
size
3.4
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
Any shape can be reproduced through use of various
school,
the
The Gestalt
whose intentions were to re-analyze our perception of
has
world,
figural
content.
by it's
form can be altered
and that
elements,
done
and what is
organization
on the
studies
extensive
finally
subject
perceived.
of
We can
address some of these issues which have some significance to
the perception of architecture;
"Determinants of
surface,
boundaries.
definite
... are based on the figure-
organization,
ground demonstration:
hard
They argue:
with
Perceived figures appear to have a
recognizable
indefinite amount
or
shape,
and
appears
For a shape to be perceived,
the
outline
can be perceived
with
all
very
as
form.
different
different,
The
perceived
a.
were set
of
and
of patterns
to
explain
what would be
region the more it
tends to be
(figure 3.10-A)
figure.
PROXIMITY:
perceptions
a figure-ground organization.
AREA: The smaller a closer
seen as
b.
in
alternative
of these rest on shape perception." 3 .7
conclusions
Thus several
to extend some
must be a figure:
it
objects and buildings, of depth and spaces,
scenes -
definite
behind the contour that belongs to the
figure.
figures,
and
Whereas ground is less surface like, without
boundary
same
shapes
are
Objects that
grouped together.
(figure 3.10-B)
39
closer
together
tend
to
be
0 0000
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B
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3
2
4
3000(
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X X)
I
2
If
E
,qqq
2Pj
D
I
hbh'.
2
3.10 J.Hochberg,- Perception. Examples
of the Gestalt law of organization.
c.
CLOSEDNESS:
Areas with closed contours tend to be seen as
more
open contours.
figure
than do those with
d.
SYMMETRY:
it
tends
e.
GOOD CONTINUATION:
tends
to
to
The more symmetrical a closed
be seen as
be
seen
interruptions
contours.
These
laws
in
figure.
(figure
region,
will
straight
make
or
the
more
(figure 3.10-D)
The arrangement of figure
which
3.10-C)
the
smoothly
fewest
and ground
changes
curving
lines or
(figure 3.10-E) 3.8
could be
conflicting with one another;
their
relative strength and which would dominate the other is
yet known;
or
therefore we cannot
not
explain or predict which
figural organization would be perceived, unless in their
simplest forms.
40
If
the necessary information about the
the world can provide all
an
in
surfaces
order of
spatial
and the
would not
be applicable.
of
figure-ground
factors
has been demonstrated
informations,
limit
do have their
organizational arrangements can
and that
specificity,
no
of organizational
However it
such movement parallax
that
moving
an observer
then
experience
theory
Gestalt
ambiguity
space,
in
would
context,
urban
to
a viewer's movement relative
that
we take the position
indeed have a significant affect on what is
perceived.
Hochberg offers some evidence to clarify the arguement:
not only are the sizes
but the information
to the viewer,
relation
larger
and
motion
parallax
to
an
actual
in
different
that the viewer
different.
In the case
because the movements of the observer are both
of the model,
faster
in
can
relation
to the
size of
surfaces.
the model,
concerning
information
provide
of the
organization
spatial
from each is
of receiving
capable
model
architectural
setting,
architectural
is
an
comparing
In
Yet
the
in the actual
architectural setting, the relative size of the observer and
his
movement
as
insignificant that
The visual
depth
is
produced
to
his
environment
are
so
the received motion produced information
perceptable.3.9
less
becomes
compared
field
very
information
studying a detail
angle through which we perceive relative
narrow.
of
Thus
a
our
scene
is
sensitivity
limited.
of a large object, your field
41
to
motion
When you are
of vision may
depth
but your awareness of that
whole object
encompass the
is obscured by your focused attention on the
information
specific detail.
masses.
indistinct
scene reveals
In
of us is
front
the physical
set
permanent and unconfined.
is
is only through eye
It
can be added to this
movement that details
glance of any
A first
predominantly peripheral.
Vision is
first
impression.
for
roving
eye of the
Yet the
constantly confronted with a framed
the
most part
world,
viewer
visual angle subject
to change.
This is the window through which he acheives his
perceptions
and conceptions
Through peripheral
vision
of the world.3.
once
1 0
the significant objects
of a
scene are recognized, the possibility to construct the layout
without having to study the whole
achieved.
But peripheral
guarantee
a
sequence
comprehended
in
taken
consideration
under
scene
vision in
of
events
an architectural
how
is
and of itself cannot
to
be
scene.
is
in detail
a
perceptually
What needs to be
viewer
perceives
in
sequence as a result of his movement through space.
