Journal of Youth Development
Bridging Research & Practice
Volume 8, No. 3,
2013
Sponsored by: National Association of Extension 4-H Agents (NAE4-HA)
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print)
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
2013
Volume 8 Number 3
Editor’s Comments:
Readers will not be disappointed with the variety of youth program models, youth development strategies
and research updates included in this issue of JYD. Highlights include “On a Pathway Towards Thriving”
which examines the reliability and validity of tools aimed at promoting intentional self-regulation within
mentoring programs utilizing the metaphor of a GPS navigational system. The increasingly important
issue of developing healthy lifestyle programs is discussed in the article “4-Health: A Programmatic
Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program” while the importance of STEM
programming is addressed in “Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology.” Additional articles
examine sports participation, utilization of technology in program delivery, civic engagement outreach,
and the impact of parental involvement in structured youth programs. Research strategies and resource
reviews provide additional data to consider in youth program development. Enjoy.
Manuscripts for the Fall and Winter 2014 issues are now being accepted in the following
areas:
• Feature Articles ~ informational, explanatory, or critical analysis and interpretation of major
trends in the field or comprehensive reviews. Include clear implications for youth development
research, practice and programming. 2,000-5,000 words
• Program Articles ~ discuss programs and outcomes or describe promising programs and pilot
projects that have clear implications for youth development research, practice and programming.
1,500-4,000 words
• Research and Evaluation Strategies ~ describe innovative methodologies and strategies in
the collection and analysis of quantitative or qualitative research and evaluation data.
1,500-4,500 words
• Resource Reviews ~ present analyses of materials, such as books, curricula or videos.
300-800 words
Publication Committee
Patricia Dawson, Editor
Oregon State University
Publications Committee
Chair: Suzanne
LeMenestrel
National 4-H Headquarters
NAE4-HA Representative:
Elijah Wilson
University of Kentucky
Committee Members:
Dale Blyth
University of Minnesota
Lynne Borden
University of Arizona
Hanh Coo Yu
Social Policy Research Associates
Michael Conn
Girl Scouts of the USA
Michelle Alberti Gambone
Youth Development Strategies,
Inc.
Kate Walker
University of Minnesota
Rich Lerner
Tufts University
Christine McCauley
Ohannessian
University of Delaware
Alexandra Loukas
The University of Texas at
Austin
Christina Theokas
The Education Trust
Volume 8, Number 3
2013
Contents
Feature Articles
On a Pathway Towards Thriving: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote
Positive Development and Intentional Self Regulation in Youth
[Article 130803FA001] ……………………………………………………………..……………………..…Page 4
Bowers, Edmond P.; Napolitano, Christopher M.; Arbeit, Miriam R.; Chase, Paul; Glickman,
Samantha A.; Lerner, Richard M.; Lerner, Jacqueline V.
This article provides initial data about the reliability and validity of tools aimed at promoting
youth intentional self regulation (ISR) within mentoring programs. Based on the translation of
the theory-based research about ISR and youth thriving conducted within the 4-H Study of
Positive Youth Development (PYD), the GPS to Success tools use the metaphor of a car’s GPS
navigational system to enhance goal-directed behaviors among youth. The core GPS tools are
“growth grids,” designed to help mentors appraise ISR skill development and to link these skills
to other grids assessing the Five Cs of PYD and Contribution. Data from 152 mentor and youth
pairs from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina indicated that the growth grids were
generally reliable. Although validity evidence was mixed, rubrics for “G” and “P” and for a global
GPS score were related to a well-validated measure of ISR.
4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a Parent-Based Childhood Obesity
Prevention Program [Article 130803FA002] ……………………………………..…………..…Page 32
Benke, Carrie; Bailey, Sandra; Eldridge, Galen; Lynch, Wesley; Martz, Jill; Paul, Lynn
The 4-Health Project promotes healthy lifestyles for rural families with an overall goal of
reducing or preventing childhood obesity. 4-Health is an integrated research and educational
outreach program delivered by agents located in Montana State University Extension offices
throughout the state. The collaborative project was developed to provide healthy living
programs focusing on the areas of parenting and family communication, body image, food and
nutrition, and physical activity to rural parents of 8-12 year old children participating in
Montana’s 4-H Youth Development programs. Evaluation outcomes of the 4-Health Educational
(experimental) program and the Healthy Living Information (control) program both showed
increases in participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to healthy living, with
those participating in the 4-Health Educational program making greater gains.
Training Teens to Teach Agricultural Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science
Demonstration Project [Article 130803FA003] ………………………………………...…Page 46
Ripberger, Chad; Blalock, Lydia B.
This article discusses a National 4-H Science agricultural biotechnology demonstration project
and the impact of the pilot programs on the teenage leaders and teachers. A total of 82
teenagers were extensively trained, who in turn, engaged 620 youth participants with
agricultural biotechnology education in afterschool and summer programs in five states. This
article details the national and state level trainings for these teen teachers as well as the
content rich partners from agribusinesses, agricultural commodity groups, and universities who
1
supported their involvement. The impact on the content knowledge, science process and life
skills, and program development and implementation skills of the teen leaders and teachers was
evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple administrations (pre-training, post-training,
and post-teaching). Results indicate significant gains in most areas assessed. Project
recommendations and future plans are also discussed.
A Longitudinal Comparison of Parent and Child Influence on Sports Participation
[Article 130803FA004] ……………………………………………………………………………………..…Page 67
Chang, Arena; Mahoney, Joseph L.
Drawing on expectancy-value theory, this study examines children’s motivational attributes and
parental influences on how children spend their leisure time in middle childhood and
adolescence. Specifically, the study examined if parent encouragement and beliefs (i.e.,
perceived importance of sports and perceived child ability) and child motivation (expectancy
and value for sports) are predictive of sports participation over the course of middle childhood
and adolescence. Parent and child reports are compared using data from the Childhood and
Beyond (CAB) longitudinal study. Findings reveal that parent beliefs and encouragement and
child motivation were positively associated with sports participation in middle childhood. Both
parental influences and children’s motivation measured in middle childhood were predictive of
time spent participating in adolescence. However, only parent influences were predictive of
whether the child continued to participate in sports in adolescence.
