Summary for “Reading and Discovering Arguments”
RenKe
This summary will summarize first part of the book “Good reasons and Contemporary
Arguments”, which is written by Faigley and Selzer. It will divide into four sections:
why people argue, how to read arguments, how to find arguments and how to revise
arguments. The whole summary will give readers a foundational impression on
reading and discovering arguments.
Chapter 1—Reasons for arguing
In this chapter Faigley and Selzer state that why people make argument and how to
make arguments successful. As the example “silent spring” shows in this cha1pter the
author believes that making arguments means being against the most valid opinion
(most of time the opinion are wrong) that people accept. The purpose for writing
arguments is to delivery the thought of writer and arousing people to think in a
disputed way. Sometimes these opinions may even affect the world.
However, the consideration of the purpose is not enough for a good argument. Still
taking “Silent Spring” as an example the author mentions that the skill to connect
arguments with audience and setting the goal for the arguments is important.
Faigley and Selzer claim that to reach the first goal the argument writer needs to read
a wide range of materials. For the second goal the writer needs to set up a position
argument, which means to define the issue, to take clear position and to make
persuasive arguments.
Then the writer needs to set up a proposal argument, which includes defining the
problem, giving out solutions to the problem and making sure the solution is realistic
and practicable.
Also, the authors emphasize the function of rhetorical—appeal to pathos, ethos and
logos.
Pathos means emotional. It associates the arguments with readers’ attitude and
feelings. Ethos stands for the credibility. It reflects the trust value of the arguments.
Logos means to convince reader by using reasons. It shows the persuasion value of
the arguments.
If we can master these rhetorical skills our arguments will be more effectively. Being
aware of the purpose and elements for an argument is not enough. We need to know
how to read argument.
Chapter2—Read arguments
In this chapter the authors are talking about how to read arguments. The authors claim
that there are four requirements for reading: reading critically, reading actively
recognizing fallacies and responding as a writer.
For critical reading, the authors state that the four steps: knowing the place of the
arguments, explicating the main points and identifying the authenticity of the writer.
Reading actively means to read by using annotating strategies. This includes
highlighting the key concepts, matching personal experiences with the arguments,
consider the relationship between each idea and asking questions about what we are
confused about. As mentioned, mapping the text is another way to help readers to
understand the major points and the relationships between them.
Also, the authors believe that by recognizing fallacies, which are divided into two
parts: fallacies of logic and fallacies of languages, is a way to develop our critical
reading skills. Fallacies of logic consist of ten categories:
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Begging the question (repeating the claim is repeated as evidence)
Either-or (seldom choices in complex situation)
False analogies (failing to recognize the situation)
Hasty generalization (broad claim made on a few of the occurrences)
Non sequiturs (connecting two unrelated ideas)
Oversimplification (unacceptable arguments)
Post hoc fallacy (connect causal relationship events together)
Rationalization (giving an excuse as a reason)
Slippery slope (cause and effect situation).
Fallacies of language which contain have four elements
 Bandwagon appeals (following the crowd)
 Name calling (putting others down to make you look good)
 Polarization (to exaggerate the truth)
 Straw man (showing something that is obviously wrong)
Another requirement is responding as a writer. In this section, the authors point out
that we need to make dialogs with the argument: read the argument, write summary
and make notes. In these processes we should imagine that we are the writer, raise
questions and think about how to develop the argument differently. Writing a journal
may also help. It allows us to connect different ideas and collect them for the next use.
When we know the key points of critical reading, we need to learn how to find
arguments.
Chapter 3—Find arguments
As mentioned in the previous chapter: reading is a key concept for understanding
arguments. In this chapter, Faigley and Selzer talk about where to find arguments and
basics that form them.
The authors state that our written arguments have similar characteristics with daily
conversation. Both of them have claims and reasons to support our point of view. By
knowing this it might be easier to find arguments in our daily lives.
The basis of an argument contains claims,
reasons evidence and opposing views. Claims
and reasons are usually connected by the word
“because.” It may make the arguments more
fluent and logical. As is shown in the diagram,
the claim and reason are linked by a
bridge—the “because” clause.
If the reasons are unacceptable or unconvincing, the claim will be suspected and
challenged. At this time some extra evidence is necessary to put in the arguments to
make them more persuasive. Having a consideration of opposite opinions and
limitations of the claim can increase persuasion as well.
Besides those, Faigley and Selzer also clarify the process to find the topic, to make a
claim, to find reasons and convincible evidence.
For finding a topic, the author suggests us to make sure the requirements for the
assignment. Thus we should clarify the category of arguments that the teacher
suggests writing: definition argument, evaluation argument, narrow argument or
rebuttal argument.
We should also avoid making unarguable claims, such as: statements of fact, claims of
personal favorite and statements of belief or faith. If the topic is broad, we can try to
find one by going through class materials or personal experience. When deciding the
topic which interests us, we need to make a list to help us find out which issues to
write about.
Marking the issues that attract us most
Highlighting the issues that we are not familiar with.
Choose the most promising issues
If the methods mentioned above do not help; the authors recommend us to find the
topic online because sources on the Internet are varied and the index may allow us to
find out the subtopics easily.
Skimming through the next step—find the claim. There are two skills we need to pay
attention —exploring and reading.
For exploring the authors believe that instead of defining the detail we suppose to
write about the information we do not know and need to know. There are three steps
to reach this goal: freewriting, brainstorming and making idea map.
Freewriting means quick writing. Usually we need to do freewriting for two or three
times and then pick up one idea as the claim in arguments. Brainstorming is a list of
questions and statements, which may show us some way to develop the topic. Making
idea map is an efficient way to explore the relationship between information (facts,
idea and solutions) we collect. Thus we can see connections between claims and the
reasons.