"Rhythm
space,
isa
form
for
there
of
movement
can
be
no
movement
(without time) or only over time
provides
us
with
an
views
of detail
42
only
of
to
time and
through
(without space).
opportunity
understanding of rhythm in art."3
Successivefoveal
consisting
..
substantiate
space
Only time
our
11
take place
over an amount
framework provided by the peripheral
of time within the
The time factor in
context.
order to combine a sequence of glances.
is
time factor
shapes require
In
more time to be experienced, and thus arranged in memory.
you are offered what is
film
shot (or
an establishing
called
in
In architecture this
larger
because the
amplified
very important.
storage/memory
need some perceptual
objects
Even small
is
perception
a long shot) which gives the context for the detail in other
closeup
shots.3.
of ways in
"The variety
is
also
1 2
a
unique
of
aspect
their
designs
view their
which architects
profession.
Few
other
designers rely so heavily on perspective and axonometric
The example of "architectural" or "view camera"
projections.
is
perspective
particularly unique to the
environment.Flexible
display interior
It
axonometric systems and the ability
interactive
large
scale
in film.
is
allowed to
in
chiefly
they will
computer graphics displays,
this
is
settings,
simulated
an overview of the space,
shots
to
3 13
perspective views are also important." .
is often found that when an individual
explore
architectural
often seek
equal to an establishing
At present architects rarely utilize such
possible interactive facilities.
We know that as the viewer moves the optic array changes,
Objects in the field of view exchange places, obstructed
and so on.
For the
objects
become visible
creates
the problem of providing a set
43
architect,
this
of optic arrays that
are comprehensible,
Up
recently,
until
have not have had the tool
architects
them to move through
enable
particular context.
space
and
elements to
of architectural
relationship
pleasing.
interesting, and aesthetically
to
examine
to
the
each other and to a
In my opinion the advent of computer
graphics (with movement capabilities) can be an ideal tool as
an aid
for
the
design of space as well
as the
communication
of it.
"Where the
computer has had an enormous impact on design is
in the design development phase.
It lets us analyze so many
issues so rapidly that the architect
effect a particular
the
building's
shape or orientation
structure,
energy use,
the contextaul environment.
44
can immediately see the
might have on, say
windloading,"
3.14
and
FOOTNOTES
Gibson,
Senses Considered as Perceptual
Systems.
3.1
J.J.
3.2
Ibid.
3.3
Julian Hochberg,
3.4
J.J. Gibson,
Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems.
3.5
J.J.
Co nstancy and
3.6
Julian
Hochberg,
Perception.
3.7
Julian
p.31
Hochberg,
"Visual
3.8
Julian
Hochberg,
Perception.
3.9
Julian
p.34
Hochberg,
3.10
Ibid.
3.11
"Methodical
Dokuchaev,
N.K.
Foundation of Architecture."
p.89
3.12
Julian
p.35
3.13
D.F.Stoker, N.H.Wengarten."CAD vs.
p.21
1983
Dec.
Record
3.14
Ibid.
Gibson,
Hochberg,
"Visual Perception in Architecture."
"Visual
"Visual
45
in
Invariance
Perception.
p.55
in
Perception
Architecture."
p.86
in
Perception
Architecture."
Course
the
on
Notes
Moscow: Gozzidate 1927
Perception
in
CAD"
Architecture."
Architectural
"It
is
this
the
essence
ability
to
motion which is
simulate
of understanding
of space is
vital,
for at
our movement within
it."
Tom Porter
46
Section 4.0
VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES WITH COMPUTERS
we
When
the
consider
compare the
advantages
available
media
design
of models
find both to be servicable;
to
those
and
today,
of drawings,
we
For instance, models combine
spatial information with a three dimensional form that is
generally
readily
their
understood
inability
to
by the public.
be adapted to
However due to
changes with ease,
models
are not used in the preliminary stages of design, but rather
they are used to
show the
final
as an explanatory tool
often
product.
"
Models serve most
than an exploratory
device.'' 4 ' 1
So the flexibility of drawings, their reproducibility and
ease
with
which you can bring
invaluable
presentation- method
prevalance.
working
two
them up to
Computer
graphics
and
with
date,
makes them an
accounts
it's
for
potential
their
for
in three dimensions can bridge the gap between these
methods.
Computers offer the most comprehensive and flexible systems
Of all
dynamic image making media at man's
All man-made
static.
images.
into two groups,
or by construction.
static
For
images,
constructing
an
47
Through
As an example, photography,
moving
cinematography records
while
today.
moving and
There- are also two ways to generate them;
recording,
records
images are divided
disposal,
image,
we
rely
on
manual
4.1
rendering
Marcel Duchamp,
techniques
like
Nude descending a staircase.
drafting
and
1912
painting.
Unfortunately these traditional methods provide us with only
static
images.
Man's attempts to record movement throughout history have
included cave paintings
depicting bison with many legs;
Echo
lines surrounding characters in cartoon strips or Marcel
Duchamps
'nude
To fulfill
seem
descending
a staircase'
as a time exposure.4.2
the need for fabricating moving images,
to
be
the
answer.