Program Articles
The Role of Youth Program Leaders in the Use of Technology: Challenges and
Opportunities for Youth-Serving Organizations [Article 130803PA001]…..….…Page 82
Nichter, Mimi; Borden, Lynne; Przybyl, Veronica
Youth-serving organizations offer young people an opportunity to gain skills and advance their
knowledge of current and evolving technology through experiential learning. The key to
ensuring that young people have meaningful learning experiences is directly related to the
youth program leader who is responsible for designing and implementing these programs.
Programs conducted by well-trained and well-prepared adults are an essential component of
community-based interventions. To date, there is relatively limited research on how technology
such as smart phones can be used in community-based programs and the success or failure of
this as a strategy for delivering information and engaging young people in a program. In this
paper, we discuss how technology was introduced into eight programs conducted by youthserving organizations in the Southwest. We discuss the training of youth program leaders and
their experience using technology at their sites, highlighting what worked and what was
problematic, how challenges were overcome, and lessons learned.
Mitigating Barriers to Civic Engagement for Low-Income, Minority Youth Ages
13-18: Best Practices from Environmental Youth Conferences
[Article 130803PA002] …………………………………………………………………………….……...…Page 94
Hoang, Haco
Several studies indicate that there is a civic engagement gap for low-income, minority youth
even though they reside in communities grappling with deteriorating social, environmental and
economic conditions. Using the annual Environmental Youth Conference (EYC) in Los Angeles
as a case study, this article offers best practices for identifying: 1) factors that foster civic
engagement among low-income, minority youth ages 13-18, and 2) strategies to mobilize the
targeted youth populations on environmental issues. Los Angeles is a useful case study
because it is a large and demographically diverse city facing extreme environmental challenges
due to its significant agricultural and industrial sectors.
2
The Impact of Parental Involvement on a Structured Youth Program Experience:
A Qualitative Inquiry [Article 130803RS001] ……………………………………………….…Page 105
Duerden, Mat D.; Witt, Peter A.; Harrist, Christopher J.
Parental involvement is an often proposed, but rarely researched, key element of youth
programs. Questions remain regarding the impact of parental involvement on program
processes and outcomes. Qualitative data were collected over a one-year period with youth
participants (n=46), parents (n=26), and teachers (n=5) associated with an international
immersion/service learning program for adolescents. Three main research questions guided the
data analysis: (1) what role does parental involvement play in the youths’ experience in the
program; (2) how does parental involvement in the program influence the parent/child
relationship; and (3) what role does parental involvement play in terms of the program’s longterm impact on the youth participants? Findings suggest a relationship between parental
involvement in youth programs and improved parent/child communication, bonding, and
perceptions of one another. Findings also suggest that having a common ground experience
prolonged the experience’s positive post-participation effects.
Lack of Parental Rules for Cell Phone Use among Low Income Mexican Descendent
Adolescents [Article 130803RS002] ……………………………………………………………….…Page 123
Wiggs, Christine Bracamonte; Romero, Andrea J.; Orduña, Michele
Youth have access to and utilize various types of technology at a growing rate. Cell phones are
a portable way for adolescents to remain in constant contact with friends, parents, and others.
While White youth are more likely to have a cell phone compared to Latino youth, the trends for
cell phone use are similar among all teens with text messaging serving as the most popular
means of communication. Despite their high volume of communication with others via cell
phones, adolescents are likely to have little or no adult supervision while using technology.
With a lack of parental supervision or awareness regarding youth technology use, adolescents
may be especially vulnerable to cyberbullying and other negative health impacts. The current
study investigates cell phone and texting use among a community sample of Latino adolescents
and examines how parental rules regarding cell phone use influences adolescents’ cell phone
and texting behaviors.
Resource Review
The First Eight Years ~ Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success a Resource
Review [Article 130803RR001] …….…………………………………………….….………….……Page 133
Dawson, Patricia
“The First Eight Years: Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success” is a recent KIDS COUNT
policy report from the Annie E. Casey Foundation. The report discusses how a child’s early
development from birth through age 8 is critical in one’s transition into elementary school as
well as long-term academic success. The report also provides broad policy recommendations to
help America’s children succeed and data on early childhood development for every state.
3
On a Pathway Towards Thriving:
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote
Positive Development and Intentional Self
Regulation in Youth
Edmond P. Bowers
Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Ed.Bowers@tufts.edu
Christopher M. Napolitano
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Miriam R. Arbeit
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Paul Chase
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Samantha A. Glickman
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Richard M. Lerner
Tufts University
Medford, MA
Jacqueline V. Lerner
Boston College
4
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA001
On a Pathway Towards Thriving:
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tools to Promote
Positive Development and Intentional Self
Regulation in Youth
Edmond P. Bowers, Christopher M. Napolitano, Miriam R. Arbeit, Paul Chase,
Samantha A. Glickman and Richard M. Lerner
Tufts University
Jacqueline V. Lerner
Boston College
Abstract: This article provides initial data about the reliability and
validity of tools aimed at promoting youth intentional self regulation
(ISR) within mentoring programs. Based on the translation of the
theory-based research about ISR and youth thriving conducted
within the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development (PYD), the GPS
to Success tools use the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigational
system to enhance goal-directed behaviors among youth. The core
GPS tools are “growth grids,” designed to help mentors appraise ISR
skill development and to link these skills to other grids assessing the
Five Cs of PYD and Contribution. Data from 152 mentor and youth
pairs from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North Carolina indicated
that the growth grids were generally reliable. Although validity
evidence was mixed, rubrics for “G” and “P” and for a global GPS
score were related to a well-validated measure of ISR.
