I
4W
2-Dimensional Temperature Modeling in Lower Granite Reservoir
(Washington)
By
Yu-Im Loh
ENG
B.S. Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California at Berkeley, 1999
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of
Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering
At the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
May 2000
@ 2000 Yu-Im Loh. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to MIT the permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and
electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part.
Signature of author:
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
May 5, 2000
Certified by:
E. Eric Adams
Senior Research Engineer & Lecturer in
Civil and Environmental Engineering
Thesis Supervisor
-77
Accepted by:
Daniele Veneziano
Chairman, Committee on Graduate Students
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
MAY 3 0 2000
ENG
LIBRARIES
2-Dimensional Temperature Modeling in Lower Granite Reservoir (Washington)
BY
YU-IM LOH
Submitted to the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT
Lower Granite Reservoir is a 10-40 m deep riverine reservoir impounded by Lower Granite Dam.
The reservoir displays vertical thermal stratification, especially in summer. A two-dimensional
modeling tool, CE-QUAL-W2, was applied to the reservoir in current conditions. This model
application simulated water surface temperatures at the forebay to within an average of 1 C of
observed temperatures, but overpredicted stratification, so that the simulated temperatures at
depth were about 10'C too low. Subsequently, the model was applied to hypothetical freeflowing conditions, that is, for the scenario in which all four dams in the reservoir have been
removed for some time. The model predicted a slight decrease in water surface temperatures at
the present location of Lower Granite Dam going from the with-dams to the no-dams scenario.
The average difference for 1995 conditions was 0.4'C. Vertical stratification decreased in the nodams scenario, with bottom temperatures increasing by about 1-4*C from the with-dams scenario.
This is a possible undesirable effect of removing the dams. Water surface temperatures are the
highest in the water column in the summer, when stratification occurs.
Thesis Supervisor: E. Eric Adams
Senior Research Engineer & Lecturer in Civil and Environmental Engineering
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my thanks to my advisors Dr. Peter Shanahan and Dr. E. Eric Adams for
their invaluable advice and guidance.
To the people I have bothered with my e-mails and phone calls - Dave Reese of the United States
Army Corps of Engineers, Charles C. Coutant of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, William A.
Perkins and Marshall C. Richmond of Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Scott Wells of
Portland State University, and Ann Pembroke of Normandeau Associates - thank you for your
unselfish help and interest.
Finally, thanks to my family and friends, especially my mother, Meng and my excellent
suitemates.
3
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................................................
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................
4
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................................................6
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................................................
8
1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................
9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
HISTORY
10
11
EFFECTS OF RIVER DEVELOPMENT ON ANADROMOUS FISH
PROPOSED SOLUTIONS 14
PROJECT MOTIVATION 15
EXISTING TEMPERATURE MODELS OF THE LOWER SNAKE RIVER
OBJECTIVE OF THESIS 17
16
2.0 CE-QUAL-W2.......................................................................................................................................19
2.1 HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS
2.2 THEORY BEHIND THE MODEL
19
20
2.3 APPLICATION OF CE-QUAL-W2 TO LOWER GRANITE RESERVOIR
22
25
3.0 DATA REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................................
25
3.1 SOURCES
3.2 DATA ORGANIZATION
3.3 DATA QUALITY 26
25
27
4.0 MODEL CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION .......................................................................
4.1 CALIBRATION 27
4.1.1 Outflow A djustm ent.....................................................................................................................
4.2 MODEL VERIFICATION 33
4.2.1 Vertical Temperature Profile...................................................................................................
4.2.2 Water Surface Temperatures...................................................................................................
36
4.3 CONCLUSION
27
33
35
37
5.0 RESULTS..............................................................................................................................................
5.1 DAM BREACHING SCENARIO
5.2 SIMULATION INPUT
5.3 RESULTS38
5.4 CONCLUSIONS 41
37
37
6.0 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS..............................................................................
43
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................................
45
APPENDIX A..............................................................................................................................................47
4
50
A PPENDIX B..............................................................................................................................................
50
B.1 LOCATIONS
B. 1.1 M eteorologicalStations..............................................................................................................
B.1.2 Flow Gauge Stations ..................................................................................................................
B. 1.3 Temperature M easurementLocations.....................................................................................
B.2 DATA
50
52
53
54
76
A PPEND IX C ..............................................................................................................................................
5
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Map of Columbia River Basin and dams. Source: US Army Corps of
Engineers. ..................................................................
9
Figure 1.2 Estimated Wild Sockeye passing the Uppermost Dam on the Snake River
(Lower Granite Dam after 1974), 1962 to 1999 (May include Kokanee Prior to
1992). Source: USACE, 1999. ..................................
12
Figure 1.3 Water Surface Temperatures at the Forebay of Lower Granite Dam.
USACE Draft Lower Snake River Feasibility Study and Draft EIS, Appendix C,
1999 ........................................................................
. . 13
Figure 1.4 Vertical Temperature Profile at various points along Lower Snake River
(SNR-18: between Ice Harbor Dam and Lower Monumental Dam; SNR-1 08:
Forebay, Lower Granite Dam; SNR-129, Lower Granite Reservoir), and just
above Snake River-Clearwater River confluence (CW-1). USACE, 1999. 17
Figure 2.1 Truncated representation of Lower Snake River in CE-QUAL-W2. Layer
numbers are in the left-hand column while segment numbers are in the top row.
Only segments 2 to 9 and layers 2 to 26 are represented here. Numbers in
columns under each segment header are temperatures of respective cells, in
degrees Celsius......................................................... 22
Figure 4.1 Forebay Elevations at Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Data Source: USACE,
2000..........................................................................
29
Figure 4.2 Forebay Elevation in 1993 at Lower Granite Dam - Simulation 1
30
Figure 4.3 Simulated water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam,
1993. Inflows = outflows - evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.31
Figure 4.4 Simulated forebay water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir,
1993. Inflows = outflows + evaporation loss of 1.4 m 3/s.31
Figure 4.5 Comparison of simulated and observed water surface elevations at the
forebay of Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Source of observed data: US Army Corps
of Engineers, W alla W alla District............................. 32
Figure 4.6 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures at forebay, 1993,
using the assumption that inflows = outflows. Source: US Army Corps of
Engineers. ................................................................
33
Figure 4.7 Vertical Temperature Profiles at Snake River Miles a) 129 (between
Clearwater-Snake confluence and Lower Granite Dam), and, b) 108 (forebay,
Lower Granite Dam). Observed data from Appendix C, USACE Draft EIS, 1999.
.................................................................................
. . 34
Figure 4.8 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures in Lower Granite
Reservoir, 1995. Observed data from USACE..........35
6
Figure 5.1 Water Surface temperatures simulated for the no-dams and with-dams
scenarios. Conditions used were the same, as in the 1995 verification simulation.
39
.......................................................................................
Figure 5.2 Water surface elevations for the no-dams scenario. Conditions used were
the same as in the 1995 verification simulation. ........... 39
Figure 5.3 Vertical Temperature profiles at (a) RM 108 on August 10, and (b) RM 129
on August 13. Meteorological and inflow data as for 1995. Profiles are for
simulations with and without dams........................... 40
7
Table 1.1 Characteristics of the four Lower Snake River dams. Adapted from USACE
11
Draft EIS Main Report, 1999 .....................................
Table 1.2 Frequency with which temperatures at the dams exceed 200C in unimpounded
(free-flowing) conditions. Values were read off the graphs presented in the reports.
(Data obtained from Yearsley, 1999; and from Perkins and Richmond, 1999.)
. 16
.................................................................................
Table B.1 Characteristics of Flow Gauge Stations..........52
8
1.0 Introduction
One of the most developed river systems in the world, the Columbia River system is home to
several anadromous fish species, most of which are native to the region. As a tributary of the
Columbia River system, the Snake River plays a major role in the life cycle of these fish species.
IsCo"p
(t
Engineeis
SDamsownedby
Figure 1.1 Map of Columbia River Basin and dams. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers.
9
1.1 History
Dams have been a part of the Columbia River Basin since the 1800s. The 20* century has
seen tremendous development of the hydropower system on the Columbia River. Large projects
such as Bonneville Dam and Grand Coulee Dam have served to change the hydrology of the river
and the basin. Dams are not only meant to harness the river's energy for electric power, but also
to enable navigation, flood control, and irrigation.
Hydropower development eventually spilled over to other rivers in the Northwest, albeit
on a smaller scale. On the Lower Snake River, four dams were built over the course of 15 years,
for much the same purposes as the Columbia River dams were constructed. The four dams that
span the Lower Snake River are, from upriver to downriver, the Lower Granite, Little Goose,
Lower Monumental, and Ice Harbor dams. Since the completion of the last of the four dams in
1975, they have been providing irrigation, navigation, and electricity generation capabilities to
residents of the Northwest.
The dates of completion and location of each project are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of the four Lower Snake River dams. Adapted from USACE
Dlraft EIS Main RenoL19
Facility
Type of
Snake
Reservoir
Reservoir
Total
Reservoir
(year
Facility
River
Name
Capacity
Reservoir
Elevation
(acre-feet)
Capacity
(msl)
Mile
constructed)
(acre-feet)
Lower Granite
Run of
(1976)
River
107.5
Lower
49,000
483,800
733 to 738
Granite
Lake
Little Goose
Run of
(1970)
River
Lower
Run of
Monumental
River
70.3
Lake Bryan
49,000
565,200
633 to 638
41.6
Lake
20,000
432,000
537 to 540
25,000
406,500
437 to 440
Herbert G.
West
(1969)
Ice Harbor
Run of
(1962)
River
9.7
Lake
Sacajawea
1.2 Effects of River Development on Anadromous Fish
The huge facilities constructed across the width of the Columbia and Lower Snake Rivers
changed the hydrology and hydrodynamics of the rivers drastically. Shallow areas became
flooded permanently, the river depth increased, and river velocity slowed.
The change in the rivers has far-reaching effects on the anadromous fish species in the
river systems. These fish migrate to the Pacific Ocean from their spawning ground above the
Snake River as juvenile smolts, and return 2 or more years later to spawn. The entire journey
from the spawning ground to the ocean for anadromous fish in the Snake River carries them
through 8 major dams, more if they start from above Dworshak Dam on Clearwater River.
In 1991, the National Marine Fisheries Service listed the Snake River sockeye salmon as
an endangered species. In 1992, spring and fall chinook salmon in the same river were listed as
threatened species due to their rapid decline in recent decades (see Figure 1.2). In 1997, Snake
11
River steelhead joined the threatened species list (USACE, 1999). The population declines are
manifested in lower numbers of returning adult fish migrating up the river system from the
Pacific Ocean, and lower volumes of juveniles migrating down the river system toward the ocean.
