Footnotes & Bibliography Guide
Footnotes are a simple way to organize in-text citations for a poster or
presentation, and allow a more coherent flow free of distraction from bulky
parentheticals.
For reports, footnotes are typically only used in the Chicago bibliography format.
For Dr. Vonhof’s poster project, footnotes can also be used with a correctly
formatted and consistent MLA or APA bibliography. At the bottom of your poster,
place a shortened bibliographic section titled “references” or “notes”. Attach your
bibliography on an 8.5x11” separate page.
Formatting footnotes on your poster
1. Every time you use an idea, fact, or direct quote from an outside source,
place a superscripted number after the period of that sentence.
2. Each time you do this, you must use a new footnote, even if the same
source was used previously in your poster. You should never use the
same footnote number twice.
3. Your footnote numbers must be ordered numerically. The first footnote
appearing on your poster is be 1, the next footnote used is 2, and so forth.
Proofread your poster to make sure the order did not get messed up after
editing, and you’re not missing or repeating any footnotes.
4. If you use multiple sources in one sentence, use a different number for
each source, all superscripted and listed in order separated by commas
after the period.
Formatting references section of your poster
1. List your footnotes numerically, following the same order in your
References section as they do in the body of your poster’s text.
2. If the same source is used multiple times in a row, for the second+
footnotes write “Ibid” in italics. If the page number is different, write “Ibid.,
#.”
3. If the same source is referenced multiple times, but not consecutively, you
cannot use Ibid. You can write a shortened version of the footnote, though.
After the first footnote for a source, any consequent references of the
same source must only include the author’s last name, part or all of the
work’s title, and the page number.
Formatting Chicago style bibliography
1. The bibliography goes on a separate page at the end of your report or
attached to your poster. The page should be titled “Bibliography”, centered
at the top of the page in plain text.
2. Enter each source alphabetically by author’s last name, or the first word to
appear in the citation. Ignore “a”, “the”, or “and” when alphabetizing. Do
not number the entries.
3. Each entry should be single spaced, with double spacing between entries.
4. The first line of each entry should not be indented. All following lines of
each entry should be indented ½ inch. In Microsoft Word, you can use the
“hanging indent” feature to accomplish this, found in the
Format…Paragraph section under the “Special” menu in the “Indentation”
section. Adjust “Hanging” to 0.5.
What not to do
1. The footnotes at bottom of poster are NOT a bibliography. The
bibliography should include many sources that were never directly
referenced on your poster, and be formatted much differently than your
poster’s “references” section.
2. Do not leave out any sources that you used during any part of your project.
Even if you used a source simply to narrow down what not to include on
your poster – include it in the bibliography. Claiming ideas that you took
from a source as your own is plagiarism, even if you don’t use direct
quotes.
3. Do not forget to proofread your footnotes after you’ve finalized your poster
– ensure a correct order and that everything is cited properly. Don’t
accidentally plagiarize.
How to Write a Bibliography: Chicago Style
A simple guide to writing footnotes can be found on the Chicago manual of style
website:
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
Below are some commonly used sources.
Footnotes:
Book 1. Firstname Lastname, Title: Subtitle (City: Publisher, Year), pg-pg.
2. Last, Title, pg.
Online Book 1. Firstname Lastname, Title: Subtitle (City: Publisher, Year), url.
2. Last, Title, chapter/section/page.
Online Journal Article *If available, include DOI (permanent identifier for article, see http://dx.doi.org/ to
plug it in)
1. Firstname Lastname and Firstname Lastname, “Article Title,” Journal Title
Edition# (Year): page-page, doi: ##.####/######.
2. Lastname and Lastname, “Title,” page.
note: if there is no DOI, include url as last section of footnote citation.
Website 1. “Article/Site Title,” last modified Month xx, Year, full url.
2. “Article Title.”
Article from Magazine/Newspaper 1. Firstname Lastname, “Article Title,” Magazine/Newspaper Name, Month xx,
xxxx, page.
2. Lastname, “Article Title,” page.
Bibliography:
Book Lastname, Firstname. Title: Subtitle. City: Publisher, Year.
Online Book
Lastname, Firstname. Title: Subtitle. City: Publisher, Year. (Kindle
Edition)(Google Books)(full url).
Online Journal Article
Lastname, Firstname and Firstname Lastname. “Article Title.” Journal Title
Edition# Year: pages. Accessed Month xx, xxxx. doi: xx.xxxx/xxxxxx.
Website
Title of Website. “Title of Article/Page.” Accessed Month xx, xxxx. Full url.
Article from Magazine/Newspaper
Lastname, Firstname. “Article Title.” Magazine/Newspaper Name, month xx,
xxxx. full url.
Secondary Citations:
Secondary citations are used when you quote a primary source, but took the
quote from a secondary source such as a book or website. This way you can cite
primary sources even if you didn’t consult the original source, and the reader can
still find where you obtained your quotation.