Introduction
Evidence from several fields suggests that intentional self-regulatory, or goal-directed, skills
become especially important to healthy development during adolescence (e.g., Cunha,
Heckman, & Schennach, 2010; Geldhof, Little, & Columbo, 2010; Gestsdóttir, & Lerner, 2008;
Lerner, Lerner, Bowers, Lewin-Bizan, Gestsdottir, & Urban, 2011). The salience of intentional
self-regulation (ISR) during adolescence is grounded in the multifaceted changes that mark the
second decade of life, and the need to regulate, or control, adaptively one’s behavior in the face
of changes involving: the brain (Moshman, 2013; Paus, 2009); new motivational states (Freud,
1969; Susman, & Dorn, 2009); cognitive changes (Kuhn, 2009); and the refinement of longterm planning skills (Brandtstädter, 1989; McClelland, Ponitz, Messersmith, & Tominey, 2010).
5
Philosophers, philanthropists, and practitioners share with developmental scientists the belief in
the salience of ISR for positive youth development (PYD). For instance, Sir John Templeton
(2012) explained that the key to character development is the control of one’s mind, noting that
“If one rules one’s mind, one rules one’s world” (2012, p. 3). In turn, practitioners have great
interest in integrating ISR skills into youth development programs (e.g., Kurtines, et al., 2008b;
J. Lerner, et al., 2012). Indeed, not only are youth development programs key ecological assets
in promoting ISR, PYD, and youth Contribution to their communities but, as well, the adults in
the lives of youth – and particularly the presence of competent, reliable, and devoted adults –
are the key features of effective youth development programs (see, for reviews, J. Lerner, et
al., 2012; Lerner, 2004; Rhodes, & Lowe, 2009).
However, there are few evidence-based tools available to help practitioners discuss and build
ISR skills with the youth in their care. The purpose of this report is to provide initial data about
the use and validity of research-based tools aimed at promoting ISR in the context of mentoring
programs. These materials – GPS to Success – are a translation of the theory-predicated
research conducted within the 4-H Study of PYD (Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b)
about the links between youth ISR and positive development.
Designing the GPS to Success tools
The core components of the GPS to Success project are based on a translation of theory and
research pertinent to the Selection (S), Optimization (O), and Compensation (C; SOC) model of
ISR (Baltes, & Baltes, 1990; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Freund, & Baltes, 2002;
Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999). The project uses the metaphor of a car’s GPS navigation system –
you “choose your destination” and the GPS (your SOC skills in this case) provides “strategies” to
arrive at your destination (in this case, achieving a goal). In Project GPS, “G” stands for “Goal
Selection,” and reflects Selection skills. “P” stands for “Pursuit of Strategies,” and reflects
Optimization skills. “S” stands for “Shifting Gears,” and reflects Compensation skills. The
definitions of these concepts are:
Goal Selection: A young person who has positive purpose is also one who is on a
thriving path. Therefore, young people need to understand the importance of selecting
positive goals and of having the skills to make good choices;
Pursuit of Strategies: Adolescents need to develop strategies to attain their goals.
They need to be able to make goal-specific plans and to develop appropriately the
resources – from practicing a skill to recruiting the help of others – to achieve their
goals; and
Shifting Gears: Youth must be able to switch to a new strategy when their initial
strategy fails to help achieve their goal. In these circumstances, they need to judge
when it is reasonable to stay with their original goals and when it is prudent to select a
new goal, for instance, when the chance to attain the initial goal is lost.
The core tools for GPS to Success are rubrics or “growth grids.” The growth grids provide a
standardized way for youth and mentors to discuss GPS skills and the Five Cs of Positive Youth
Development (PYD); i.e., Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring; (Lerner,
et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b) and the “6th C” of youth, Contribution. Growth grids were also
designed to give mentors a snapshot on how youth in their programs were doing, and what the
goal-management skills of youth look like. The growth grids also helped mentors appraise skill
development. This tool enables mentors to assess how well youth in a program have benefitted
from their involvement with mentors. The growth grids, however, are not just measurement
tools. They can also serve as powerful motivators for change in youth (Andrade, 2000;
Goodrich,1997; Marzano, & Haystead, 2008; Moskal, 2003; Popham, 1997). An essential feature
6
of GPS to Success is having both mentor-scored growth grids, in which the mentors assess the
youth, as well as youth-scored growth grids, in which the youth do a self-assessment. With the
growth grids as a guide, the mentor and youth can compare their assessments of the youth’s
GPS Skills and PYD – and discuss where they share opinions or where they differ. Youth can see
where their greatest strengths lie, and where their biggest challenges exist as they move on a
path towards thriving.
In other words, the growth grids were developed for use by both mentors in diverse youth
programs and, as well, by the young people they serve. The growth grids were created based
upon four design criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The use of research evidence for content. Substantive material for the cells of (the
vocabulary used in) the growth grids was drawn from findings from the 4-H Study of
Positive Youth Development (Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011) and the work of
Paul Baltes, Alexandra Freund, and their colleagues (e.g., Baltes, 1997; Baltes, & Baltes,
1990; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006; Freund, & Baltes, 2002; Freund, Li, &
Baltes, 1999).
Aligning terminology with the language of the Thrive Foundation for Youth.
When supported by research evidence, variations in terminology were introduced to align
wording with the phrasing used by the Thrive Foundation
(http://www.thrivefoundation.org/), which drew their content from both the sources
noted in Point 1, above, and Point 3, below.
The use of cross-validating evidence. The content of the cells of the growth grids
were modified to incorporate relevant findings of researchers other than those associated
with the 4-H Study or the Baltes, Baltes, and Freund group. Specifically, the work of
Peter Benson (2008), William Damon (2008), Carol Dweck (2006), Jacquelynne Eccles
(2004), and Reed Larson (2000, 2006) was used.
Measurement equivalence across age and phases of program implementation.