Figure 1.2 Estimated Wild Sockeye passing the Uppermost Dam on the Snake River (Lower
Granite Dam after 1974), 1962 to 1999 (May include Kokanee Prior to 1992). Source:
USACE, 1999.
Several factors have been suggested as causes of the population decline. The most
obvious cause of fish mortality is the obstruction of fish passage by the four dams on the Lower
Snake River. Although ameliorative structures such as fish ladders for adult fish were installed
when the dams were built, fish populations continue to decline as a result of poor passage rates
through the dams. In recent years, the Corps has begun barging fish across dams in both the
upstream and downstream directions. Facilities such as spillway deflectors improve water quality
for fish that get "spilled" over the crest of the dam. Other fish passage measures have also been
installed.
Apart from the direct fish mortality at the dams, it is suspected that the dams have
indirectly caused population declines in the salmon and steelhead populations in a few different
ways. Firstly, breeding habitats in the shallow areas of the natural river have been flooded to
12
create reservoirs. Secondly, the lower velocities in the river have probably decreased fish fitness
by increasing migration times. The decrease in robustness of the species is also attributed to the
elevated temperatures in the river, which are far higher than optimal temperatures for successful
reproduction and survival. Temperatures have reached maximums of 25'C in dry years, and
exceed the state's water quality standard of 20*C for most of the summer (see Figure 1.3).
-NR-18
- r 1994 9-7-1
-wF- 19T5p
A
-~
I
1-Mar 29-Mer 264*~ 24Ma 214uim
L_-_-
--19-94
*
--
~I
199
*-Aug
1996
13-Se
il-Oct 06-Nom 064)w
*-----
Figure 1.3 Water Surface Temperatures at the Forebay of Lower Granite Dam. USACE
Draft Lower Snake River Feasibility Study and Draft EIS, Appendix C, 1999.
Other factors that are believed to contribute to the population declines are not related to
the presence of the dams. These include changes in ocean conditions, which are known to cause
dramatic declines in fish populations; global warming, which may have contributed to the
elevated river temperatures to a not inconsiderable, although unquantified degree; and overfishing, whether for recreation or industry.
As the operators of the federal dam projects on the Columbia River system, the US Army
Corps of Engineers is responsible for the health of the fish populations, native and non-native,
13
that rely on the river system for their reproduction and survival. In response to a Biological
Opinion released by the National Marine Fisheries Service in 1995, the Corps initiated a study of
the Lower Snake River dams to determine how to improve fish passage on this stretch of the river
system.
1.3 Proposed Solutions
In December 1999, the Corps released a feasibility study and draft Environmental Impact
Statement describing the alternatives being considered to ameliorate the problems faced by
anadromous fish in the Lower Snake River. The proposed alternatives follow.
A. "Existing Conditions"
Under this alternative, minor changes will be made to the current operating practices and facilities
at the four dams. These changes are designed to decrease fish mortality rates in the passage
through the Lower Snake River.
B. "Maximum Transport of Juvenile Salmon"
The operating principle behind this alternative is the minimization of in-river migration.
Voluntary spills will not be used to promote migration. All fish collected at the dams will be
transported by barge or truck to below Bonneville Dam. As spills will not be used to improve fish
passage, spill deflectors and associated devices will not be installed for gas abatement.
C. "Major System Improvements"
Structural changes would be made to divert fish away from the turbines. The bulk of the
improvements will occur on Lower Granite Dam. Surface bypass collectors will be installed at
the dam. These collectors aim to guide most of the juvenile fish into smaller river volumes (i.e.,
near the water surface). The collected fish are then barged or trucked so that few juvenile fish will
be left in the river below Lower Granite Dam.
D. "Dam Breaching"
The most drastic alternative of the four, dam breaching will involve removal of the earthen
embankment portions of the four dams, effectively returning the Lower Snake to its natural river
14
levels. The drawdown behind the dams will be gradual (2 ft/day) in order to minimize structural
failures of the river banks. The concrete sections and powerhouse structures will remain in the
river, partly because the cost of removing them has no justifiable benefit, and partly to leave the
door open to the possibility of future power generation activities at the dams.
1A Project Motivation
While it is easy to measure fish mortality rates due to their having to negotiate a way
through each dam, it is much harder to measure indirect effects that the dams have on fish. Few
fish experts will dispute the claim that salmon in Lower Snake River suffer trauma that is a result
of having their natural habitats changed. However, the mechanisms by which this trauma occurs,
and the relative importance of each mechanism is a topic of much argument.
One characteristic of the river that is believed to have an impact on fish is the high water
temperatures. Salmon species thrive at temperatures of 16-20*C. When temperatures exceed this
optimal range by even a few degrees, the reproductive processes are inhibited, fish fitness is
decreased, and the population as a whole weakens.
Temperatures at the Snake River-Clearwater River confluence range from about 1 C to
20*C. Above this point, the flow is relatively fast. Below the confluence is the first of the four
artificial riverine reservoirs on the Lower Snake, Lower Granite Lake (called Lower Granite
Reservoir in this paper). As the river proceeds downstream, temperatures naturally rise due to
solar heating and higher ambient temperatures (since the flow goes from higher to lower
elevations). The construction of the dams has caused the river to widen and deepen by causing the
flooding of previously exposed land. Thus, for the same inflow rate into the river, there is more
surface area exposed to solar radiation. As a result, water entering the reservoirs behind the dams
from upstream is heated up to a greater degree by the time it gets to the Columbia River.
If this last hypothesis that the four dams have caused the elevation of water temperatures
in the Lower Snake is proven correct, then the dams can be held responsible for the salmon
decline on the premise that they are a cause of reduced fish fitness. The question to follow would
be: What is to be done to lower temperatures in the Lower Snake River, assuming that lower
temperatures would benefit the salmon population? Put in the context of the decision-making
15
process of the Corps: Would one or more of the proposed alternatives lower temperatures in the
river, and if so, by how much?
1.5 Existing Temperature Models of the Lower Snake River
To find an answer to the latter question, the Corps modeled the Lower Snake River to see
what temperatures would be in the scenario of a free-flowing river. At the same time, John
Yearsley of the US Environmental Protection Agency also undertook to find the sources of the
elevated temperatures in the Lower Snake River.
A comparison of the conclusions derived from the two models reveals a disparity
between the returned results (see Table 1.2). These two models have been developed for use in
the particular case of the Lower Snake River, and will probably feature prominently in a decision
on whether to breach the dams.
0
Table 1.2 Frequency with which temperatures at the dams exceed 20 C in unimpounded
(free-flowing) conditions. Values were read off the graphs presented in the reports. (Data
obtained from Yearsley, 1999; and from Perkins and Richmond, 1999.)
Lower Granite
Little Goose
Lower
Ice Harbor
Monumental
Yearsley, 1999
5-18 %
6-18 %
6-18 %
7-19 %
3-8%
3-10%
3-10%
4-10%
(EPA)
Perkins and
Richmond, 1999
Both of these models are one-dimensional. In other words, they run on the assumption
that the only significant variation in the temperature regime of the river is in the longitudinal
direction. Despite making the same basic assumption, the models return results that are
significantly different. It bears mentioning that among the proposed alternatives, all will be
costly, and some irreversible. An accurate assessment of the way each alternative will affect the
temperature regime in the river is therefore vital to the decision-making process. Thus, the
apparently small differences in the numbers presented by the two models may be significant.
16
1.6 Objective of Thesis
The Lower Snake River is not deep. Its depth at the upstream end is about 12 m; at the
forebay of its most upstream dam, 32 m. In winter, when temperatures are cool, and in spring,
when flows are high and fast, temperature across its depth is mostly uniform. However, when
flows decrease in summer and ambient temperatures are high, vertical stratification may occur.
Releases of cold water from Dworshak Dam (see Figure 1.1) in the summer would also encourage
stratification. This practice was started on a large scale in 1994 in order to augment flows in the
Lower Snake River and thus decrease the average hydraulic residence time in summer (USACE,
1999). Dworshak Dam is a storage reservoir on the Clearwater River (upstream of lower Snake
River). The result is a vertical temperature variation, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Tempratr. Prailes COd 10-13 August 194
120
140
Tsfnpnrfuw (*VPC
200
180
WO,
22.0
X40
31
354
40.
CW1
--
SNIR48
-i-
SNR-108
+-
SNRA-129
Figure 1.4 Vertical Temperature Profile at various points along Lower Snake River (SNR-1 8:
between Ice Harbor Dam and Lower Monumental Dam; SNR-1 08: Forebay, Lower Granite
Dam; SNR-129, Lower Granite Reservoir), and just above Snake River-Clearwater River
confluence (CW-1). USACE, 1999.
The presence of this variation raises the possibility that a 2-D temperature model may be
more appropriate for the Lower Snake River than a 1-D model. The disagreement in the results of
the two models applied to the river thus far may be partly due to the failure of the models to take
vertical variations into account.
17
The objective of this thesis is to determine if there is sufficient basis to model the Lower
Snake River as a two-dimensional water body. While it would be ideal to model the entire Snake
River, the complexity of modeling a string of four reservoirs is too much to undertake in a
preliminary study using the 2-D assumption. Effects of downstream reservoirs on the Columbia
River would complicate the exercise. In any case, the goal is to find a basis, on conservative
grounds, to model the Lower Snake River as a 2-D system. This is accomplished by modeling just
one reservoir. Lower Granite Reservoir was picked because it has the least influence from the
Columbia River Dams, and shows significant vertical stratification.
The Lower Granite Reservoir is the body of water that extends from just upstream of the
Clearwater River-Snake River confluence to the Lower Granite dam. The dam is the most
upstream of the four federal dams on the Lower Snake River. It was the last of the four to be
constructed, having been completed in 1975, 14 years after Ice Harbor Dam came into service.
18
2.0 CE-QUAL-W2
Lower Granite Reservoir is a run-of-the-river reservoir, where the water elevation variability is
about 1.5 m, from 223 m to 225 m over the space of a year. Run-of-the-river reservoirs earn their
name from having a roughly constant water elevation. The depth of Lower Granite Reservoir
varies from 10 m at the upstream end to 35 m at Lower Granite Dam. Its length is about 40 miles,
while its width is only half a mile at the widest portion. These characteristics make it appropriate
to assume river-like movement of water in the reservoir, meaning that water is not stagnant in
most of the reservoir.
At any point along the reservoir's length, the meteorological conditions are assumed
identical at every point across its width. As the main mode of heat exchange is through the water
surface, there is little variation in temperature across the relatively short width of the reservoir.
CE-QUAL-W2 was deemed to be the best available model for the purpose of modeling
temperature in Lower Granite Reservoir because it can represent the reservoir accurately in a
simple model, has been used in several other applications, and is very well documented.