They
offer
the
method of constructing dynamic images; in
most
fact
computers
convenient
because the
computer itself can have a dynamic environment, the user can
turn
a
still
movement,
image into a moving one.
as
another. dimension,
is
For the computer,
no more
calculate than the other spatial dimensions.
48
difficult
to
4.2
One
of
the most
combining
video
Tyler Peppel, 1984
a
realistic
Live Action Video with Digital Imaging
simulations is
computer generated model
technology.
This can provide
produced by
with advanced film and
the
closest
sensation
possible to traveling through space.
As an example of computer graphics imaging intergrated with
other
media,
generated
is:
live
image.The
"Digitally
action video
was
architectural
combined with
usage
of
a
computer
such a technique
created structures may be viewed in
any number
of environments by simply playing a variety of analog footage
in
combination with the graphics...
environment is
dynamically
Redesigning the urban
only one limited application of the ability
redesign the
visual
content
of a
video tape
sequence within the context of movement and time."4.3
49
to
In
today,
architecture
computer
specifically
computers,
graphics are primarily used for drafting, cataloging and
of
today's
imaging
tool
capabilities
dynamic
It
is.customary
for
as a design tool.
than
information rather
handling
allows
computer,
to
the
dynamic
express
designer
you
to
The
have
to
a
ideas.
translate
his
mental
three dimensional image to a two dimensional drawing then
later
back into
a three dimensional model.
Computer graphics
by taking
can eliminate this costly and intermidiary step;
the
designers
concept direct
dimensional
and recreating
the
image.4'4
"The computer technology has moved so rapidly
outpaced
In
same three
to apply it
our ability
the past,
in
redevelopment
immediately."
of urban areas,
that
it
has
4 .5
especially
low
income projects, it was common practice to design a series of
identical buildings that by their simplicity would defer the
possible high cost of building and design. Unfortunately this
practice makes for a rather sterile
living environment.
"Design is a disipline of function, logistics, and economics
moulded by aesthetics.
The first
three parts of this
can be safely turned over to the machine,
designer
for
aesthetic." 4 . 6
his
most
meaningful
Lawrence
Lerner
50
formula
thereby freeing the
contribution,
that
of
the
With
of
advent
computer graphics,
computer
can
cost
store
all
composing
building
most
importantly
can be avoided.
codes,
The
construction
and
With the computer keeping track of all
such
information,
factors,
age,
computer
design compromises
graphic symbols;
system
the
the
as
structural,
designer
can
and
mechanical
devote
his
even
energies
an environment that not only meets
to
the project
requirements, but also considers the final outcome from a
humanistic
approach.
Once construction
information
can be created from any angle
The computer can
entire
space
loaded as a data base,
in
any direction.
views
simulate an observers walk through the
allowing
perceptual
senses as
the
urban
whole
is
it
the
experience
would happen
experience
as
in
to register
on the
reality;
opposed
to
"stressing
the
momentary
'jewel' ."4'
"The only
convenient
to work with a
still
image
Because
way of constructing
'dynamic
a
into
environment'
that will
transform the
moving one." 4.8
environment with which to
have no testing
architects
a dynamic image is
explore and predict the effects of an architectural space
aforehand, has provided the impetus for much research, for in
our ever complex and changing environment,
confronted
with
complexities,
deadlines
some
to
problems
reference to draw solutions
that
from.
51
problems
as
yet
designers are
of
increasing
have
no
past
4.3
The benefits
designer
in
"City Scape".
Moving Picture Company,
of a computer generated model
is
allowed
space three
are numerous.
the freedom to rapidly
dimensionally,
bring
forth
England.
reshape
The
concepts
an assortment
of
forms stored in the memory, and assemble them on a given
site.
A
free
object and
form contour
then transformed
can
be -combined with
into a perspective
a
given
allowing the
designer to
zoom in and walk around the resultant space.
Objects that
are illuminated by the sun will
and -reflect
shadows
objects.
a
program
called
or
light
receive
cast accurate
shade
from nearby
With the aid of more advanced programming, such as
by professor Greenberg
Stretch,
of
a computer can generate
52
Cornell
theoretical
University,
three
SURFACE
"TEXTURE" MAPPING
4.4
dimensional
"texture" Mapping.
Programs of Computer
Graphics, Cornell University.
concepts of buildings in color.
These can then
be overlayed on photographs of existing sites and with a
simulation of real time movement an architect can explore
visually
the implications of his concepts of space.4'9
The utilization
of computers for accurate
by Dr. James Blinn.
composed
-
of lines
,
them the appearance
techniques known
realistic
"Starting with a wire frame drawing
he added solid
and then overlaid
rendering was begun
blocks -
creating
surfaces
these surfaces with textures to give
of reality."
In
this
way he made the
as surface modelling effective for the
rendering of three dimensional
the programs are written,
it
is
objects.
relatively
Today,
easy for even a
novice to create any object using the same techniques.
For
the
most part,
present
day
use
once
of
graphic
4
.10
displays
utilizing real-time capability are limited to
flight
simulations in military training and simulations of space
vehicles passing planetary bodies.