To reach a large number of diverse youth, the tools that were developed had to be
applicable to diverse young people across the adolescent years and, as well, to diverse
youth-serving programs at all points in the process of program implementation (from
program initiation to termination). Accordingly, we aimed to develop tools that would
have validity at any point in time at which they are used (with “time” referring to both
age of adolescent and phase of the program he or she is in).
Each growth grid was designed based upon, first, Design Criterion 1 noted above. Accordingly,
the language used in the research was transformed into the language within the cells of each
rubric. As such, we made changes in this language only if we found through pretesting and
research team consensus that Design Criteria 2 or 3 made the tool more useful. Following this
procedure helped ensure that we had clearly stated terms for each growth grid.
In regards to pretesting, initial reviews of the tools were conducted with youth-serving
professionals and the research team. Youth-serving professionals were asked to evaluate the
growth grids in terms of
1. the relevance of the included dimensions to the construct of Goal Selection,
Pursuit of Strategies, or Shifting Gears
2. the clarity of the columns of each rubric
3. the distinction between and logical progression of the performance levels
4. how reliably they can envision each dimension being scored by mentors
5. the usefulness of the rubrics for youth development and in their organizations
6. how to adjust the language of the rubrics to make them more appropriate for
adolescents to score themselves.
7
This series of conversations resulted in a set of growth grids which were then empirically
examined with a sample of mentors and youth from 4-H program sites in Oregon and North
Carolina. These assessments constituted an initial evaluation of the psychometric usefulness of
the GPS to Success tools. That is, this work involved validation procedures that assessed the
presence within youth of relations between scores derived from the tools that are pertinent to
goal-related behavior and scores derived from the tools pertinent to the Cs. We report here the
results of this examination.
Method
Sample
There were 152 unique mentor/mentee pairs that participated. Of these participants, 69 of
these pairs included youth older than 14 years of age (older adolescents; Mean age = 15.84,
SD = 1.21), and 83 included youth younger than 14 years of age (younger adolescents; Mean
age = 12.00, SD = 1.20). This evaluation was conducted in the fall of 2010 with mentors and
mentees at eight 4-H sites in North Carolina and ten 4-H sites in Oregon. Participants from the
former state constituted 30.9% of the sample.
Of the 69 older adolescents who participated in the study, 30.4% were male, 52.2% were
female, and 17.4% did not report their gender. Older adolescents’ grade in school ranged from
“8th Grade” to “12th Grade.” Of these 69 participants, 2.9% of participants were in 8th Grade,
24.6% of participants were in 9th Grade, 15.9% of participants were in 10th Grade, 15.9% of
participants were in 11th Grade, 14.5% of participants were in 12th Grade, and 26.1% of
participants did not report their grade in school. A large proportion of the older adolescent
sample reported being White or Caucasian (72.5%), whereas 10.1% reported being AfricanAmerican or Latino/a, and 17.4% of youth did not report their race or ethnicity.
Of the 83 younger adolescents who participated in the study, 36.1% were male, 51.8% were
female, and 12.0% did not report their gender. Younger adolescents’ grade in school ranged
from “3rd Grade” to “8th Grade.” Of these 83 participants, 1.2% of participants were in 3rd
Grade, 3.6% of participants were in 4th Grade, 20.5% of participants were in 5th Grade, 24.1%
of participants were in 6th Grade, 18.1% of participants were in 7th Grade, 20.5% of
participants were in 8th Grade, and 12.0% of participants did not report their grade in school. A
large proportion of the younger adolescent sample also reported being White or Caucasian
(73.5%), whereas 8.4% reported being African-American, 8.4 % reported Other
races/ethnicities (Latino/a, Asian American, Native-American), and 12.0% of youth did not
report their race or ethnicity.
In total 45 mentors reported on these 152 youth. Mentors reported on youth indices for a range
of one to seven youth (15.5% reported on one youth, 24.4% reported on two youth, 13.3%
reported on three youth, 15.5% reported on four youth, 20.0% reported on five youth, and
11.1% reported on 6 or 7 youth). A substantial majority of mentors were female (80%) and
ranged in age from 25 to 68 (M = 46.95, SD = 9.18). A majority of mentors also reported being
White or Caucasian (82.2%), with 8.9% reported being, African-American, Latino/a, or Native
American, and 8.9% not reporting their race or ethnicity.
Rubrics/Growth Grids
The growth grids involve the different aspects and skills of GPS and PYD to help both youth and
their mentors reflect on the youth's strengths and areas for improvement. The grids provide a
standard of performance needed to attain a specific score. Each growth grid in the GPS to
8
Success suite has a comparable structure. This structure expedites responding and minimizes
scoring error, regardless of the age of the youth or the skill being assessed.
Each of the growth grids shares the same “1 to 5” scoring scale. The youth moves up in the
scoring scale as they improve along two axes: skill initiative and skill competence. In other
words, youth need to have both the initiative to try to use a skill and the competence to
implement that skill effectively. For example, a youth at a Level 5 on the rubric is showing
consistent initiative to use a particular skill and has mastered the skill. At the opposite end of
the spectrum is a youth at Level 1; a youth at Level 1 shows so little initiative or skill, that the
youth is disengaged from the process. In between these extremes, a youth at a Level 3 has the
initiative to use a particular skill, but needs a lot of help to actually use the skill. At the onset of
the GPS to Success project, we expected that we were not likely to find many young people at
a Level 5 or a Level 1; however, we expected that many youth would fall between these
extremes. Figure 1 presents an example of a Growth Grid.
Assessments of an adolescent’s GPS skills and levels of PYD through the growth grids were
completed by both youth and mentors. Youth self-assess their abilities, and mentors assess the
behavior of youth as well. Having multiple reporters of these intentional self-regulation skills
addresses a limitation in the research, in which assessments of an adolescent’s SOC were only
comprised of self-reported data. The language is different in the mentor versus youthcompleted growth grids to reflect who is scoring them; that is, the youth-completed growth
grids are phrased as “I statements” and contain simpler language than the mentor-completed
grids. Regardless of these language differences, the content of the rubrics, as well as the
overall structure, is shared across the sets of rubrics.