2.1 History and Applications
Derived from the Laterally Averaged Reservoir Model (LARM, see J.E. Edinger, 2000),
CE-QUAL-W2 is a "two-dimensional, laterally averaged, hydrodynamic and water quality
model" (Cole and Buchak, 1995). From the creation of the initial version in 1975, the model has
been developed by several companies and government agencies to its current sophistication.
Among the government agencies that have used CE-QUAL-W2 are the US Geological
Survey and the US Army Corps of Engineers. USGS used the model in their study of water
movements in Shasta Lake (USGS, 2000). The simulation was for a year-long period in the lake
from January to December. The Corps have used the model in several reservoir projects. Private
firms which have employed the model are J.E. Edinger Associates, Inc. (J.E. Edinger, 2000), and
Cornell University Utilities Department, which used it to determine the thermal characteristics of
Lake Cayuga, NY (Cornell, 2000).
19
2.2 Theory behind the model
The theoretical basis of CE-QUAL-W2 has been extensively covered in other sources.
The following is a summarized version of the User's Manual to Version 2.
The bases of CE-QUAL-W2 are laterally averaged momentum, continuity, and transport
equations. The model can be used to model 21 constituents, and temperature. Factors that affect
momentum such as salinity and temperature are built into the equations using an equation of state.
Other influencing variables like local horizontal acceleration, momentum transfers in the
horizontal and vertical directions, horizontal pressure gradient, and vertical and horizontal shear
stresses are also accounted for.
The first step in making a model of a river is to make a grid of the river volume. The
volume is discretized into segments, which line up along the longitudinal axis of the river; and
layers, which divide the river depth into horizontal volumes. Each cell therefore has a segment
and layer number. For example, the coordinates (5, 7) would represent a cell in segment 7 and
layer 5. The variables associated with each cell center are width, density, constituent
concentration, and pressure; those associated with cell boundaries are horizontal and vertical
velocities, and dispersion coefficients.
Simulations are carried out by solving six equations for six unknowns (see Appendix A).
Inputs are inflows, outflows, and bathymetric data. The unknowns are free water surface
elevation, pressure, velocities in the horizontal and vertical directions, constituent concentrations,
and density. The equations may be found in Appendix A, where an excerpt from the User Manual
is included.
At each time-step, water surface elevation is first computed. This value is then used to
compute horizontal velocity, which is consequently used to find vertical velocity from continuity.
Constituent concentration is computed using the constituent balance equation. Finally, the vertical
and horizontal velocities are used to solve for free water surface elevation, which is thus
implicitly found by the entire process.
20
The solution of the hydrodynamics of the system is the key to the simulations. Once this
is done, the heat exchange algorithm is applied to compute temperatures based on surface heat
exchange, and heat exchange between the water column and the sediments. Ice cover is also
accounted for if the system in question undergoes any icing over.
Heat exchange through the water surface is calculated as follows:
(2-1)
Hn=Hs+Ha +He+Hc -(Hsr+Har+Hbr)
Where
H n = the net rate of heat exchange across the water surface, W m -2
H , = incident short wave solar radiation, W m -2
H a = incident long wave radiation, W m -2
H e = reflected short wave solar radiation, W m H c = reflected long wave radiation, W m H sr = back radiation from the water surface, W m
H
ar
= evaporative heat loss, W m -
H
br
= heat conduction, W m
-
-2
The long wave atmospheric radiation is a function of air temperature and cloud cover (or
vapor pressure) which are specified as time-varying series in the meteorology file. Short wave
solar radiation is either measured or computed from sun angle relationships and cloud cover.
Evaporative heat loss is calculated from air temperature, dew point temperature, and surface
vapor pressure, which is calculated from the water surface temperature of each cell. Loss by
conduction from the water surface is a function of the surface temperature. Back radiation is also
a function of surface water temperature.
Sediment-water heat exchange is a function of the water temperature and the sediment
temperature. The air temperature approximates sediment temperature. This is a rough assumption
based on the idea that heat exchange at the water surface will far outweigh sediment-water heat
exchange.
21
Returning to the hydrodynamics of the simulated system, density is an important factor
that affects hydrodynamic computations. The code varies density according to temperature,
salinity, and total solids content of each cell.
2.3 Application of CEQUAL-W2 to Lower Granite Reservoir
Lower Granite Reservoir is modeled as a single branch system consisting of 30 active
segments and 27 active layers. Upstream and downstream boundary segments, segments 1 and 32
respectively, cap the two ends of the reservoir. These segments are inactive and have zero values
for layer thicknesses. The active segments vary in length from 0 .25 to 1 mile. Short segments
represent regions of the reservoir which vary considerably from the adjacent segments in
orientation. Segments are oriented with respect to True North.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
1.73
3.53
3.69
3.69
3.69
3.69
3.69
3.69
3
2.73
3.69
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
Depth
Layer
4
5
6
7
8
4.23
5.23
6.23
7.73
9.73
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
11.73
3.7
3.7
3.71
3.7
3.7
3.7
10
13.73
3.7
3.7
3.81
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
11
15.23
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
12
16.23
3.7
3.7
3.7
13
17.23
3.7
3.7
3.7
18.23
3.7
3.7
3.7
19.23
3.7
3.7
16
20.23
3.7
17
21.23
3.7
18
22.23
9
14
15
Figure 2.1 Truncated representation of Lower Snake River in CE-QUAL-W2. Layer numbers
are in the left-hand column while segment numbers are in the top row. Only segments 2 to 8
and layers 2 to 26 are represented here. Numbers in columns under each segment header
are temperatures of respective cells, in degrees Celsius.
In active segments, some or all of the layers are utilized, with active layers given a
thickness of 1 or 2 m, and inactive layers given a thickness of zero. There are also two boundary
layers, one on top and at least one on the bottom at all times. These layers are given a thickness of
1 m. The thickness of 1 or 2 m was chosen based on Figure 1.4, as significant temperature
variation occurs over changes of water depth of the order of 1 m. The placement of 1 and 2-m
22
layers within the water column is loosely based on the observed vertical temperature profile in the
summer of 1994, as this time of year represents the worst-case scenario for reservoir
stratification, when flows are low and solar heating is at its greatest.
Time-varying inputs required for a simulation of temperatures over time and space are
inflows to the reservoir, inflow temperatures, and meteorological conditions over the reservoir.
Inflows are daily average values from both the Snake River just above the Clearwater-Snake
confluence, and the Clearwater River into the Lower Snake. These flows are assumed to be
similar to those recorded at the Snake River near Anatone, WA; and at Spalding, ID on the
Clearwater River. Streamflow data was obtained from the USGS website (USGS Water, 2000).
Inflow temperatures from these two sources are also daily average water temperatures.
The temperatures of these flows were approximated by data collected at the Snake River near
Anatone for the Snake River inflow, and by temperatures at Orofino (Clearwater River Mile
44.6), adjusted for the summer months. Orofino was picked because it is the closest reliable
station on the Clearwater River with year-round daily temperature data. The Orofino data was
adjusted downward by 1-5'C for the summer months (June 19 - Aug 21 in 1993) to compensate
for the colder temperatures of the Dworshak Dam releases into the Lower Snake in summer.
These new temperatures were compared to daily average temperatures based on temperatures
collected hourly 1.5 river miles downstream of Dworshak Dam tailrace (which were only
available for Aug - September in 1993, and April - September in 1994, 1995 and 1996). In
general, the adjusted temperatures gave good agreement with Dworshak Dam tailrace
temperatures. Wherever possible, temperatures at Dworshak Dam tailrace were used as
approximations of Clearwater tributary inflow temperatures. For instance, in 1995, Orofino
temperatures were used until April 24, Dworshak Dam tailrace from April 25-Sept 30, with
adjusted Orofino temperatures for Sept 12-13, and for 15 days after the Dworshak Dam data
stops. See Appendix B for temperature data at Orofino and 1.5 Miles downstream of Dworshak
Dam tailrace. Temperature data was obtained from the Streamnet web-site (Streamnet, 2000).
Meteorology at Lower Granite Reservoir was approximated by data collected at Lewiston
Nez Perce County Airport. Data were either found as daily averages or calculated from hourly
observations to give daily averages. Five measurements define the meteorology of the region in
this model: air temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, and cloud cover.
23
Note that all data used is presented in Appendix B together with descriptions of the data
collection stations.
24
In order to model Lower Granite Reservoir to an accuracy of a day without requiring excessive
computing power or run-time, daily inputs were preferred over hourly inputs. This chapter
summarizes the sources of the data used in the calibration, verification, and, indirectly, in the
simulation phases, and describes how data was organized into input file format. The final section
discusses the quality of data used, and what was done when poor quality data was encountered.
3.1 Sources
Temperature data for inflows was obtained from files on the website of Streamnet
(Streamnet, 2000). Most of this data was obtained from the US Army Corps of Engineers at
Walla Walla District. Flows into Lower Granite from Snake River and Clearwater River were
obtained from the USGS water data web-site (USGS, 2000). Meteorological data came from the
records of the US Geological Survey. Finally, bathymetry of Lower Granite Reservoir was
approximated from soundings mapped in Nautical Chart 18547 produced by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, 1993).
3.2 Data Organization
In general, data from the various sources was in an easy-to-use format. Adjustments that
were made were usually simple addition and subtraction operations.
Bathymetry was determined by using depth soundings indicated on the Nautical Chart
18547 (NOAA, 1993) to draw simple reservoir cross-sections in Microsoft Excel. Cross sections
were taken at variable intervals along the length of the reservoir. These intervals ranged from 400
m to 4300 m, depending on the curvature and, hence, variability of the cross section. Reservoir
stretches with large curvature were divided into shorter intervals while relatively straight stretches
were assumed to have the same cross-section over long distances. See Appendix C for
bathymetric cross-sections used. The Clearwater River tributary was not modeled as a section, but
rather as a simple inflow into the third active upstream segment of the main branch.
25
Water temperatures for the main branch are assumed to be those measured on the Snake
River near Anatone. Tributary temperatures are assumed to be the temperature observed at
Orofino for pre-and-post summer months, and the flow-weighted average of temperatures
measured at Dworshak Dam tailrace and at Orofino for the period every year when Dworshak
Dam tailrace temperatures were recorded (mid or late April to September for 1994 and 1995).
The measurements are daily average temperatures based on hourly gauge measurements.
Inflows were assumed to come from the Snake River above the Clearwater-Snake
confluence and from the Clearwater River. The Snake River inflow was taken to be that near
Anatone, where flows are measured at Station 13334300. Clearwater inflows were taken to be
that measured at Spalding, ID (Station 13342500), a location downstream of Orofino and
Dworshak Dam, about 10 miles upstream of the Clearwater-Snake confluence. The Clearwater
inflow was modeled as a point tributary inflow into segment 4 of the main branch (note that the
upstream boundary segment is Segment 1 and is inactive), while the Snake River inflow was
equally divided over the entire cross-section (i.e., single-temperature inflow).