53
4.1
IMAGE TRANSFORMATION
Though we have progressed rapidly in our ability to generate
images,
realistic
our
methods
of
information of objects combined
communicating the spatial
with mathematically complex
input methods have often
the use of computer aided design facilities.
order for CAD systems to be truly
effective
object
and
also
rapidly
In
they must be user
friendly by allowing the user to define,
the
in
These difficulties
information have not kept up the pace.
discouraged
geometric
inputting
manipulate and edit
display
it
for
visual
confirmation. Some of the devices that empower the user with
the ability
to perform complex functions with ease are; the
light pen the digitizing tablet and the joystick.
a
number of methods of graphical
There are
inputting that are becoming
more widely accepted and taking the place of the standard
method of typing numerical
sequences.
"One very popular method is known as "lofting",
cross-sections of an object are
of serial
is
This
defined.
map.
topographic
(figure x)
The
like
tracing
Each
figure
the
has
"A second approach can
A line
method.(figure z)
from
a
from
contours
precise
a
elevation.
computer can automatically combine these two
dimensions to create three dimensional
solid
a
where a set
interactively
plane.
shapes." 4.11
be thought of as an extrusion
can be generated from a point, a
In each
case,
the direction
of the
extension can be controlled and has a unique relationship to
This "sweep
two dimensional definition.
the original
architectural
for
appropriate
very
is
method"
representation
design."
4.12
54
(B)
4.5
A. Extrusion. B. Loftinq.
Programs of Computer Graphics, Cornell University.
(A)
Essentially,
a computer graphic
processing
unit,
a
display
system is
processor
made up of a main
and
Obviously the size of your "core store"
an
interface.
(memory bank) will
determine the amount of detail that you can specify;
but it
is
to
the
peripheral
equipment which is
For
designer.
it
delegates
the
most important
ease
with
which
the
you
can
communicate with the computer and hereby generate the image.
Having entered the information for a three dimensional model,
you would
like
to
processing
unit
has stored
in it's memory.
for
the
image
transfer
onto the
all
screen.
The central
the coordinates
of the model
You have to call up a specific point of view
the
because
of the
relationship
it
computer
to
observer
the
object.
needs
to
know
Given these
the
new
coordinates the computor calculates a number of views to
represent
the
desired
image.
photographs the image from different
memory.
55
In
a
sense,
the
computer
points of view in
it's
4.6
One of the greatest
advantages of computer graphics is
immmediate visual
not so simple.
dimensional
This
feedback.
It
description
a
viewer) picture
point
emanating
Yet the journey to
involves the transformation
determines the
connecting
Object and Eye Coordinate Systems.
D. Greenberg
The Computer Image.
into
a two dimensional
the screen is
of the three
perspective.
-
intersections of View Rays
in
the environment
from the viewers
with the
eyes with
the
(A
line
eye of the
an
imaginary
plane.
of a point
on the
"To mathematically calculate
the position
display
screen
that
corresponds to
a point
on some object,
the
standard
procedure is to first
transform
the
point
from
system" to the "eye coordinate
coordinate
the
"object
system", where the origin is fixed at the viewpoint and the
The coordinate
Ze axis is pointed in the direction of view.
system is fixed to the observer's eye: it moves and rotates
as the
viewing
eye moves
transformation
and
the
head
matrix
rotates.(
used
is
4.6 )
A
figure
this
to
enact
transformation. Note that the eye coordinate system is a
lefthanded cartiesian coordinate system, with the Xc axis to
with the Xs and Ys axis of
and Ye upward to align
the right
the display.
by projecting
can be generated simply
display
perspective
A
The
each point of an object onto the picture plane.
easily
image are
projected
Ys) of the
(Xs,
coordinates
computed from similar triangles but require dividing by the
depth
(Ze)
coordinate
value."
56
4.13
4.7
(A) Vector and (B) Raster Displays.
Donald Greenberg The Computer Image.
Surface Detection
After the computer has begun the process of transforming the
three
dimensional
model
into
it must make decisions
surfaces.
a
because
it
does
environment are not visible.
distinctions in
real
opaque objects.
Raster screens
on a
Each
not
not an easy task
know what
parts
for
of
the
life because we cannot see through
In a Vector display the solution
line
segments,
is to
however for
it is necessary to compute the visibility at
(Pixel) of the image plane.
element,
raster
This is
We have no trouble making these
determine the end points of all
picture
lines and
Surfaces that are hidden or portions thereof that
computer
each point
perspective,
regarding all visible
are occluded must not be shown.
the
two dimensional
screen,
is
the shortest
representing
unit
a
(Pixel, 'short
available
single
for
graphics
for
display
point.)
point in a plane must be compared to every other point
57
4.10
Programs of Computer Graphics,
to determine
complex
an
which
is
closest
to the
environment the greater the
Hidden Line Removal.