The rubrics also differ by the age of the youth who is the focus of the rubrics. It is important to
note that youth ages 10-13 have a single GPS rubric, while youth ages 14-18 have three rubrics
assessing G, P, and S skills separately. The reason for this difference is based on research
which indicated that while it is important for younger adolescents to have goal-directed skills,
the G, P, and S scores of these adolescents do not differentiate into the tripartite SOC structure
identified in older adolescents and adults (Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007). Younger adolescents
with high G also have high P and also have high S. These younger adolescents also have a
difficult time with certain questions on the GPS survey as young people from ages 10-13 often
display less-refined and a smaller number of GPS skills. Therefore, the concepts related to those
questions were removed, and the single rubric was developed.
Based upon the theoretical and empirical literature and the iterative process with both
colleagues at the Thrive Foundation for Youth and youth-serving professionals, we identified 13
skills that were indicative of SOC and related to successful goal attainment. As indicated, we
translated these skills into a more practitioner- and youth friendly acronym – GPS – using the
metaphor of a car’s GPS navigation system:
•
The four Goal Selection skills were
o Choosing your destination,
o Choosing goals that help others,
o Breaking down long-term goals, and
o Identifying relations among goals.
•
The five Pursuit of Strategies skills were
o Sticking to a plan,
o Seizing the moment,
o Developing strategies,
o Showing persistent effort, and
o Checking your progress.
9
•
The four Shifting Gears skills were
o Substituting strategies,
o Seeking different help,
o Adopting strategies of others, and
o Changing goals without feeling bad.
An example of one of the growth grids, indexing an older adolescent’s self-assessed “Goal
Selection,” is presented here, in Figure 1.
10
We also identified attributes indicative of each of the Cs of PYD and Contribution (see Appendix 1).
The five Competence dimensions were Academic competence, Cognitive competence, Social
competence, Emotional competence, and Healthy habits; the five Confidence dimensions were Overall
Confidence, Confidence in School, Confidence in Physical Appearance, Confidence in Peer Acceptance,
and Confidence in an Area of Interest; the three Connection dimensions were Connection with family,
Connection with friends and peer groups, and Connection with community; the three Character
dimensions were Moral compass, Integrity; and the four Caring dimensions were Sympathy, Empathy,
Caring actions, and Promoting social justice. The four Contribution dimensions were Service to
community, Leadership roles, Mentoring peers, and Sense of positive purpose.
Positive Youth Development. Youth also completed measures of PYD. As noted, we utilized the
approach to PYD used by Lerner and colleagues (2005) that employs several measures to index PYD,
which is operationalized through the assessment of the Five Cs—Competence, Confidence, Character,
Connection, and Caring. Each “C” comprises a number of well-validated scales designed to assess the
essential elements of the definition of the construct. Detailed information regarding the measurement
of each of the Cs is presented below. The Five Cs comprising the PYD construct are operationalized as
follows:
Competence is a positive view of one’s action in domain-specific areas including the social and
academic domains and is indexed by 11 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the
present sample was .85. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .82.
Confidence is an internal sense of overall positive self-worth, identity, and feelings about one’s
physical appearance and was indexed by 16 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the
present sample was .90. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .80.
Character involves respect for societal and cultural rules, possession of standards for correct
behaviors, a sense of right and wrong, and integrity and was indexed by 20 items. Cronbach’s alpha
for the older adolescents in the present sample was .87 Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents
in the present sample was .87.
Connection involves a positive bond with people and institutions that are reflected in healthy,
bidirectional exchanges between the individual and peers, family, school, and community in which
both parties contribute to the relationship. Connection is indexed by 22 items. Cronbach’s alpha for
the older adolescents in the present sample was .89. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in
the present sample was .91.
Caring is the degree of sympathy and empathy, that is, the degree to which participants feel sorry for
the distress of others and was indexed by 9 items. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the
present sample was .79. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .63.
Full details about these measures, their construction, and validity and reliability can be found in
Lerner and colleagues (2005) and Bowers and colleagues (2010).
Contribution. Participants responded to twelve items which were weighted and summed to create a
composite score of contribution. These items were from four subsets: leadership, service, helping,
and ideology. Items from the leadership, service, and helping scales measured the frequency of time
youth spent helping others (e.g., friends or neighbors), providing service to their communities, and
acting in leadership roles; together, the leadership, service, and helping subsets comprise an action
component of Contribution. The ideology scale measured the extent to which contribution was an
important facet of their identities (e.g., “It is important to me to contribute to my community and
society”). These items are derived from existing instruments with known psychometric properties and
used in large-scales studies of adolescents, that is, the Profiles of Student Life-Attitudes and
Behaviors Survey (PSL-AB; Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth, 1998) and the Teen Assessment Project
Survey Question Bank (TAP; Small, & Rodgers, 1995). The action and ideology components are
weighted equally to calculate the Contribution scores. As with the PYD scores, in the present study
the Contribution scores range from 0 to 100. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the
present sample was .75. Cronbach’s alpha for the younger adolescents in the present sample was .79.
Intentional self regulation. We used the Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC)
questionnaire (Freund, & Baltes, 2002) to measure self regulation, that is, the individual component
of the process of individual-context relations. The original SOC measure, which was created in
Germany for use with adult populations, includes 48 items (12 items in each subscale of Elective
Selection, Loss-based Selection, Optimization, and Compensation). Freund and Baltes (2002) created
a shorter version of this measure, which included six items per scale and had acceptable
psychometric characteristics (Freund, & Baltes, 2002).