Outflows were assumed to occur only at the dam. These outflows were mainly through
the turbines, which occupy the southern third of the dam's length. In May and June of every year,
however, additional water is spilled over the crest of the dam. For these periods, spills and
generator outflow together constitute the outflow value. Evaporation is the other means by which
water is lost from the reservoir and is modeled by the software.
Meteorological data was mostly obtained as daily measurements and is used as such. The
exception is daily average wind direction, which was obtained by taking the average of the hourly
wind direction measurements, weighted by the corresponding hourly wind speeds. The
measurement of wind direction and speed was only done for daylight hours.
3.3 Data Quality
All of the data used comes from reputable sources and appears reasonable. As far as
possible, data was checked either directly with similar data from other sources (e.g., flow at one
location compared to flows at other nearby locations) or indirectly with data from the same time
periods in other years. For instance, flows from different years were compared to identify obvious
erroneous data entries.
26
4.0 Model Calibration and Verification
This section describes the process by which CE-QUAL-W2 was calibrated for the Lower Granite
Reservoir system. Calibration was based on the year 1993. Subsequently, the model was verified
using the years 1994 and 1995 to encompass a range of weather conditions. 1994 was a dry year,
with flows ranging from 10 to 75 kcfs; 1995 had mean monthly flows close to historical averages
for the first half of the year, and slightly higher flows for the rest of the year. Unusually wet years
are not modeled because they represent the least critical condition for Lower Snake salmon
species.
4.1 Calibration
Calibration is the process by which a model is adjusted to give the most realistic
simulation results. In the case of CE-QUAL-W2 for Lower Granite Reservoir, input outflows had
to be varied somewhat from the Corps' data in order for the simulation to be in good agreement
with the observed data. Good agreement means similar water surface temperatures, vertical
temperature profiles, and water elevations. Note that not all of the inflows and outflows of the
system were known. Thus, while all major flows were represented, it is possible that flows into or
out of the reservoir between the Clearwater-Snake confluence and the Lower Granite Dam that
were not represented in this model could have had an impact on the simulation. It is in
anticipation of such inaccuracies in data input that outflows at the dam were adjusted. These
adjustments are described below.
4.1.1 Outflow Adjustment
Lower Granite Dam has several functions. The reservoir is used for navigation,
hydropower generation, recreation, and "incidental irrigation" (USACE, 2000). Hydropower
generation is served by any non-spilled release of water from the upstream to the downstream
side of the dam. Having the reservoir for navigation means that the height of the dam is limited to
allow for the operation of locks. This means the dam cannot perform other storage functions, or
can only fulfil them to a limited degree as a secondary purpose.
27
Recreation generally involves maintaining a full reservoir to allow for activities such as
boating, swimming, fishing, and water sports. Excessive drawdown usually creates undesirable
conditions for recreation. For instance, benthic surfaces may be exposed and become foul
smelling areas. Boat piers may also be too far above the water surface to be functional. Despite
these considerations, recreational function is usually incidental to other purposes of the reservoir.
Irrigation is a secondary purpose of creating the backwater that is Lower Granite
Reservoir. As mentioned on the Corps' website, irrigation needs served by the reservoir are
incidental and not sufficient to account for large sudden withdrawals from the reservoir. The
fluctuation of water surface elevation over the course of a year is due mainly to the purposeful
release of water from the reservoir to augment downstream flows for navigation. This occurs in
the dry season when flows are low downstream due to lack of precipitation and higher rates of
evaporation brought about by higher water temperatures and drier ambient air.
The pattern seen in Figure 4.1 shows a sharp drop in water elevation from 224.45 m to
223.6 m over just 4 days. The resulting elevation is maintained for several months (with small
peaks due to storm events) until the winter months, when the elevation is increased back to the
January elevation, just as suddenly as it was decreased. This is typical dam operation for
navigation purposes and for flood control. In winter and spring, the main source of river flow will
be stormwater. In the summer, precipitation halts and snowmelt becomes the main source. In
order to prevent flooding of the surrounding lands as well as to provide navigation flows
downstream, the elevation in the reservoir is kept at a minimum operating level (minimum to
maintain recreational activities). In these same four days, however, flows recorded by the Corps
are not especially high (USACE, 2000). This is unusual because typical practice is to release
excess water over the crest of the dam or to run it through the hydropower turbines. Thus, higher
rates of outflow from the reservoir than those shown on the Corps' datasheets are expected. The
total outflow data on the web-site is possibly erroneous.
Initially, outflows were put into the model as single average daily outflows. These values
came directly from the Corps' ftp website for the Northwestern Division (USACE, 2000). When
the program was run, the water surface elevation increased throughout the year, reaching
elevations about 20 m higher than the maximum water surface elevation at the forebay. Figure 4.1
indicates the observed water surface elevations in 1993 that are distinctly different from this
initial prediction.
28
Forebay Elevation at Lower Granite Dam in 1993
224.8
224.6
224.4
224.2 -
-
224-
223.8
223.6
223.4
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Days (from Jan 1)
Figure 4.1 Forebay Elevations at Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Data Source: USACE, 2000.
The root of the increasing elevations seemed to be unaccounted outflows from the
reservoir. To address this problem, the volume of water "accumulated" in the reservoir by the end
of the year was divided unequally among the 365 daily outflows for the year. The unequal
division was meant to represent irrigation withdrawals from the reservoir that were not
represented in the outflow at the dam. Due to lack of knowledge regarding the locations, volumes
and timing of the withdrawals, the withdrawals were approximated by adding volumes to the
outflow at the dam. As irrigation withdrawals are expected to be low in winter and spring, and
higher in summer and fall, the accumulated volume from the initial run was divided to reflect this
condition. For instance, the first run using this condition used outflows that were 20 m 3/s higher
from January to March, 50 m3/s from April to June, 129 m 3/s from July to August, 50 m3/s in
September, and 20 m3/s from October to December. The results of this run in terms of water
elevations follow.
29
Forebay Elevation in Lower Granite Dam in 1993 -Simulation 1
240
235
4 0U)
> 230
225
E>
>0 >
Wa
220
>0
eE
215
0
100
300
200
Days (from Jan 1)
400
Figure 4.2 Forebay Elevation in 1993 at Lower Granite Dam - Simulation 1
This method of guessing additional outflows for different times of the year was unsuccessful in
reproducing the observed water surface elevations. A new method was thus devised based on the
following assumptions:
1. There are processes besides inflow and outflow by which the water balance in the reservoir is
affected. Processes that decrease the water volume are irrigation withdrawals and
evaporation. Conversely, precipitation and inflow from tributaries or runoff between the
Snake-Clearwater confluence and Lower Granite dam cause an increase in the water volume.
2. Precipitation is roughly equal to evaporation for the year.
3.
Evaporation data from NOAA (NOAA, 1983) indicates that the mean rate of evaporation for
the lakes in the Lewiston region from 1946 to 1955 is about 40 in./year. This works out to
3
about 1 m3/s. As the "excess" volume in the reservoir is equivalent to 46.6 m /s, and
evaporation accounts for just 1 m3/s, the bulk of the excess volume must be due to unknown
quantities such as irrigation withdrawals or due to erroneous flow data. As these are not
known, the simple assumption that inflows are equal to outflows (less evaporation loss) is
made. Inflows are equal to outflows for the same day, as the reservoir is run-of-the-river (i.e.,
elevation does not change much).
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 show the results of a simulation done with outflows set equal to
inflows minus evaporation loss. Observed temperature data is superimposed for comparison.
30
Water Surface Elevations at Forebay (Lower
Granite Dam) -- Simulated, 1993 ( outflows =
inflows - evap. loss)
225.6
a)W
o o
0)
225.4-
225.2*225
-
225
S224.8224.6
0
100
400
300
200
1
Jan
Days from
Figure 4.3 Simulated water surface elevations at the forebay of Lower Granite Dam, 1993.
Inflows = outflows - evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.
Forebay Temperatures in 1993 - Simulated (out = in
- evap. loss)
a
(I)
.a)
U
*a
E
25
20
15
10
-f9e*~.
-EN
5
0
3/2 2/93
5/11/93
6/30/93
-+-Observed
---
10/8/93
8/19/93
Simulated
Figure 4.4 Simulated forebay water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir, 1993.
Inflows = outflows + evaporation loss of 1.4 m3/s.
The increase in elevation over the year in the latter simulation led to the inference that
outflow was insufficient in the model. Thus, the evaporation loss was omitted from outflows, and
outflows were set equal to inflows. The following figure shows the simulated and observed
elevations. Note that inflows are the same in both simulations. Outflows are either equal to these
inflows or decrease by the quantity lost by evaporation.
31
From the figure, it is clear that subtracting a constant volume from each day's outflows
has the effect of increasing water elevations to higher than observed values. If outflows are set
equal to inflows, there is a decrease in elevation throughout the year. The simulated elevation at
the end of the year deviates by the same amount from the observed end-year value. The inference
is that a smaller net constant decrease in daily outflow values will allow better replication of
observed elevations (although not to the extent of reproducing sharp drops and rises in elevation).
The aim here is to maintain a somewhat constant elevation, such that the elevation at the end of
the year is roughly the same as at the beginning of the year.
Water Surface Elevations-Simulated vs. Observed
0225.5
M2 -
Cc 223.5 -
223
0
i
,
100
200
300
400
days from Jan 1, 1993
-
in = out ---
in = out + evaporation loss ---
observed
Figure 4.5 Comparison of simulated and observed water surface elevations at the forebay of
Lower Granite Dam in 1993. Source of observed data: US Army Corps of Engineers, Walla
Walla District.
The problem with adjusting outflows in order to obtain a constant elevation is that these
adjustments might change with changes in annual conditions. In this case, the simplest
assumption that the reservoir is run-of-the-river is the best, because this assumption holds for all
years. The simulation results obtained for water surface elevation with this assumption show
variations that are within the observed elevation variation, that is, within the 223.5 m - 224.7 m
range. Without a rough knowledge of the sources and sinks of flow in the reservoir, setting
inflows to outflows is the best calibration option for this run-of-the-river reservoir.
32
The temperature-time plot for the simulation where inflows are equal to outflows gives
good agreement with observed temperatures. The temperatures compared are at the surface of the
forebay of the dam. Observed data were obtained from the Streamnet website (Streamnet, 2000).
Water Surface Temperatures at forebay, 1993
25
2015 S10 -
a.