Cornell University.
observer.
The more
number of points to
be measured and so the greater the amount of time to compute.
An approach to the problem is to catagorize solutions two
ways.
Object space solutions perform the calculations in
three dimensions and at the mathematical precision of the
computer.
sort by
Image space methods retain depth information but
lateral position of the picture and only to the
resolution of the display device.
The next step for the computer is to sort the front facing
points
from
the back
facing points.
prevalent image space methods,
Buffer.
Windowing,
There
Scanline,
are
three
and Depth
Window methods repeatedly divide the image into
smaller windows until either the visible surface is easy
58
enough to discern or the window is
resolution
as small as the desired
of the picture.
Scanline methods
that are
sort only those planes
in an object space
intersected by a plane containing the given
Scanline.
A Raster screen image is generated by sweeping
horizontally
across
alternate
scan
lines
from top to
bottom.
Specialized computer hardware can perform these functions
fast enough to simulate motion.
The Depth Buffer
is
to calculate
will
be
approach is
by far
the intensity
based
on
observer.
Depth
perspective
is
the
information
color
of
calculation
an orthographic
is
these methods,
Second,
eliminating
these
lost
the
is
The idea
The intensity
-closest
simplified
to
because
the
the
projection.
image space methods are
sampling nature
jagged edges or
description
shadow and texturing.
problems,
point
because of the
resulting in
environmental
simplest.
of each Pixel.
Two of the disadvantages of these
that
the
is
of
lost points.
ignored,
thereby
maintaining
Object space methods avoid
three
d-imensional
data and precisly computing the information.
59
environment
4.8
Program of Computer Graphics, Cornell University.
Model Shading, with Transparency Simulation.
Shading Models
Having distinguished all
visible
surfaces,
the correct intensities for each Pixel.
an
accurate
model
include color and
light.
of how objects
we must next find
This is dependent on
reflect
light.
the intensity
reflected
light
direction,
and the orientation and the textural
the
surface.
The
action
of
striking
The light
transparent objects.
The
shading
elements,
element is
models
ambient,
results
The light
light
attached to incident light
in three
as with
be absorbed by the
will be reflected.
is
and specular.
60
properties of
be transmitted,
light will
reflected
diffuse,
a medium
will
object and converted into heat.
In
of
related to the composition of the source,
light
possible events.
must
spatial distribution of the reflected
Most shading methods presume that
is
It
made
up
of
three
The ambient
light
from the environment
and so reflected equally in all directions.
specular
are related
elements
reflected
light
is
to
specific
Diffuse and
sources.
dispersed equally in
all
Because
directions,
we
can also say that the viewers position in relation to the
surface does not affect the intensity.
Ambient
light
accounts for some portion of reflected
light
and this
is
objects
lighting
that do
not
receive
direct
are
why
rarely
rendered completely black.
Specularly
reflected
entering it,
as in
reflection
type
light
is bounced
off an object without
the case of a mirror.
Since the angle of
equals the angle of incidence,
of
light
that
the observer
sees
the amount of this
is
dependent on the
surface orientation with respect to his position.
Color
Another model
calculates the color shift
of light.
This can
be expensive computationally but has proven to give the most
accurate
A
Ray
renditions.
Tracing
viewer.
method
extends
When the rays arrive
is
dispersal
at
"tree
of
their
rays"
first
model transparent
from
the
surface their
and they continue on.
calculated
can enable the viewer to
a
This method
objects.
types of color.
One
is recreating the color of an existing environment.
The
There are two catagories for specifying
other
is
psuedo-color,
where
abstraction.
61
the
color
is
used
as
an
In
conclusion,
create
a
we find there are five
continuous
tone computer
major steps
image,
required to
(specific
to
raster
screens):
1.
A mathematical description of the image must be fed into
the
2.
computer.
The three
dimensional
image must be transformed
into
a
two dimensional perspective.
3.
A determination
made.
4.
This is
of all
visible
known as visible
lines
line
and surfaces must be
or surface algorithm.
An illumination model must determine the shade or color
of each surface.
5.
The appropriate red, blue and green intensities
must be
selected to represent the color specified by the illumination
model.
4.14
INTERACTIVE DESIGN SYSTEMS.
4.2
For a computer to be able to simulate effectivly
two
things.
1.
It's
own
ability
such as points,
it
to process and read complex
lines,
curves,
shades,
color
relies
on
information,
and specified
three dimensions from the designer.
2.
given
The degree of it's
an
uninterrupted
i.e. whether
interactive capabilities,
flow
of
information
can
it
continuously update the existing data.
We
distinguish
"event driven".
an
interactive
computer
The computer waits after
62
by
saying
it
is
the completion of
each command
enters
new
for
the
data,
operators
and
defined object on all
be
given
to
the
next
that
information
levels,
host
move.
then
the
would
operator
effect
the
that information needs to
computer.
subsequent views will reflect
If
Having done
that change.
this all
Alternatively if
the operator merely wants to zoom in to one particular aspect
of the object this
the display
into
kind of move can easily
processer provided that
it.