Each of the subscales has six items with a forced-choice format. Each item consists of two
statements, one describing behavior reflecting Elective Selection, Loss-based Selection, Optimization,
or Compensation and the other describing a non-SOC related behavior. An example of an
Optimization scale item is: “When I do not succeed right away at what I want to do, I don’t try other
possibilities for very long OR I keep trying as many different possibilities as are necessary to succeed
at my goal.” The latter option reflects goal-optimization. Participants are asked to decide which of the
statements is more similar to how they would behave. Affirmative responses are summed to provide a
score for each individual on each subscale. Higher scores on each subscale indicate higher levels of
self-regulatory skills.
Past research using data from the 4-H Study of PYD has identified the structure of the SOC measure
among adolescents ranging, to date, from fifth to tenth grades (e.g., Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007;
Gestsdottir, et al. 2009, 2010). In Grades 5 through 7, the SOC construct exists globally (Gestsdottir,
& Lerner, 2007; Zimmerman, Phelps, & Lerner, 2007), as opposed to the adult-like structure of three
distinct processes. However, reflective of the orthogenetic principle (Werner, 1957), evidence was
found for a tripartite, differentiated structure of SOC beginning in the eighth grade as the individual S,
O, and C components identified in older populations (Freund, & Baltes, 2002) were found in these
younger people (Gestsdottir, et al., 2009). However, this work has been “unable to provide
[conclusive] evidence against or in support of… differentiation,” (Gestsdottir, et al., 2009, p. 591),
and other research has modeled the SOC processes using a nine-item subset of the SOC
questionnaire across adolescence displaying adequate reliability in both middle and late adolescence
(Bowers, et al., 2011). The most recent work on the structure of SOC in adolescence reinforces the
utility of the nine-item composite (Geldhof, et al., in press). To be consistent with these findings we
calculated a global 9-item SOC for all adolescents, and we calculated separate S, O, and C composite
scores for older adolescents. Cronbach’s alpha for the older adolescents in the present sample was
.45 for Selection, .57 for Optimization, and .26 for Compensation. Cronbach’s alpha for the 9-item
SOC composite was .74 for the younger adolescents and .61 for the older adolescents in the present
sample.
While these alpha coefficients appear low, low internal consistency is not unexpected as the SOC
questionnaire includes heterogeneous facets of each factor (e.g., optimization: investing effort,
planning, modeling successful others). There are also several additional reasons why concern over
these values is unwarranted. First, Cronbach’s alpha is a lower bound estimate of reliability based on
Monte Carlo estimates (Cortina, 1993). In addition, some psychometricians have argued that low
alphas, even at 0.1 to 0.2, are sufficient indices on complex constructs (Cattell, 1978). Finally, and
most importantly, the reliability data for SOC components has been coupled with concurrent and
13
predictive validity data involving PYD and risk/problem behaviors (Gestsdottir, & Lerner, 2007;
Gestsdottir, et al., 2009; Zimmerman, et al., 2008). Taken this evidence together, the SOC measure is
regarded as a useful index of intentional self regulation among adolescents.
Mentoring relationship duration, intensity, and structure. For each youth, mentors were also
asked to report on how long they had known the youth (We have just met, A few weeks, Several
months, About a year, Several years); how often they met the youth (Less than one time per month,
Once per month, Several times per month, Once per week, Several times per week); the duration of
each meeting (Less than one hour, About one hour, several hours); and the structure of those
meetings (individual, group).
Procedure
The GPS to Success evaluation involved recruiting and training 4-H staff and agents in North Carolina
and Oregon to use the growth grids. This training consisted of an hour and a half interactive webinar
conducted by the research team in which the GPS to Success Project was described to mentors, each
column of the growth grids was detailed, videos of exemplary models of the skills were shown and
discussed, and mentors engaged in guided scoring of vignettes of young people who used the GPS
skills and exhibiting the PYD attributes to varying degrees. In order to enhance the reliability and
accuracy of reporting on such a diverse set of attributes, we worked to recruit mentor-mentee pairs
that were established (> six months duration of relationships) and saw each other on a regular basis
(> 1 time per month).
Mentors received login information for themselves and their mentees to complete an online version of
the survey via the Internet. In most cases, the programs allocated computers for participants to take
the survey online. Mentors and mentees completed the surveys separately. The questionnaires took
approximately forty-five minutes to complete, and participants were encouraged to take short breaks
if needed.
In order to assess whether the GPS and PYD growth grids were reliable and valid measures of
intentional self regulation and PYD, we calculated Cronbach’s alphas for each subscale. We also
conducted validity assessments that involved point-in-time assessments of covariation of scores
derived from: (1) mentor ratings of youth (growth grids); (2) youth self-ratings (growth grids); and
(3) youth responses to items from the 4-H Study Student Questionnaire (short version) that involved
scores for (a) the Five Cs of PYD; (b) Contribution; and (c) SOC.
Results
Preliminary analyses
Of the 69 older adolescents, 7.2% (n = 5) were reported to have known their mentor about a year;
and 76.8% (n = 53) were reported to having known their mentor for several years. Eleven youth
(15.9%) were missing information about relationship duration. Based on the prevailing view in the
field of mentoring (Rhodes & Lowe, 2009), these results indicate that almost 85% of mentors
reported relationships with older adolescents long enough in duration to report youth attributes
accurately.
In regard to dosage, the frequency of mentor-reported contact with youth in general was relatively
frequent as almost 75% of youth were reported to meet with their mentor at least several times per
month. Only one youth (1.4%) was reported to see their mentor less than one time per month;
24.6% (n = 17) were reported to see their mentors one time per month; 26.1% (n = 18) were
reported to see their mentor several times per month; 11.6% (n = 8) were reported to see their
14
mentor once per week; and 20.3% (n = 14) were reported to see their mentor several times per
week or more. Again, 11 youth (15.9%) were missing information about relationship frequency.