First, you must cite the original source, and second, the source from which you
took the quote (i.e. the secondary source in which you found the primary source
quote).
Lastname, Firstname (of original quote). Title of original primary source. Date of
original quote. Cited in Author, Title (publication info) page #.
In the example below, the writer used a quote from Robert Cushman, but found
the quote not in Cushman’s original article published in 1621, but in a book by
author Gregory Nobels published in 1997.
Cushman, Robert. “Reasons and Consideration Touching the Lawfulness of
Removing Out of England in the Parts of America.” 1621. Cited in Gregory
H. Nobels, American Frontiers: Cultural Encounters and Continental
Conquest (New York: Hill and Wang, 1997) 30-31.
Further Resources
Chicago Manual of Style
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/
Purdue OWL
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/
University of Wisconsin footnotes and bibliography guide
http://www.uwosh.edu/history/student-information/history-style-guide/part-3guide-to-writing-footnotes-and-bibliographies
Below is an example of a paper (the text of a poster) with correctly formatted
footnotes, references section (that would be placed at bottom of poster), and
bibliography (separate from poster, handed in attached).
With the opening of the Great Plains region of the U.S. for settlement in
the 19th century came unprecedented opportunity for any citizen to claim land
and own a farm. From the original five thousand inhabitants of the Dakota
Territory at its formation in 1861, incredibly cheap land from the Homestead Act
of 1862 inspired the population boom to over 430,000 by 1885.1 Dakota Territory
settlers’ lack of knowledge of the region’s soil and climate fostered the growth of
new farming methods and the rise of large-scale farming in the late 19th and very
early 20th centuries, which are still prevalent in 21st century agriculture.
The initial wave of Westward settlers were not experienced agriculturalists,
but everyday Americans seeking the economic opportunity of owning a
successful farm. The common expectation was that the new lands out West
would be comparable to those from the settlers’ homes, and farming them would
be much simpler than it actually was. In truth, the dry Dakota Territory climate
was very different from the humid climate of the more heavily forested Eastern
regions most farmers were used to.2
Advanced knowledge of soil sciences informs agriculturalists today that
the Dakotas have black, “grain-producing” soils very different from the clay soils
in the Eastern United States.3 But before 1900, “even the federal agencies had
learned very little about soils”.4 The first soil survey was not conducted until 1899
in the U.S., and there was no “classified body of knowledge” of soil sciences to
guide homesteaders.5,6 Homesteaders on the Plains would plant the crops that
they knew to be successful elsewhere. “[B]ut their previous farming experience
was not always a reliable guide”, and soon most crops failed.7 The crops that
were most drought-resistant survived: namely wheat and barley. Durum wheat
and hard redspring types of wheat were being widely grown in the Dakota
Territory by 1879, which are the hardiest cereal grains for an arid climate.8
Hardy Webster Campbell, when he homesteaded in the Dakota Territory
in 1879, noticed that the crop yield was “not what [it] might be” were the lands
used properly.9 He implemented a dry farming system over the next decades,
publishing his “Soil Culture Manual” on the subject in 1902, bringing the centuryold farming techniques to popularity on the Great Plains. This was a way to farm
the semi-arid region of the Northern Great Plains without irrigation. It was a
solution to crop failure due to drought, and was relatively inexpensive and simple
to implement using basic plows and tools that were already commonly in use.
However, this practice was overused and misunderstood, and implemented in a
way that was terrible for the land, literally uprooting entire farms after only a few
years of use. An immediate impact of overuse of dry farming was the devastating
Dust Bowl of the 1930s, wherein millions of acres of land erosion were caused by
the common misunderstanding of Campbell’s methods.
Bonanza farms were another new farming style originating in the Dakota
Territory in the 1870s. These were massive farms harvesting thousands of acres
of wheat at a time. This was a way to cope with the unfamiliar lands; the settlers
knew wheat was successful and used the large tracts of cheap land from the
railroad companies in the late 19th century to reap huge profits. By 1900, North
Dakota had over 1,300 farms with thousands of acres of wheat, averaging
around 7,000 acres each.10 The bonanza farm era ended by 1900 with drought
and economic decline for the wheat industry.11
The new methods used to farm the northern Plains caused a shift in
resources used. Dry farming used no irrigation, and made farming on a large
scale easier and more efficient. This allowed for the rise of vast monoculture
wheat farms employing farmhands (not just the family owning the farm) and using
large-scale equipment and machinery (such as threshers and tractors) (Fig. 3),
overall making the farm process more commercial and less personal.
Dry land farming techniques from the 1800s are still used on most farms in
the Dakotas, and North Dakota alone produced almost 8 million acres of wheat in
2014 according to the USDA. It has been modified since Campbell’s manual, but
the basis of non-irrigated farming of wheat is from Campbell. Recently in the
news, organic farms in California have been turning to dry farming methods to
remain productive in the droughts affecting the state, without irrigation.12
While bonanza farms are no longer in business (but some are historically
preserved), “the corporation farms of the 1920’s [across the Great Plains] were
largely a renewal of the idea”. Bonanza farms were the first large, monoculture
farms in the wheat regions, and are commonly thought to have directly influenced
commercial farming of wheat today.13 Wheat became a vastly successful national
market in the early 20th century, all starting with the massive monoculture
bonanza farms in the Dakotas.