When
we
say
driven", we mean that
When processing
the
large
it
that
relies
an image it
amount
graphics system,
a
the image has been loaded
graphics
system
is
"event
on input from the designer.
waits
for
of processing
one small
be accomplished by
each command.
Given
capability needed
change in
for
a design could tie
companies mainframe to the exclusion of all
other work.
a
up a
This
is when the advanced technolgy of the new display processors
could easily accomplish the task leaving the mainframe free
to attend to other projects.
The evolution of computers thus far has seen the increased
ability
for
menial
jobs
the
display processer
previously
designated
"Distributing the intelligence",
development.
enough
is
to handle more of
to
the
the
mainframe.
the term coined
for this
Display processers have now been endowed with
intelligence
and
calculation
abilities
to make them
CPUs in their own right.
If
you examined the process of drawing a circle
how the
computer works.
An
interactive
63
you could see
computer
responds to
an
operators
commands by noting
example
the
computer
brings
up
picks
"circle"
from the
drawing
it's
my move".
routines.
computer
waits
because
For
The
operator
at this point
"knows"
it
menu.
The
a dot for the center of the circle,
locates
the
operator
"your move,
that
you need
2
commands to draw a circle, one for the center, one for the
circumference.
computer
switches
generates
a
because circle
time to
The
operator
to
circle.
a
drawing
interactive
an easy task
second
and it
From this
as
dot.
routine
process
takes
appear on the screen and the computer
The
and
continues
almost no
"knows" what it
stage the operator can work with the
computer on a higher
screen.
circle
The
drawing is
has drawn.
circle
it's
locates
level.
The computer can treat the
a
whole,
and
All
this is
made possible by the expanded power and
so
it
can be manipulated
on the
memory capacity of the display processer.
We can base our support of computer graphics as the optimum
method of communication
1.
The many possible
2.
In
certain
on the following
viewing points
cases existing
subjects and mathematical
3.
That data
are
reasons .
and distances
available.
mathematical descriptions
of
analysis of movements may be used.
expressed as
finite
numbers prevents
the
build up of dimensional errors.
4.
The computers capacity for storage and processing allows
drawings to be detailed in
depth.
64
ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Comparatively
accessibility
practical
inexpensive
has
and
With
made
has
technologically
university
4.3
the
introduction
processor,
display
dynamic
opened
advanced
reseachers
processing
the
computer
field
architectural
of
the
relatively
have
developed
views dynamically.
supplemented with
representations
has the
of
include
firms
not
the
just
or the military.
manufacturers
resolution
greater
imaging more
to
inexpensive
special
color
monitor
additional
three
micro-
machines
to
One company carrying such product
is the Evans & Sutherland Corporation.
high
and
Their device is
powered
by
a
computer
circuitry that can
dimensional
objects.
a
produce
This machine
capability of calculating and displaying shaded
perspectives
30 times
conceivable
to
show
an
a
second.
object
in
At this speed,
motion.
it
is
Conventional
computers cannot perform this function, at best they take
several
seconds to
At present
the
cost
calculate
the movements for a single
of such special
machines still
them out of the reach of most architectural
progress
further
into the
field the
future
affordably priced machine for larger firms.
65
firms,
view.
places
but as we
may hold
an
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Among architectural
had extensive
firms,
involvement
development of CAD.
design,
4.4
from the
presentation
drawings,
skidmore,
in
owings and merril
computers,
"Their system ties
sketching,
through
engineering
to project management.
focuses on the initial
design phase,
specifically
together
initial
has
all
design
the
facets
of
development,
analyses
Much
in
of
and
and working
their research
for example the effects
of specific materials.
In
an interview
in
Progressive Architecture,
Douglas
Stoker,
director of computer services, discusses the specifics of
architectural
design and how computers
The three
are:
its
major components of a CAD system for
Its
graphics
application
they
say
capabilities,
its
programs.
that
presentation
"only
As
in
data
for the
Architectural
than
most other
architecture
base structure
and
graphics capabilities
architecture
is
of a design problems so closely
solution.
elements
can serve these needs.
solutions have a
the
visual
linked
to
its
greater number of
design solutions.
They require
a
vast number of colors to render shapes and shadows and to
represent
perspective
If
the
solid
void.
and axonometric
architecture is
visual
and
Also they
rely heavily
on
4.15
projections."
the sole design media that ultimatly links
presentation
of a design with
it's
solution.
Then
how we
interact with our drawings determines the rate and
result
of our progress.
This is
66
in
evidence
in
many areas.
!11.7m
9
p
1
(
4.9
67
Skidmore Owen & Merrill
Two Detail Design Proposals.
Obviously the number of components in. an architectural
is
great.