E
0 1
3/22/93
5/11/93
---
6/30/93
Observed
8/19/93
10/8/93
w Simulated
Figure 4.6 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures at forebay, 1993, using the
assumption that inflows = outflows. Source: US Army Corps of Engineers.
Given the uncertainties in sources and sinks to the reservoir, the simulation is relatively
accurate in its reproduction of forebay temperatures in 1993. The average absolute difference is
0
about 1*C, while the simulated temperatures exceed observed temperatures by 0.2 C. The
maximum difference was 4.2*C (the simulated temperature exceeded the observed temperature).
4.2 Model Verification
The model was verified on two counts. Firstly, it was verified with respect to vertical
temperature profile, for which observed data is available for 1994. Secondly, the water surface
temperatures simulated were compared to observed data for a year with average flows, 1995. The
procedure for simulation is as described for model calibration.
4.2.1 Vertical Temperature Profile
As only two observed data sets are available (both from 1994), there is insufficient
information with which to calibrate the model to simulate correct vertical temperature profiles.
Only 1994 vertical temperature data was available. As 1994 was a low-flow, and, therefore,
anomalous year, it is unsuitable for calibration use. Consequently, it was only used for
33
verification. Thus, vertical temperature profiles generated by the software should be treated with
caution and only used in relative comparisons (i.e., comparisons between different simulated
years) and to make qualitative inferences only.
Figure 4.7 shows simulated and observed vertical temperature profiles at two locations
along Lower Snake River, both of which lie within Lower Granite Reservoir. The simulation
overestimates stratification in both locations. The discrepancy is possibly due to cold water
influxes from Clearwater River, which have adjusted temperatures (see Chapter 3) that are too
low. The more likely reason is that the model fails to account for mixing between the Clearwater
flow and the Snake River flow above the confluence. Thus, Clearwater inflow sinks to the bottom
of the reservoir almost immediately after passing the confluence and remains there without
interaction with the upper layers. The fact that hypolimnion temperatures are the same (8*C) at
two locations 20 miles apart (see Figure 4.7) supports this argument.
Vertical Temperature Profile at RM 129, Aug 13, 1994
Temperature In deg C
0
0
E
E
5
'
20
15
10
''
25
30
5-
10-
. 15-
20
25
-+-Simulated
-U-
Observed
Vertical Temperature profile at River Mile 108, Aug 10, 1994
Temperature In deg C
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0-
5E 10
.
15 2025 -
-+-
Simulated -U-Observed
Figure 4.7 Vertical Temperature Profiles at Snake River Miles a) 129 (between ClearwaterSnake confluence and Lower Granite Dam), and, b) 108 (forebay, Lower Granite Dam).
Observed data from Appendix C, USACE Draft EIS, 1999.
34
4.2.2 Water Surface Temperatures
Temperatures simulated at the water surface for 1995 match observed data quite well (see
Figure 4.8). The average absolute difference between observed and simulated temperature (for the
period when observed data is available) is 1C, while the simulated temperatures are on average
higher than observed temperatures by 0.5 C. The largest disparity of 4.3'C between simulated
and observed temperature occurs on June
2 3 rd.
In late summer (August), temperature simulation
appears inaccurate. The simulated results in fact appear to be leading the observed data. This is
probably due to the fact that the model does not simulate enough vertical mixing, and therefore
heat absorbed by the reservoir is not spread enough over the entire reservoir volume. Thus, water
surface temperatures reflect ambient temperatures and upstream inflow temperatures faster than
they would in reality. This is the same reason that the vertical temperature profiles have
excessively low bottom temperatures. Otherwise, agreement between simulated and observed is
good.
Water Surface Temperatures at forebay, 1995
25
20D15*
10
E
0_
1 20/94
3/10/95
6/18/95
Obsered ---
9/26/95
1/4 96
Simulated
Figure 4.8 Simulated and observed water surface temperatures in Lower Granite Reservoir,
1995. Observed data from USACE.
35
4.3 Conclusion
In both years when water surface temperatures are simulated, the model's prediction of
water surface temperature at the dam exceeds observed temperatures, which are recorded for the
late spring to late summer period. The exceedance is small at 0.2-0.5*C. Compared to the average
absolute disparity of 1*C, this value is not large and the differences do not support a conclusion
that the model is biased toward high-end temperatures based on two years' data. The maximum
disparity, at about 4'C, is not unexpectedly large given that boundary conditions and meteorology
data is input daily and not hourly.
36
This section describes the simulated 2-D river scenario where the river is returned to free-flowing
conditions, i.e. when the four present dams are breached. The with-dams and no-dams scenarios
are compared in terms of both water surface temperatures and stratification.
5.1 Dam breaching scenario
It is uncertain just how the hydrology of the Lower Snake River (and indeed, the
hydrology of its tributaries) will change in response to the removal of the four dams. Clearly the
flow velocity will be greater, although flow rates will probably remain the same. This is due to
the lower elevations and therefore smaller cross-section of the river.
It bears noting that the overall exposed surface area of the river has increased since the
dams were constructed. This is not unusual when dams are built, as water levels usually increase
and the resulting reservoirs submerge previously dry areas flanking the river. This means that in
the warm season, the area exposed to solar heating is greater, and therefore the total thermal
energy entering the river is greater.
With the breaching of the dams, this exposed area will decrease because the elevation
will be lowered significantly. In terms of heat absorbed by the river, this will be an improvement
from the point of view of the fish species. Furthermore, with a greater flow velocity, fish will
spend less time in Lower Snake River as a whole and therefore be less likely to suffer the illeffects of excessive heating of the water in summer.
The above is a theory which requires significant research and investigation to prove or
disprove. The following simulation is an estimate of water temperatures in the breached-dam
scenario. By predicting vertical and longitudinal temperature profiles in the future scenario, the
long-term effects of the breached-dam alternative on salmon species in Lower Snake River can be
better understood.
5.2 Simulation input
The simulation was performed using meteorological data from 1995 (Yakima Station),
inflows recorded at Spalding, ID, and Anatone, WA; and inflow temperatures at Orofino on the
37
Clearwater River, and near Anatone on the Snake River. 1995 was chosen because the flows in
that year were close to historical averages (see Chapter 4). In general, the simulation should be
run for a range of meteorological and flow conditions in order to encompass the entire variety of
ambient environments.
Bathymetry was assumed to be the same as current bathymetry (i.e. 1993), except that the
water elevation would be lowered by about 11 m. This lowered height was chosen because it was
the drawdown proposed by the Corps when they were considering summertime drawdown as a
fish-mitigation measure (see USACE, 1997) As the aim of the measure was to promote fish
migration in late summer when river flows are lowest, it can be assumed that the principle behind
this draw-down was to get the river to as close to free-flowing "natural" conditions as possible.
Thus the maximum draw-down proposed was taken as the extent to which the existing reservoir
system on Lower Snake would be lowered in the breached-dam scenario to achieve free-flowing
conditions.
5.3 Results
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show the water surface elevations and temperatures throughout the
year simulated. The temperatures simulated seem to be almost the same for the river with and
without dams. The with-dams temperatures exceed the no-dams temperatures by an average of
0.4'C. Over the summer months (July to September), the with-dams temperatures exceed nodams temperatures by twice as much at an average of 0.8*C. The average absolute difference for
the entire year is only O.60C, while the maximum difference is 6*C, on October 14th. The
difference between the simulated temperatures for the two scenarios is not unlike the temperature
differences in the calibration and verification runs. The reason for this similarity is that
temperatures at the water surface are determined by solar radiation and other heat exchange
processes which occur at the surface and are dependent mostly on meteorological conditions and
less on below-surface temperatures, due to lack of mixing between the upper and lower depths.
The rate at which the water surface temperatures increase depends on the time period for which
they are exposed to ambient heating or cooling. With the dams removed, the hydraulic residence
time is shorter, but given the same high ambient temperatures, and poor transmission of absorbed
heat from upper to lower depths, it is expected that equilibrium temperatures (unaffected by the
presence of dams) will be reached before river mile 107.5. Figure 5.1 shows how the surface
temperature regime with dams is hardly changed when the dams are removed. Figure 5.2 shows
water surface elevations, which have roughly the same shape as with dams in place.
38
Water Surface Temperatures at RM 108 Simulated
2520
1510
S5 CL
E
0
.2-51-Jan
20-Feb
10-Apr 30-May
19-Jul
simulated, no dams
-
7-Sep
27-Oct
16-Dec
simulated, with dams
Figure 5.1 Water Surface temperatures simulated for the no-dams and with-dams scenarios.
Conditions used were the same, as in the 1995 verification simulation.
Figure 5.2 Water surface elevations for the no-dams scenario. Conditions used were the
same as in the 1995 verification simulation.
If water surface temperatures do not show the effects of increasing flow velocity and
lowering water elevation, the vertical temperature profiles might show greater differences. Firstly,
the shallower depths and faster velocities (and hence greater turbulence) of the no-dam situation
makes stable stratification harder to achieve. Figure 5.3 shows the vertical temperature profiles at
certain locations in the present Lower Granite Reservoir for both the 1995 simulation (with dams)
39
and the no-dams simulation, demonstrating that there is indeed less predicted stratification
without the dams.
Vertical Temperature Profiles at RM 108, with 1995 conditions
Temperature in deg C
12
22
20
18
16
14
0'
5E 101
S150
S2025
30
-+--
Simulated, w ith dams -u-Simulated, no dams
Vertical temperature profiles at RM 129-- Simulated with 1995
conditions
Temperature in deg C
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
E
*~10*.152025-4-Simrulated, w Mi damns -uSiulated, no-damns
Figure 5.3 Vertical Temperature profiles at (a) RM 108 on August 10, and (b) RM 129 on
August 13. Meteorological and inflow data as for 1995. Profiles are for simulations with and
without dams.
40
5.4 Conclusions
In free-flowing conditions, the stretch of Lower Snake River from its confluence with
Clearwater River and the present location of Lower Granite Dam appears to have less thermal
stratification than when impounded. Over the span of a year, water surface temperatures do not
change significantly going from impounded to free-flowing conditions. However, in the summer,
water surface temperatures are higher by almost a degree (Celsius) in impounded vs.
unimpounded conditions. In contrast, there is a higher minimum temperature in unimpounded
compared to impounded conditions. In late summer (August), when thermal stratification is at its
maximum, the minimum temperature in the river is 1.6'C higher at RM 129 and 3.9*C higher at
RM 108 than for when Lower Granite Dam is in place. Note that in the free-flowing river
scenario, cold-water releases from Dworshak Dam are still assumed to occur, as in 1995.
It may be premature to conclude that the 1-4*C temperature increase at lower depths from
the with-dams to the no-dams scenario is significant, given that in the verification of 1994 data,
the model was more than 5*C off the mark when it came to predicting hypolimnetic temperatures.