Notes
1. George Washington Kingsbury, History of the Dakota Territory (Ithaca: S.
J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1915), Google Books.
2. Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860-1897
(New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1945).
3. John C. Hudson, “Agriculture,” Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, 1st ed.
4. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier, 5.
5. Lorraine J. Pellack, “Soil Surveys — They’re Not Just for Farmers,” Issues
in Science and Technology Librarianship 58 (2009): doi:
10.5062/F4K935FH.
6. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier, 5.
7. John C. Hudson, “Agriculture.”
8. Ibid.
9. Hardy Webster Campbell, Campbell’s Soil Culture Manual (New York:
Campbell, 1902), 5.
10. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier, 158.
11. Hiram M. Drache, “Bonanza Farming,” Encyclopedia of the Great Plains,
1st ed.
12. Brian Barth, “When the Well Runs Dry, Try Dry Farming,” Modern Farmer,
July 10, 2014.
13. Shannon, The Farmer’s Last Frontier, 160.
14. David Granatstein, Dryland Farming in the Northwestern United States: A
Nontechnical Overview (Washington State Cooperative Extension, 1992),
Google Books.
Bibliography
Barth, Brian. “When the Well Runs Dry, Try Dry Farming.” Modern Farmer, July 10,
2014. http://modernfarmer.com/2014/07/well-runs-dry-try-dry-farming/.
Batchelder, George Alexander. A Sketch of the History and Resources of Dakota
Territory. Yankton: Press Steam Power Printing Company, 1870.
Briggs, Harold E. “Grasshopper Plagues and Early Dakota Agriculture, 1864-1876.”
Agricultural History 8 1934: 51-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739497.
Campbell, Hardy Webster. Campbell’s Soil Culture Manual. New York: Campbell,
1902.
Collins, Edward Elliott. “A History of Union County, South Dakota, to 1880.” Thesis,
University of South Dakota, 1937.
“The Commercial Side of the Dry Farming Movement.” The Thresherman’s Review
20 1911: 28-29. Accessed October 25th, 2014. Google Books.
Drache, Hiram M. “Bonanza Farming.” In Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. 1st ed.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004.
Fargo, North Dakota: Its History and Images. “Dakota Territory Growth.” Accessed
October 12th, 2014. http://library.ndsu.edu/fargo-history/?q=content/dakotaterritory-growth.
Granatstein, David. Dryland Farming in the Northwestern United States: A
Nontechnical Overview. Washington State Cooperative Extension, 1992.
Google Books.
Grant, Michael J. “Dryland Farming.” In Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. 1st ed.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004.
Hudson, John C. “Agriculture.” In Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. 1st ed. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska, 2004.
Isern, Thomas D. “Campbell, Hardy Webster (1850-1937).” In Encyclopedia of the
Great Plains. 1st ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004.
Killelea, Eric. “Farmers Get Close Look at Dryland Crops.” Williston Herald, July 11,
2014. http://www.willistonherald.com/news/farmers-get-close-look-at-drylandcrops/article_5aea3552-092b-11e4-9df2-0019bb2963f4.html
.
Kingsbury, George Washington. History of Dakota Territory. Ithaca: S.J. Clarke
Publishing Company, 1915. Google Books.
Lamar, Howard Roberts. Dakota Territory 1861-1889. London: Yale University
Press, 1956.
Libecap, Gary D. and Zeynep Kocabiyik Hansen. “‘Rain Follows the Plow:’ The
Climate Information Problem and Homestead Failure in the Upper Great
Plains, 1890-1925.” Thesis, University of Arizona, 2000.
The Little Organic Farm. “A Bit of History and About the Farm.”
http://www.thelittleorganicfarm.com/History.html.
Lowitt, Richard. “Dry Farming.” In Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.
http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/D/DR009.html.
Olmstead, Alan L. and Paul W. Rhode. “Adjusting to Climatic Variation: Historical
Perspectives
from North American Agricultural Development.” Thesis,
Duke University, 2009.
Pellack, Lorraine J. “Soil Surveys — They’re Not Just for Farmers.” Issues in
Science and Technology Librarianship 58 2009. doi: 10.5062/F4K935FH.
Schell, Herbert S. “Drought and Agriculture in Eastern South Dakota During the
Eighteen Nineties.” Agricultural History 5 1931: 162-180.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3739326.
Shannon, Fred A. The Farmer’s Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860-1897. New York:
Farrar & Rinehart, 1945.
Wishart, David J. “Settling the Great Plains, 1850-1930: Prospects and Problems.” In
North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. 2nd ed.
McIlwraith, Thomas F., ed., and Edward K. Muller, ed. Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2001.