Only 2.9% of the older adolescents (n = 2) were reported to average less than one hour of time
together in a typical meeting. Most youth were reported to meet with their mentors about one hour
(31.9%, n = 22) or for several hours during a typical meeting (47.8%, n = 33). Twelve youth did not
have length of visit information reported (17.4%).
Mentors also reported differences their mentoring practices, such that some mentors met with their
youth individually, whereas others met in groups. In our study, 69.6% of youth (n =48) met with
their mentors in groups, and 14.5% (n = 10) met with their mentors individually. Eleven youth
(15.9%) did not have this information available. While there may be some concern with the large
proportion of older adolescents meeting with their “mentors” in group settings, we believe that the
reported length of relationships, the frequency of contact, and the duration of a typical meeting
between mentors and youth provide evidence that the mentors would be accurate reporters of older
adolescents GPS skills and PYD attributes. In addition, a recent meta-analysis of mentoring programs
for youth reported no differences in effects between group and one-to-one programs, and the effects
for both were positive (DuBois, Portillo, Rhodes, Silverthorn, & Valentine, 2011).
Of the 83 younger adolescents, 1.2% (n = 1) were reported to have known their mentor across a
range of time from a few weeks to about a year; 1.2% (n =1) were reported to have known their
mentor for several months; 24.1% (n = 20) were reported to have known their mentors for about a
year; and 66.3% (n = 55) were reported to having known their mentor for several years. Six youth
(7.2%) were missing information about relationship duration. Again, these results indicate that over
90% of mentors reported relationships with younger adolescents long enough in duration to report
youth attributes accurately.
In regard to dosage, 2.4% (n = 2) of youth were reported to see their mentor less than one time per
month; 36.1% (n = 30) were reported to see their mentors one time per month; 27.7% (n = 23)
were reported to see their mentor several times per month; 9.6% (n = 8) were reported to see their
mentor once per week; and 16.9% (n = 14) were reported to see their mentor several times per
week or more. Again, 6 youth (15.9%) were missing information about relationship frequency.
A larger proportion of the younger adolescents (9.6%, n = 8) were reported to average less than one
hour of time together in a typical meeting. However, most youth were reported to meet with their
mentors about one hour (25.3%, n = 21) or for several hours during a typical meeting (56.6%, n =
47). Seven youth did not have length of visit information reported (8.4%).
The type of program structure experienced by younger adolescents mirrored that of older
adolescents. Thirteen youth (15.7%) met with their mentors individually, whereas 77.1% (n=64) met
with their mentors individually. Six youth (7.2%) did not have this information available. As with our
older adolescent sample, we believe that any concerns about the structure of the mentoring
relationships (i.e., group) for reporting accuracy and validity is offset by the length and intensity of
the relationships that were reported.
Main Analyses: The Psychometric Characteristics of the GPS to Success Tools
In general, the results indicated that the GPS, the Five Cs of PYD, and Contribution growth grids were
reliable measures (see Table 1). Mentors rated youth in a more reliable manner, that is, with high
levels of consistency, while youth displayed greater variability in their responses. Cronbach’s alphas
for the mentor-reported growth grids ranged from a low of .76 for Connection in both younger and
15
older adolescents to a high of .92 for young adolescents’ global GPS. Conversely, Cronbach’s alphas
for the youth-reported growth grids ranged from a low of .42 for older adolescent Competence to a
high of .80 for younger adolescent Character and older adolescent Pursuit of Strategies.
Table 1
Reliabilities (αs) for mentor- and youth-reported GPS, PYD, and Contribution growth grids for
Younger and older adolescents
Growth Grid
Competence
Older
adolescents,
Mentorreported
.85
Older
adolescents,
Self-reported
.42
Younger
adolescents,
Mentorreported
.85
Younger
adolescents,
Self-reported
.66
Confidence
.87
.62
.86
.73
Connection
.76
.45
.76
.45
Character
.91
.56
.86
.80
Caring
.90
.43
.85
.49
Contribution
.90
.78
.86
.63
GPS - Global
.93
.68
.92
.63
Goal Selection
.88
.65
NA
NA
Pursuit of Strategies
.91
.80
NA
NA
Shifting Gears
.85
.59
NA
NA
The G, P, and S growth grids for older youth did not exhibit good validity when youth scores on the
growth grids were correlated with analogous scores on youth-reported 4-H Study questionnaire items
pertaining to Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (See Table 2). However, the growth grids for
Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies were significantly related to the global nine-item measure of
SOC that has been found to be a reliable and valid index of ISR (e.g., Geldhof, et al., in press;
Gestsdottir, et al., 2007). The six-item global GPS score was also significantly correlated to the nineitem global SOC measure for both older and younger adolescents.
16
Table 2
Correlations for Youth-Reported BPS and SOC Dimensions
Goal
Pursuit of
Shifting
Selection
- YR
Strategies
Gears -
Selection
Optimization
- YR
YR
- YR
- YR
Global
Global
Compensation
GPS -
SOC
-YR
YR
- YR
Goal Selection YR
-
Pursuit of
Strategies - YR
.56**
-
Shifting Gears YR
.58**
.43**
-
Selection - YR
-.04
-.06
-.24
Optimization YR
-.07
-.03
-.01
.26**
-
Compensation YR
.05
.11
-.06
.15
-.15
-
Global GPS YR
.80**
.85**
.65**
-.07
.02
.09
-
Global SOC
.31*
.36**
.22
.40**
.43**
.28**
.35a**
-
-
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
When turning to the Five Cs of PYD, and youth Contribution, the scores on growth grids were
significantly related to the relevant dimension of PYD or Contribution reported through the 4-H Study
questionnaire (See Table 3). The correlations across the measures were often higher than the
correlations for the scales within each measure (growth grid versus 4-H questionnaire scale). The
results suggest that the growth grids are valid indicators of the Five Cs of PYD and youth
Contribution.