Despite this caveat, the comparison of vertical temperature profiles for both scenarios (with 1995
conditions) is useful. Firstly, the no-dams results show the same type of stratification curve as
with dams. Thus, the increase in temperature at depth is not random and therefore is probably
significant.
For temperatures at lower depths, the model really depends on the temperature of
coldwater inflows from Dworshak Dam in its determination of hypolimnetic temperature. The
fact that the model returned higher hypolimnion temperatures for the no-dams scenario using the
same coldwater releases for both no-dams and with-dams scenarios indicates that mixing is much
more significant with dams removed. The inference to be made is not that temperatures at the
bottom will increase by 1-4*C when the dams are removed, but that heat absorbed by the water
body will be much more uniformly distributed in the water column.
These simulations indicate that the surface temperatures will decrease in the no-dam
scenario, but the temperatures at depth will increase. The temperature changes going from
impounded to free-flowing conditions are small, but significant. The conditions used in both
cases (with-dams and no-dams) are identical, thus the fact that there is a disparity in the
temperatures in the two cases is qualitatively important even if this disparity is inaccurate in
41
magnitude. The implication of this result is that while dam removal may assist salmon
populations that live mainly in the upper layers of the water column, the dam breaching option
may also adversely impact fish in the bottom layers.
42
6.0 Discussion and Recommendations
There are several dimensions to the way salmon species choose their habitat in the Lower Snake
River. For example, it has been observed that subyearling chinook prefer shorelines in spring,
where they remain until increasing temperatures force them to seek cooler waters (Curet, 1993).
Some of the main considerations for salmon in determining the optimal habitat are water
temperature, dissolved oxygen content, and cover from predators (Coutant, 1999). These factors
are rarely complementary. For instance, high dissolved oxygen levels are found at the surface.
However, in summer, water surface temperatures are much too high for salmon. Thus, a
compromise must be reached between the two needs.
The analysis in this thesis only considers the temperature issue. While the simulations
have over-predicted thermal stratification, they show relative differences between stratification in
impounded and free-flowing conditions. As indicated in Section 5.4, such stratification effects
may be important in determining the effects of dam removal on habitats of Lower Snake River
fish. With more accurate data and more detailed calibration, the model can be used to predict
thermal stratification much more accurately. Stratification may be important because it creates
depths of different temperatures that salmon may seek refuge in. Although juveniles tend to stay
at the surface regardless of temperature (Coutant, 1999), adults may vary their habitat depths if
there is a substantial temperature advantage.
This thesis has shown that stratification, while possibly over-predicted, is significant.
Water surface temperatures tend to change little with or without dams because they are
determined more by the ambient temperatures and solar heating than water temperatures at depth.
To look at the issue from the point of view of the salmon, this means that dam removal will not
hold much advantage if the fish tend to stay at the surface despite the high temperatures there. On
the other hand, Lower Snake River salmon have adapted somewhat to their transformed habitat
since the construction of the four dams. There is every reason to expect them to take advantage of
the stratification effect in the river, or even adapt to higher temperatures. In the case of dam
removal, the stratification advantage may be reduced because temperatures at the bottom of the
river will be higher than with the dams in place.
43
A further step to take would be to compare the 1-D model with the 2-D model. While
water temperatures at the surface appear to be about the same for the no-dams scenario using
either model (Perkins and Richmond, 1999), this does not necessarily validate the 1-D model, or
even the 2-D model. A detailed comparison of the two is important because it would probe the
current assumptions about Lower Snake River, both currently, and with the dams removed.
Lower Snake presents a difficult problem because no one can really predict how the river will
change when the dams are removed.
Finally, a scale model of the river, or select portions of it, should be made in order to
investigate hydrology changes when dams are removed. Of course, conditions such as
meteorology will be impossible to simulate in a laboratory setting. One way to overcome these
problems may be to simulate the water budget variation in the actual system.
44
Chapter 1
1. USACE, 1999. Draft Environmental Impact Statement and Feasibility Study for Lower Snake
River, United States Army Corps of Engineers, December 1999.
2. Yearsley, John, 1999. Columbia River Temperature Assessment: Simulation Methods,
United States Environmental Protection Agency Region 10, February 1999.
3. Perkins, William A., and Richmond, Marshall C., 1999. Long-term, One-Dimensional
Simulation of Lower Snake River Temperatures for Current and Unimpounded Conditions:
Draft Report. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 1999.
Chapter 2
1. J.E. Edinger, 2000. http://www.jeeai.con/
2. Cole, Thomas M., and Buchak, Edward M., 1995. CE-QUAL-W2: A Two-Dimensional,
Laterally Averaged, Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model, Version 2.0, USACE, June
1995.
3.
4.
5.
6.
USGS, 2000. http://www.mesc.usgs.gov/projects/shasta-lake.htm
Cornell, 2000. http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/Thermal.htm
USGS Water, 2000. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis-w
Streamnet, 2000. ftp://www.streamnet.org/pub/streamnet/Crbtdata
Chapter 3
1. J.E. Edinger, 2000. http://www.jeeai.com/
2. Streamnet, 2000. ftp://www.streamnet.org/pub/streamnet/Crbtdata
3. USGS, 2000. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis-w
4. USACE, 2000. http://www.nwd-wc.usace.army.mil/ftppub/data request/
5. NOAA, 1993. Nautical Chart 18548, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
U.S. Department of Commerce & U.S Department of the Interior, June 1993.
Chapter 4
1. http://www.nww.usace.army.mil/html/pub/pi/navigation/lwrgran.htm)
2. http://www.nwd-wc.usace.army.mil/ftppub/data request/
3. Climatic Atlas of the United States, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
reprinted 1983.
Chapter 5
1. USACE, 1997. http://www.nww.usace.army.mil/html/offices/pl/pf/scs/natriver.htm
Chapter 6
1. Curet, 1993. Habitat Use, Food Habits and the Influence of Predation on Subyearling
Chinook Salmon in Lower Granite and little Goose Reservoirs, Washington, Thomas S.
Curet, M.S. Thesis, University of Idaho, December 1993.
2. Coutant, 1999. Perspectives on Temperature in the Pacific Northwest's Fresh Waters, Charles
C. Coutant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1999.
45
3.
Perkins, William A., and Richmond, Marshall C., 1999. Long-term, One-Dimensional
Simulation of Lower Snake River Temperatures for Current and Unimpounded Conditions:
Draft Report. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, August 1999.
Appendix A
1. Cole, Thomas M., and Buchak, Edward M., 1995. CE-QUAL-W2: A Two-Dimensional,
Laterally Averaged, Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model, Version 2.0, USACE, June
1995.
Appendix B
1. NCDC, 2000. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
2. Brennan, T.S., Lehmann, A.K., O'Dell, I., Tungate, A.M., Water Resources Data, Idaho,
Water Year 1998 U.S. Department of the Interior, 1998.
Appendix C
1. NOAA, 1993. Nautical Chart 18548, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
Department of Commerce and U.S. Department of the Interior, June 1993.
46
The following is an excerpt from the User Manual for CE-QUAL-W2, Version 2, by Tom Cole
and Edward M. Buchak, June 1995. It discusses the equations behind the model. Only portions
pertinent to the case of Lower Granite Reservoir are included.
Fundamental Equations
CE-QUAL-W2 uses the laterally averaged equations of fluid motion derived from the three dimensional equations (Edinger and Buchak, 1975). They consist of six equations and six unknowns. The equations are:
Horizontal Momentum
aUB
at
, aUUB
8x
+
aWUB
az
a BAx--aU
_ 1 BP +a
p ax
8x
+
Bx
(A-1)
dz
where
U
B
t
x
z
W
p
P
T
= longitudinal, laterally averaged velocity, m sec'
= waterbody width, m
= time, sec
= longitudinal Cartesian coordinate: x is along the lake centerline at the water
surface, positive to the right
= vertical Cartesian coordinate: z is positive downward
= vertical, laterally averaged velocity, m sec-'
= density, kg m
= pressure, N m 2
= longitudinal momentum dispersion coefficient, m2 sec= shear stress per unit mass resulting from the vertical gradient of the horizontal
velocity, U, mz sec 2
The first term represents the time rate of change of horizontal momentum, and the second and
third terms are the horizontal and vertical advection of momentum. The first term on the righthand side (RHS) of equation (A-1) is the force imposed by the horizontal pressure gradient.
The second term on the RHS is the horizontal dispersion of momentum, and the third term is
the force due to shear stress.
47
Constituent Transport
aB
+
at
aBB
ax
,
WBGD _
a aBD
'8-x/
az
ax
_
aa BD az
z
az
az /
= qB
+
S,B
(A-2)
(A2
where
(D
D,
D,
q,
S,
laterally averaged constituent concentration, g m
longitudinal temperature and constituent dispersion coefficient, m2 sec'
vertical temperature and constituent dispersion coefficient, m2 secI
lateral inflow or outflow mass flow rate of constituent per unit volume, g
Mr3 sec'
= kinetics source/sink term for constituent concentrations, g tn4 sec'
=
=
=
=
Each constituent has a balance as in equation (A-) with specific source and sink terms. The
first term in equation (A-1) represents the time rate of change of constituent concentration and
the second and third terms are the horizontal and vertical advection of constituents. The fourth
and fifth terms are the horizontal and vertical diffusion of constituents. The first term on the
RHS is the lateral inflow/outflow of constituents, and the second term represents kinetic
source/sink rates for constituents.
Free Water Surface Elevation
aB i
_1_
at
= -
a
x
fUBdz
h
h
-
fqBdz
(A-3)
where
B7
h
q
=
=
=
=
time and spatially varying surface width, m
free water surface location, m
total depth, m
lateral boundary inflow or outflow, m3 sec'
48
BP =zpg
(A-4)
az
where
g
2
= acceleration due to gravity, m sec
Continuity
aUB
+
8x
8WB3 =qB
B
(A-5)
Equation of State
p = f(TI,,@.MIA,)
(A-6)
where
f(TA-Ds,AD)
=
density function dependent upon temperature, total dissolved solids or
salinity, and suspended solids
The six equations result in six unknowns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
free water surface elevation, il
pressure, P
horizontal velocity, U
vertical velocity, W
constituent concentration, D
density, p
Lateral averaging eliminates the lateral momentum balance, lateral velocity, and Coriolis
acceleration. The solution of the six equations for the six unknowns forms the basic model
structure.
49
This section contains information about the locations at which data were collected, copies of data
that were used, and sources of all data. Data here does not include bathymetric cross-sections,
which can be found in Appendix C.