Backgrounds
An accurate
their
size
inch.
facade
scale
presentation
thousands
over
of an environments
size
these
architects
"If
require
could incorporate
is
100 to
professions.
display
can
There
ranges and
orchestrated
there
is
1000
are
times
amounts
elements,
to fractions
actual
very
of lines.
100,000
ranging from hundreds of feet
The
design
alone
scheme
of an
size
and
it's
larger than other
few
systems
of data,
that
able
to
heretofore
on vellum.
any
remaining doubt
about the
amount of
processing needed in
graphics application,
Merely consider
the simple arithmatic
of it.
Suppose the picture
is a modest
raster
image of 1000 x 1000 picture
elements.
Each one of
these Pixels might be switched to 10 different levels of
intensity, that is: 10 degrees of brightness, and each one
might assume
blue
and
any one of 10 different
green,
combinations
the three primary additive
of red,
colors.If
you
wanted to
see an image in which most of the Pixels
were used,
and which could
move in real
time, you would have to use a
computer that could consistently perform at least 100 million
calculations
every 1/30th of a second." 4.16
With financial
support of the film
researchers
have
spent much time on a
computer graphics.
realistic
to
images
"The
are
several
very large
it
of
articulation
dimensions
encourages
The provision
is
68
"
'Realistic'
of CPU power,
computed
new,
of
sometimes
such as Cray
for each frame."
way
while
economically
yet;
different
of this
that
not
on supercomputers
elements
a
indicate
real-time,
amounts
seconds
industries,
"quest for realism" in
date
possible,
hours on Vax-11/780)
several
design.
to
them in
generate
consume
requiring
even
The results
images
feasible
and television
in
4.17
the
thinking
more realistic
(or
three
about
mental
perspective
equates
the
importance
of
computer aided design with Brunelleschi's
perspective.
For it
the
invention
of
invention of linear
has not only freed the designer from the
preconceptions associated with static drawing but opened new
windows
on his
concept
that
spatial
was,
thinking and brought him
hithero,
inside
his
inside a
head."
C.H. Eastman
69
FOOTNOTES
4.1
Tom Porter,
4.2
L.
4.3
Tyler Peppel,
4.4
How Architects Visualize.
Moholy-Nagy,
Vision in Motion.
p.84
p.249
Digital/Analog Video.
p.59
Nicholas
Negroponte,
The Computer Simulation of
Perception During Motion in the Urban Environment. p.124
4.5
Donald Greenberg,
The Computer Image.
p.
30
4.6
Tom Porter,
How Architects Visualize.
p.
104
4.7
N. Negroponte,
Computer Simulation of Perception During
Motion in the Urban Environment.
p.152
4.8
John Lewell,
4.9
Tom Porter, How Architects Visualize.
4.10
John Lewell, Computer Graphics.
4.11
D.
4.12
Ibid.
p.14
4.13
Ibid.
p.16
4.14
Ibid.
p.21
4.15
S. Doubilet,
Architecture.
4.16
John Lewell,
4.17
Hubbold,
R.V.
Representation.
Computer Graphics.
Greenberg,
p.19
p.
p.17
The Computer Image.
p.13
"The Big Picture"
5:84
p.84
S.O.M.
Computer Graphics.
"3D
p.26
Real
70
100
Progressive
p.45
Time
Display
&
Raster
"Happening attracts us more spontaneously than things do, and
the prime characteristics
of a happening is
motion."
R.
71
Arnhiem.
CONCLUSION
One of the greatest
problems
in
architectural
design today,
is understanding the three dimensionality of a project before
it
has been built.
Even though architects
think-
spatially,
still
through two dimensional
elevations.
their
are
trained
primary means of communication
Computer
graphics
representations;
techniques
can
elaborate and
are
plans and
allow designs
to be evaluated thoroughly at the preliminary stage,
construction of
to
and the
costly scale models can be
replaced with fully
textured and shaded images on computer
screens,
can be manipulated on screen,
images that
possible viewing angle.
to
walk
about
the
What the future holds is
project
before
from any
the ability
the construction
documents
are even begun.
Only time
movement
even
can tell
capabilities
the
In
aware of the
effective
spatial
can
the
worth
days to
of
come,
laws of perceptual
a
system with real-time
these
to
designers
level
has
will
experience
another
At this
systems
capable
been
need for
a
of relaying
of understanding,
via
A computer with dynamic visualization capabilities
support
the
conceptual
ideas
of
the
designer while
upholding the integrity of the actual project.
will
not
point
become more
and the
method of communication,
information
movement.
impact
would have on design.
potential
measured.
truly
us what
be the ultimate
translators
Computers
of man's concepts of space.
72
APPENDIX
Performing
Arts
Center
74
3-D Computer Visualization
77
Computer Wal l
79
Painting
From:
Ernest Burden,
Design Simulation.
Wiley Interscience Publication:
New York,
1985.