Another way to find out claims is reading. However, the situation may not be so easy
that we can find out the claim quickly by reading. This is because the types of claims
are varied. Thus we need to read different books to get the information we need.
After reading the sources we can make a claim. If we disagree with the source, we
need to provide convincing reasons to support our claim. If we agree with the source,
we should make sure that the source is suitable for our claim. If we choose to partially
agree with the source we need to make sure that both the agree part and disagree part
correspond to the conditions which are mentioned above.
As the authors emphasized, “A claim always needs persuasive reasons to support it.”
When we clarify the claim we need to find out good reasons to support it.
Good reasons work because they have connection with the claim. There are five ways
to find out good reasons: arguing by definition, arguing from value, arguing by
comparing, arguing from consequence and arguing from objections.
To begin with, arguing by definition is the most useful way to find reason. This is
because definition shows the reader the meaning of the claim and it is easy to see if
our reasons fit for the claim.
Arguing from value is another way to find good reason. Value means giving
evaluation. It reveals our judgments to the criteria of the argument. Arguing by
comparing comes after evaluation argument. Comparison can make our argument
obviously because when compare our topic with a different topic characteristic of our
topic can be easily found.
To make comparison argument we can use strategy of analogy. This strategy will
show readers the concept of the topic. Another powerful strategy is arguing from
consequence. This strategy requires us to use proposal argument, which means finding
out the positive and negative effects about the action that we are arguing about.
Besides the four strategies mentioned above the last one is arguing from objection.
This strategy wants us to suggest defects of our position. To get the requirement we
need to suspect and oppose our claim as if we are the reader. In that case we can
develop our argument a lot.
After talking about the strategy to find out good reasons the authors state the
significant role that is played by evidence.
Often evidence includes example, data or personal experience. It is hard to say which
one is the best, but the characteristics of good evidence are the same. To begin with,
the evidence should be related to our reason. Then the evidence should be sufficient to
support the reason.
After deciding the topic and the way to develop it the author will talk about how to
revise the argument.
Chapter 4—Revise arguments
This chapter focuses on how to draft argument. The authors mention six steps to do it.
The first step is to state and evaluate our thesis. First of all we should make a thesis
which neither too narrow nor broad. Once we have stated a thesis, we need to evaluate
it. A good thesis has four characteristics: arguable, specific, manageable and
interesting. We can complete the evaluation by asking if the thesis correspond to these
four characteristics.
A good thesis can make our point clear, but, how to make our claims more acceptable
to readers? The author claims that to switch positions with readers is a good way to
reach the goal.
Switching positions means to think as if we are the readers. We need to know if they
are familiar with the topic or not, and make sure they feel we are concerned, well
informed, fair and ethical. Also, to consider readers’ attitude to our subject is
necessary. This is because readers’ opinions vary widely. We have to consider
different opinions we may encounter and give the rational answers to readers.
Once we have acceptable thesis, the next thing we need to be concerned about is how
to organize the arguments.
Careful organizing can make our arguments be more logical. There are two ways to
make writing plans: formal outlines and working outlines. Formal outlines make
thesis statements as the beginning while working outlines organize by putting reasons
in different sections.
Besides the way to organize, the authors emphasize the importance of titles and
introductions. Good titles and introductions can attract readers to the following
content. This is because titles and introductions often provide enough information to
readers, such as thesis, facts, descriptions of problems, contradictions and scenarios.
If titles and introductions are important, the conclusion also plays an indispensible
role. The author disagrees with writing a conclusion just by summarizing. He thinks
that a direct conclusion may cause readers to lose interest. So a good conclusion needs
to contain a call to action, explanation of the implication, recommendation, plans for
future and an anecdote that represents the thesis. When we finish a conclusion, the
next thing to be concerned about is evaluating the draft.
Evaluating the draft is necessary because it may help us to correct errors and improve
the arguments. To make an evaluation the author advises us to imagine that we are the
person who has suspicions to the arguments, and then ask the following questions:
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Does the paper meet the requirement?
Do the reasons support our thesis well?
Is the organization successful?
Do we have clear definitions to the key terms?
Does the paper cover other opinions?
Do we express our opinions well?
Are there any other improvements we need to make?
After finishing the evaluation, sometimes the instructor may want us to respond to
other people’s writing.
To make a response the author suggests reading the paper no less than three times. For
the first reading we need to read carefully so that we can catch the main point and
purpose of the paper. For the second reading we need to focus on content,
organization and comprehensiveness. For the third reading we need to clarify
identities of our audience, to find out the attraction of the style and to adjust the tone.
Also, do not forget to write down the merits and defects of the draft.
Having wonderful content is still not enough for a good paper. It also needs an
appropriate style. In that case, firstly we should check the connections between
sentences and paragraphs. Then we need to check sentence structures. Thirdly, leave
out unnecessary words such as very and really. At last, we are supposed to use active
verbs to make the article lively.
To complete the paper, we have to check the spelling and grammar as well. The
author states that we can use spelling checker when checking spelling, but we need to
know the limit of this program. Then, for grammar checking the author suggests using
a grammar hand -book to help us correct mistakes.
Conclusion
The first part of the book Good Reasons and Contemporary Arguments discusses the
steps and skills to read and discover arguments. In conclusion we may know the
purpose for arguing and the strategies to make arguments successful. For instance, we
can know the ways to use pathos, ethos and logos. Also, we may know how to
effectively read arguments which includes critical reading, actively reading and so on.
Then we can get four methods to find arguments. Such as developing the claim and
exploring the reasons. Besides these three strategies we can also understand six
criteria to revise the arguments, such as thesis and organization. By reading those
sections we can get some general ideas about how to write arguments. However, it is
just a guide to the book. In the following chapters the author will state more details
about strategies to write good arguments.