B.1 Locations
B.1.1 Meteorological Stations
Lewiston Nez Perce County Airport, Idaho - USGS Station 24149
0
Latitude/Longitude: 460 22'N / 117 01'W
sea level
above
(1435.7')
Elevation: 437.7m
"Lewiston is located at the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater Rivers at an
elevation of 738 feet above mean sea level. Lower Granite Lake extends from the
confluence of the two rivers, 32 miles downstream in the Snake River channel, to
Lower Granite Dam. The valley is rather narrow with a range of hills to the north
sloping abruptly to about 2,000 feet above the valley floor. To the south the terrain
rises more gradually to a more or less flat bench about 700 feet above the valley.
The Weather Office is located on the bench at an elevation of 1,413 feet above sea
level and about 2 miles south of Lewiston. Although Lewiston is at about the same
latitude as Duluth, Minnesota, the climate, especially in the wintertime, is
comparatively very mild. This mildness can be explained by its location with respect
to the effects of Pacific air masses from the west and by the sheltering effects of
the mountains that surround the valley in almost every direction.
Considerable variations in the climate are to be found within relatively short
distances from the valley itself. On the prairies surrounding the valley, winter
temperatures are much lower and the precipitation is normally almost double that
recorded in the valley and at the airport location.
Precipitation normally amounts to about 13 inches annually, which is rather evenly
distributed through the year except for the months of July and August, which are
characterized by infrequent thunderstorms that usually drop only small amounts of
rain. Records show that several times during these two months not more than a
trace of rain has been recorded and at times not even a trace. The thunderstorms
on the prairie are, at times, accompanied by heavy hail and windstorms. Snowfall in
the valley averages about 18 inches during the year, concentrated mostly in the three
months of December, January, and February, but in the higher country surrounding
the valley the snowfall is much heavier. Most of the precipitation reaching this
vicinity results from strong invasions of moist air from the North Pacific source
region. Greatest amounts of both rain and snow occur when this moist air is
overrunning a weak front that has become stationary along an east-west line a short
distance south of the area.
Temperatures show a wide range from more than 115 degrees to less than -20
degrees. Many winters have gone by without a temperature of zero being recorded
in the valley, but the prairie sections usually experience lower temperatures. The
50
summers experience hot and dry periods with as many as 10 consecutive days with
afternoon temperatures reaching 100 degrees or more. Considerable cooling after
sunset makes the nights very comfortable. Cold waves occur when arctic air,
originating in the Yukon Territory, moves southward. Such cold waves are
relatively infrequent when compared to the number of arctic outbreaks east of the
continental divide in Montana only a short distance away.
Winds are light, usually prevailing from the east, with occasional stronger winds
accompanying the well-developed frontal systems from the west.
Relative humidity averages about 70 percent during the winter months and
gradually lowers to about 40 percent during July and August.
The growing season of approximately 200 days in this part of the country, makes
conditions favorable for the growing of many types of fruits, vegetables, and
berries."
--- from National Climatic Data Center web-site (NCDC, 2000)
Yakima Weather Station - USGS Station 24243
Latitude/Longitude: 460 34'N / 120 0 33'W
Elevation: 324.3m (1063.7') above sea level
"Yakima is located in a small east-west valley in the upper (northwestern) part of the
Yakima Valley. Local topography is complex with a number of minor valleys and
ridges giving a local relief of as much as 1,000 feet. This complex topography
results in marked variations in air drainage, winds, and low temperatures within
short distances.
The climate of the Yakima Valley is relatively mild and dry. It has characteristics of
both maritime and continental climates, modified by the Cascade and the Rocky
Mountains, respectively. Summers are dry and rather hot, and winters cool with
only light snowfall. The maritime influence is strongest in winter when the
prevailing westerlies are the strongest and most steady. The Selkirk and Rocky
Mountains in British Columbia and Idaho shield the area from most of the very cold
air masses that sweep down from Canada into the Great Plains and eastern United
States. Sometimes a strong polar high pressure area over western Canada will occur
at the same time that a low pressure area covers the southwestern United States.
On these occasions, the cold arctic air will pour through the passes and down the
river valleys of British Columbia, bringing very cold temperatures to Yakima.
However, over one-half of the winters remain above zero.
The modifying influence of the Pacific Ocean is much less in summer. Afternoons
are hot, but the dry air results in a rapid temperature fall after sunset, and nights are
pleasantly cool with summertime low temperatures, usually in the 50s. Spells of 4
to 11 days of 100 degrees or more have occurred. The length of the growing season
varies depending on the immediate topography and the crop grown. Temperatures
below 32 degrees are infrequent during the period from mid-May through
September. Temperatures below 40 degrees during July and August have occurred
in about half of the years.
Precipitation follows the pattern of a West Coast marine climate with the typical
late fall and early winter high. However, since Yakima lies in the rain shadow of the
Cascades, total amounts are small. The three months, November to January, total
51
nearly half of the annual fall. Late June, July, and August are very dry.
Irrigation is necessary for nearly all crops. Ample water supplies are available from
the snowmelt in the Cascade Mountains which is collected in storage reservoirs for
summer use.
Snowfall in the Yakima area is light, averaging 20 to 25 inches.
Summers are sunny, with about 85 percent of the possible sunshine. Winters are
generally cloudy, with only a third of the possible sunshine.
Winds are mostly light, averaging about 7 mph for the year, being somewhat
stronger in late spring and weaker in winter. Speeds of 30 to 35 mph are reached at
least once in about half the months and speeds over 40 mph occur in about I out of
5 months. The most common wind direction in downtown Yakima is northwest,
while at the airport the wind is from the west in winter and the west-northwest in
summer."
--- from National Climatic Data Center web-site
B.1.2 Flow Gauge Stations
Table B.1 Characteristics of Flow Gauge Stations
County
Longitude
Latitude
Station
Number
13342500
13334300
46026'55"
46005'50"
116049'35"
116058'36"
Nez Perce
Asotin
Basin
name
Clearwater
Lower
SnakeAsotin
Drainage
Area
(miles2)
9570
92960
Datum (ft.
above msl)
770.49
807
Note:
Snake River near Anatone, WA
Outflows are measured at Lower Granite Dam by he US Army Corps of Engineers. The outflow is
generally the sum of the spill and the generator water use.
52
0
0
10
10
20
20
30
30
MILES
KILOMETERS
Figure B.1 Locations of streamflow and water quality gauge stations in north-central
Idaho.Source: Brennan et al
B.1.3 Temperature Measurement Locations
Clearwater River at Orofino
STATION LOCATION: In Orofino at river mile 44.6 at gauging station on right bank.
SOURCE OF DATA: USGS, Washington District, Pasco, WA
53
Snake River near Anatone, WA
STATION LOCATION: at river mile 167.2 at gauging station on left bank, 7.8 mi. east
of
Anatone.
DATA SOURCE: USGS, Washington District, Pasco, WA.
Lower Granite Dam TDG Forebay (used for verification of model)
STATION LOCATION: River mile 107.5 on outside of wall to navigational lock
upstream of spillway
SOURCE OF DATA: US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Division Office, data
collected by Walla Walla District Office.
B.2 Data
Bathymetry file (with-dams)
Lower Granite Reservoir bathymetry
Segment length [DLX]
1300.0
1000.0 1300.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0 1600.0
1600.0
1300.0
1600.0
1600.0
2400.0
1600.0
1600.0
2200.0
3200.0
1600.0
4300.0
400.0
1600.0
1600.0
1100.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
1600.0
Water surface elevation [ELWS]
224.51
224.51
224.51 224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51 224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
224.51
4.97
5.95
5.45
5.20
5.95
5.45
4.36
5.79
6.20
5.22
5.79
0.17
0.07
5.32
5.48
0.02
5.27
4.78
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
800.0
1000.0
Segment orientation
5.60
5.60
5.50
5.52
5.39
4.82
5.24
5.24
Layer height [H]
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
[PHIO]
5.60
0.09
5.04
2.0
1.0
2.0
4.10
0.28
5.90
[.0
[.0
2.0
Segment 1 - branch 1 upstream boundary
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
377.
0.
0.
370.
0.
0.
363.
0.
0.
346.
0.
0.
292.
0.
0.
215.
0.
0.
116.
0.
0.
0.
377.
0.
0.
370.
0.
0.
363.
0.
0.
346.
0.
0.
292.
0.
0.
215.
0.
0.
116.
0.
Segment 4 - branch 1
385.
0.
394.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
377.
0.
0.
370.
0.
0.
363.
0.
0.
346.
0.
0.
292.
0.
0.
215.
0.
0.
116.
0.
416.
0.
0.
412.
0.
0.
406.
0.
0.
400.
0.
0.
376.
0.
0.
186.
0.
0.
143.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Segment 2 - branch 1
394.
385.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Segment 3 - branch 1
385.
394.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
Segment 5 - branch 1
0.
79.
0.
432.
0.
0.
424.
0.
0.
54
Segment 6 - branch 1
0.
535.
465.
129.
108.
81.
0.
0.
0.
350.
38.
0.
287.
0.
0.
271.
0.
0.
263.
0.
0.
235.
0.
0.
200.
0.
0.
162.
0.
Segment 7 - branch 1
0.
516.
475.
235.
220.
199.
0.
0.
0.
432.
175.
0.
394.
143.
0.
364.
107.
0.
297.
52.
0.
265.
0.
0.
257.
0.
0.
246.
0.
Segment 8 - branch 1
0.
478.
461.
316.
304.
290.
0.
0.
0.
445.
272.
0.
430.
239.
0.
414.
0.
0.
387.
0.
0.
359.
0.
0.
341.
0.
0.
322.
0.
Segment 9 - branch 1
0.
452.
440.
322.
306.
290.
0.
0.
0.
424.
275.
0.
414.
159.
0.
413.
123.
0.
411.
92.
0.
393.
46.
0.
369.
0.
0.
342.
0.
Segment 10 - branch 1
0.
493.
458.
342.
326.
309.
0.
0.
0.
430.
281.
0.
425.
232.
0.
414.
130.
0.
401.
0.
0.
381.
0.
0.
365.
0.
0.
348.
0.
Segment 11 - branch 1
0.
528.
481.
274.
259.
238.
0.
0.
0.
443.
213.
0.
423.
174.
0.
410.
113.
0.
386.
0.
0.
348.
0.
0.
322.
0.
0.
297.
0.
Segment 12 - branch 1
0.
496.
493.
381.
359.
333.
0.
0.
0.
487.
301.
0.
484.
267.
0.
481.
212.
0.
477.
159.
0.
458.
93.
0.
435.
0.
0.
407.
0.
Segment 13 - branch 1
0.
486.
459.
316.
275.
219.
0.
0.
0.
443.
67.
0.
436.
65.
0.
429.
62.
0.
422.
58.
0.
413.
52.
0.
401.
41.
0.
374.
0.