73
Performing
Arts Center
This project was entered in
the Environmental Arts Competition whose program was to
integrate the variety of structures of the Milwaukee Performing Arts Center. The
architects used computers to
develop their design.
They used the computer
graphics lab of a local technical college to enter the
existing design conditions into
the computer. These comprised the original building
and site arrangements as the
architects envisioned them, including the main structure of
the center, a horse chestnut
grove, a water fountain, the
parking structure and overpass, and an outdoor pavilion.
First, the coordinates of the
existing site and buildings
were entered into the computer and a three-dimensional
line model was created. Next,
proposed design elements
were added, viewed from
various vantage points, and
evaluated; the heights of the
laser towers were adjusted
and refined, for example, still
in line drawing form.
The scheme they developed
was inspired in part by
Edmund Bacon's Design of
Cities, in which he examines
the use of minarets around a
mosque as a device for defining space in Islamic architecture--establishing "a transparent cube of space infused with
the spirit of the mosque." For
the Arts Center, the architects
proposed "minarets" (based in
form on the column detail of
the original building) that
would transmit laser beams
into the sky, enclosing the site
in a staccato-colored ring and
creating a holographic effect
that would broadcast events at
the Center to the entire city.
Lighting effects were redoubled in reflective glass
entrance arches and in reflecting pools encircling the site,
defining the property, tying the
site to the Milwaukee River,
and reinforcing the formal
Islamic theme.
74
TIT
mr
I
Filly'N
II-111101[la
-
I~ir~
rr-nj~4~j
r
WirIrtIIrLh~I I111I
75
Performing
Arts Center
Having developed their design in a three-dimensional
line drawing form, they used
the data in two ways: to create
computer models with solid
surfaces, shaded at various
sun angles; and to derive
dimensioned drawings. Material specifications were
added in note form, and parts
were refined and reinserted in
the overall design.
Reproduction drawings of
the PAC grounds were obtained
from the City of Milwaukee to
provide the accuracy and
back-up material needed. A
three-dimensional model was
established of all existing
architectural features. From
these models, the architects
were able to fully visualize the
existing massing and site features. Various schemes were
developed in sketch form
which were inserted into the
database. Evaluating the
massing, scale, size, and texture helped to solidify the
development of the design.
The computer allowed them to
clearly evaluate the heights of
the laser towers by adjusting
them many times until they
were finally approved by the
design team.
Time was also a major factor
in using the computer. For example, the space-frame roof
truss on the Peck Pavilion was
created in less than six
minutes. The architects were
then able to look at the space
frame from various angles in
perspective, from an aerial to
a ground view, without
reconstructing the initial input.
These concepts were manipulated and enhanced with various colors until they felt comfortable with the design. A
variety of perspective images
was stored in memory.
Multiple perspectives were
reproduced on paper via the
plotter. Surfaces were shaded
at various sun angles using the
solid modeling mode. This was
then captured on film from the
monitors and mounted on the
competition's required boards.
76
3-D Computer
Visualization
Using today's computer
capabilities, three-dimensional
images of any project can be
viewed at any stage of the
design development stage.
These are generated from the
two-dimensional orthographic
plans. Using the two-dimensional mode, room outlines
and detailed modules are used
to investigate alternative
schematic options. The final
schematic design becomes a
detailed drawing by substituting outline modules with
detailed modules.
A three-dimensional visualization can be generated from
these two-dimensional plans.
The viewing height and angle
can be adjusted to show any
perspective, Three-dimensional modeling is now
possible by generating wire
frame images and enhancing
them with the hidden line
removal mode, and surface
shading can be added. Instant
pan-and-zoom features bring
detailed design elements up
close for examination. This is a
totally new way to communicate your design ideas. For
client presentations the
dynamic movement of the
computer-generated images
makes an even more effective
simulation of the space than
the individual still frames.
77
Mummans
om
IE
=aMA
i eaemm
M
,"V.
&,LV
78
M5
rAWA
PA
a
CMAWAA
Computer
Wall Painting
Architects work in three dimensions. In general they
draw a plan or draw a perspective and finally build a model
and photograph it. The computer allows you to generate,
from the very beginning, a
three-dimensional database
with not only the thickness of
material but the extension in
three dimensions.
Just as you would build a
model with little blocks, you're
able to build with electronic
volumes: This example shows
the comparison of a rough
working model and the equivalent electronic model.
This was in a very early stage
of three-dimensional visualization, but it shows that any
shapes you can present with a
working model can also be
presented by computer.
A comparison is shown of a
working model and an electronic model on a CRT using
the three-dimensional
database.
On the right is a device developed at M.I.T.'s Visual Language Workshop. It is a largescale plotter, which allows a
plot using a spray-painting
method on large surfaces, a
plot of colored computer data.
This could become a major influence on certain architectural simulations. With a largescale plotter it would be possible to generate the facade
on a computer and previsualize it in full scale before it is
built.
79
08
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