Segment 14 - branch 1
0.
457.
436.
342.
328.
302.
0.
0.
0.
422.
241.
0.
413.
101.
0.
405.
0.
0.
392.
0.
0.
372.
0.
0.
364.
0.
0.
355.
0.
Segment 15 - branch 1
0.
476.
469.
316.
309.
299.
191.
0.
0.
460.
287.
0.
450.
276.
0.
431.
266.
0.
389.
254.
0.
360.
243.
0.
343.
229.
0.
329.
216.
Segment 16 - branch
0.
410.
276.
268.
180.
151.
1
393.
257.
120.
380.
248.
83.
369.
238.
31.
362.
231.
0.
350.
221.
0.
331.
214.
0.
312.
206.
0.
292.
196.
Segment 17 - branch 1
0.
405.
395.
299.
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Segment 18 - branch 1
0.
608.
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335.
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208.
123.
0.
583.
285.
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269.
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Segment 19 - branch 1
0.
602.
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337.
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Segment 20 - branch 1
0.
692.
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256.
0.
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528.
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472.
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286.
0.
0.
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55
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0.
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Segment 23 - branch 1
0.
564.
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0.
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Segment 24 - branch 1
0.
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Segment 25 - branch 1
0.
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0.
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0.
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0.
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0.
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Segment 29 - branch 1
0.
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63
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65
338.0000-5.555600.0000003.5264000.0000007.804300
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364.0000-2.22220-5.555560.900300217.43124.000000
365.0000-3.888900.0000002.957200180.18408.260900
(c) 1995
1995 Lower Granite Reservoir meteorology (Yakima Air terminal)
CLOUD
PHI
WIND
TDEW
TAIR
JDAY
1.000000-5.00000-8.888893.2795834.2112202.000000
2.000000-5.00000-11.11113.9655092.3643290.000000
3.000000-7.77778-11.11112.3578704.3778500.000000
4.000000-8.33333-11.11112.2292593.4099702.000000
5.000000-5.00000-8.333332.1220831.99679410.00000
6.000000-4.44444-7.222221.1575002.4271779.000000
7.000000-1.66667-2.222223.0009265.25345710.00000
8.000000-1.11111-1.111112.1863893.97396310.00000
9.0000001.1111111.6666672.1006484.06555010.00000
10.000001.6666671.6666671.3932874.29730310.00000
11.000001.6666672.2222221.2861114.51984010.00000
12.000000.5555560.5555560.9002782.17119010.00000
13.000001.6666671.6666671.6505094.33438210.00000
14.000001.6666671.6666672.3150003.85732410.00000
15.000001.1111111.1111111.2218063.6727979.000000
16.00000-1.11111-1.111110.1929172.79252710.00000
17.00000-2.22222-2.222220.6859264.74040010.00000
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20.000002.777778-1.111114.0941204.2295826.000000
21.000001.111111-3.333333.2152783.4008210.000000
22.000000.000000-3.888894.2227314.6096342.000000
23.000001.111111-4.444443.8583335.21155810.00000
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66
45.00000-7.22222-11.66671.9077313.6649378.000000
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296.00005.5555562.7777781.4790283.32496710.00000
297.00006.1111112.2222221.8005564.11164010.00000
298.00007.7777785.0000002.5722223.9626359.000000
299.000011.666671.1111115.7231945.2023091.000000
300.00005.0000001.1111112.6150933.3940496.000000
301.00003.3333330.5555561.8005564.7096916.000000
302.00001.666667-3.888893.0652313.7801163.000000
303.0000-0.55556-5.555562.1220834.1351054.000000
304.0000-1.11111-7.777783.7940283.1349190.000000
305.0000-1.11111-8.333332.9580564.3134800.000000
306.0000-3.33333-8.888892.6150934.0584484.000000
307.0000-2.22222-7.777782.6365283.5255658.000000
308.0000-1.11111-5.000001.8648613.3166479.000000
309.00007.222222-0.555563.1938433.0683878.000000
310.00005.555556-1.666671.9291674.08945210.00000
311.00001.6666671.6666671.0717594.0513639.000000
312.000015.000007.2222227.9738893.8858608.000000
313.00006.111111-3.333335.2730564.4956541.000000
314.0000-0.55556-1.111111.7362503.58463810.00000
315.00003.8888882.7777782.8937503.5382437.000000
316.00005.0000003.8888891.1360654.06696310.00000
317.00007.2222227.2222220.8788435.02699310.00000
318.00007.7777787.2222221.9934723.8329098.000000
319.00005.5555566.1111111.4790284.27425610.00000
320.00005.5555566.1111111.6719443.51211310.00000
321.00007.7777787.2222221.3504172.50523010.00000
322.000010.000002.7777784.0512504.3329915.000000
323.00005.0000002.2222223.5368064.16293310.00000
324.00005.000000-0.555562.4864814.1220867.000000
325.00003.3333331.1111112.3150003.7779898.000000
326.00002.2222221.6666670.9002783.7829748.000000
327.00003.3333334.4444442.1220833.85802410.00000
328.00007.7777786.6666673.0652313.9989989.000000
329.00007.7777784.4444442.5722223.8972719.000000
330.00003.3333330.5555563.5796763.6246943.000000
331.00001.6666672.2222221.5433333.19987510.00000
332.00008.8888895.0000004.5656942.7238698.000000
333.000014.444448.3333338.2096763.7284379.000000
334.00008.3333333.8888893.1938433.0785718.000000
335.00006.1111111.6666674.1798614.6448323.000000
336.00004.444444-2.777785.2516204.9741424.000000
337.0000-0.55556-1.111111.2003704.43661910.00000
338.00002.222222-5.555564.4799544.6035512.000000
339.0000-2.77778-5.555563.2581485.0491816.000000
340.0000-4.44444-6.111111.8005564.4500537.000000
341.0000-4.44444-5.555562.1006484.0708818.000000
342.0000-5.00000-17.77773.2581485.31304110.00000
343.0000-5.55556-9.444442.6793983.98877810.00000
344.0000-4.44444-6.111110.9645834.18016510.00000
345.0000-0.55556-0.555562.5722224.0503689.000000
346.00003.3333332.7777784.5442593.40130310.00000
347.00005.0000002.2222222.3578704.0731936.000000
348.00001.6666672.7777782.1006483.8266938.000000
349.0000-0.55556-1.111112.5507874.4562296.000000
350.0000-2.77778-2.222220.7502311.6245509.000000
351.00000.0000000.0000000.4501395.04967710.00000
352.00000.5555561.1111110.4501393.82454810.00000
353.00002.2222221.6666671.1360654.30340910.00000
354.00002.2222220.5555561.3504174.50323510.00000
355.00002.2222220.0000002.8080094.1891389.000000
356.0000-2.77778-2.777780.9002781.9090558.000000
357.0000-1.66667-1.666671.1575001.85900810.00000
358.0000-1.11111-2.222221.0288891.69613810.00000
359.0000-0.55556-2.777781.2003701.85883710.00000
360.0000-1.11111-3.888891.0074542.04404010.00000
361.0000-1.66667-3.333331.4575932.72291510.00000
362.0000-1.66667-3.333331.6076394.54691510.00000
363.0000-1.11111-1.666671.1360653.34204610.00000
364.00000.0000000.0000001.7362503.48392410.00000
365.00000.555556-1.111111.3932874.1470012.000000
70
Inflows
A. Spalding, ID (on Clearwater River)
(a) 1993
Clearwater Inflows (Branch 2) - 1993
Qtr
JDAY
1.00000093.39000
2.00000089.99400
3.00000088.01300
4.00000087.16400
5.00000099.05000
6.000000231.4940
7.00000089.42800
8.00000075.84400
9.00000081.78700
10.0000082.35300
11.00000297.1500
12.00000325.4500
13.00000291.4900
14.0000090.84300
15.00000114.0490
16.0000099.89900
17.0000096.78600
18.0000093.39000
19.0000090.27700
20.00000103.5780
21.0000098.76700
22.0000099.89900
23.00000100.1820
24.0000098.20100
25.0000096.78600
26.00000101.5970
27.00000116.0300
28.00000117.1620
29.00000115.7470
30.00000113.2000
31.00000109.2380
32.00000104.9930
33.00000104.4270
34.0000099.61600
35.0000098.76700
36.0000098.48400
37.0000099.05000
38.00000101.8800
39.00000105.8420
40.00000107.2570
41.00000110.3700
42.00000120.8410
43.00000127.6330
44.00000134.1420
45.00000134.9910
46.00000132.7270
47.00000118.8600
48.00000179.4220
49.00000154.8010
50.0000099.89900
51.00000119.1430
52.00000116.5960
53.00000111.5020
54.00000104.9930
55.00000101.3140
56.0000099.33300
57.0000095.37100
58.0000091.97500
59.0000093.10700
60.0000094.80500
61.0000096.50300
62.0000097.06900
63.0000098.20100
64.00000104.9930
65.00000142.3490
66.00000193.5720
67.00000230.6450
71
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Appendix C
This appendix contains cross-sectional information about the reservoir. The cross-sections were
derived from a Nautical Chart produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association in
June 1993 (NOAA, 1993).
All values are in feet; X-axis values describe reservoir widths and Y-axis values describe depths.
RM 137
0
100
300
200
400
500
400
500
0
50
100
150
200 M
RM 135.8
0
100
200
300
0
.7
50
100
150
200
RM 134.3
800
600
400
200
0
0
50
100
1 50
200
250
RM 132.2
0
100
300
200
500
400
600
0
50
~
-
-
-
100
150
200
250
76
RM 129.2
0
100
400
300
200
500
0
100
200
300
RM 128.2
0
100
300
200
400
500
600
400
500
600
0
50
100
150
200
250
RM 127.5
0
100
200
300
0
50-
200
250
77
RM 125.5
0
100
400
300
200
500
600
0
.
100
.
200
300
RM +124.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
0
50
100
150
200
250
78
RM 122
100
0
200
300
400
500
300
400
500
10
100.
200
300
400
RM 121
100
0
200
0
100
200
300
400
RM 119.5
200
0
400
600
800
0
100
200300
400
M
79
RM 117.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0
100
:200
:300
400
RM 116.5
600
400
200
0
800
0
100
200
300
400
...
RM 115.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0
100
200
300
400
-
80
RM 113.5
100
0
300
200
400
500
600
400
500
600
0
100
200
1
300
400
RM 112.5
100
0
200
300
0
100
200
300
400
RM 111.5
0
600
400
200
800
1000
0
100
200
-
-
-
-
--
300-
81
RM 110.5
0
600
400
200
800
0
100
200
300
400
RM 109.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
800
1000
100
200
300
400
RM 108.5
0
200
400
600
100
200
300
400
82