17
Table 3
Correlations for Youth-Reported PYD via Growth Grids and Five Cs Questionnaire (SQ)
Table 3
Correlations for Youth-Reported PYD via Growth Grids and Five Cs Questionnaire (SQ)
PYD Dimension
Competence - YR
Competence
- YR
Confidence
- YR
Caring - YR
Character - YR
Connection
- YR
Contribution
- YR
Competence
- SQ
Confidence
- SQ
Caring - SQ
Character - SQ
Connection
- SQ
.474**
-
Caring - YR
.51**
.39**
-
Character - YR
.54**
.34**
.55**
-
Connection - YR
.43**
.50**
.41**
.34**
-
Contribution - YR
.45**
.52**
.53**
.49**
.48**
-
Competence - SQ
.48**
.49**
.24**
.34**
.23**
.43**
-
Confidence - SQ
.30**
.42**
0.16
.25**
.34**
.30**
.45**
-
Caring - SQ
.30**
.25**
.40**
.39**
.32**
.35**
.30**
.30**
-
Character - SQ
.52**
.41**
.54**
.56**
.48**
.52**
.38**
.35**
.61**
-
Connection - SQ
.32**
.41**
.32**
.33**
.56**
.39**
.34**
.55**
.43**
.57**
-
Contribution - SQ
.54**
.51**
.50**
.39**
.47**
.67**
.39**
.22*
.39**
.47**
.47**
Confidence - YR
Contribution
- SQ
18
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
-
Within-rater mentor and youth growth grid scores for GPS and the Five Cs of PYD and Contribution
were significantly positively correlated for both older and younger adolescents (Tables 4 and 5,
respectively). The strength of these correlations varied across rater, age group, and dimension
pairing. However, there were some surprisingly results. For older youth, self-reported Connection was
not related to youth Pursuit of strategies nor the global GPS score. Connection was also not related to
youth Competence and Character as would be expected in the older youth sample. This lack of a
significant relation may be due to a lack of power from a small sample size. Finally, while youth selfreported Character was related to Goal Selection in older youth, Character was not related to the
other two dimensions of intentional self regulation. The correlations for the self-reported younger
adolescent growth grids also indicated that youth connection was the most weakly related to the
global GPS score.
Table 4
Correlations for GPS and PYD Growth Grids for Older Adolescents
Youth-Reported
Dimension
Goal
Goal
Pursuit of
Shifting
Global
Selection
Strategies
Gears
GPS
Competence
Confidence
Caring
Character
Connection
Contribution
-
Selection
Pursuit of
.56**
-
Strategies
Shifting
.58**
.43**
-
Global GPS
.80**
.85**
.65**
-
Competence
.53**
.52**
.38**
.54**
-
Confidence
.42**
.18
.32*
.40**
.38**
-
Caring
.58**
.45**
.45**
.58**
.45**
.29*
-
Character
.31*
.26
.17
.28*
.36**
.15
.33*
Connection
.46**
.07
.39**
.25
.25
.43**
.32*
.24
Contribution
.66**
.44**
.47**
.54**
.44**
.41**
.53**
.37**
Gears
.52**
-
Mentor Reported
Goal
-
Selection
Pursuit of
.88**
-
.83**
.84**
-
Global GPS
.91**
.96**
.91**
-
Competence
.82**
.84**
.80**
.86**
-
Confidence
.72**
.78**
.78**
.81**
.88**
-
Caring
.73**
.72**
.70**
.74**
.77**
.66**
-
Character
.69**
.67**
.63**
.70**
.79**
.65**
.76**
-
Connection
.75**
.76**
.77**
.80**
.89**
.81**
.76**
.84**
-
Contribution
.82**
.84**
.78**
.87**
88**
.79**
.82**
.83**
.86**
Strategies
Shifting
Gears
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
19
-
Table 5
Correlations for GPS and PYD Growth Grids for Younger Adolescents
Youth-Reported
Dimension
Global
GPS
Global GPS
-
Competence
Confidence
Caring
Character
Connection
Competence
.46**
-
Confidence
.35**
.53**
-
Caring
.47**
.56**
.47**
-
Character
.38**
.61**
.44**
.69**
-
Connection
.25*
.55**
.55**
.47**
.42**
-
Contribution
.35**
.47**
.61**
.55**
.60**
.45**
Contribution
-
Mentor Reported
Global GPS
-
Competence
.85**
-
Confidence
.70**
.82**
-
Caring
.75**
.78**
.63**
-
Character
.71**
.81**
.68**
.84**
-
Connection
.74**
.85**
.79**
.73**
.79**
-
Contribution
.83**
.79**
.78**
.71**
.73**
.82**
-
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
When turning to the mentor-reported growth grid scores, the results indicate that all of the
dimensions were strongly related to each other for both younger and older adolescents. The smallest
correlation for the mentor-reported growth grids was between Shifting Gears and Character in older
youth, r(55) = .63, p < .01. This value is greater than most of the correlations found for the selfreported indices. Taken together with the reliability results (Table 1), these results suggest that
mentors perceive youth as well-functioning in a global manner.
The final set of analyses examined the correlations across raters (youth versus mentor) in order to
investigate cross-rater reliability (Tables 6 and 7). The results show that for the G, P, and S
dimensions in older youth, mentor and youth reports were only significantly correlated for Shifting
Gears, r(43)=.43, p < .0 (See Table 6). However, youth reports of Shifting Gears were also
significantly correlated with mentor-reported Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies. The results also
lend support to the use of the global GPS growth grid as a valid measure of intentional self regulation
for both younger and older youth as the mentor-reported global measure was significantly related to
older youth Goal Selection and Pursuit of Strategies, the youth-reported global GPS measure was
related to mentor-reported Pursuit of strategies and Shifting Gears, and the global measure of GPS
was significantly correlated across-raters.
20
Table 6
Mentor and Youth Correlations for GPS Growth Grid Dimensions
Growth Grid
Dimension
Goal Selection
- YR
Goal
Selection
YR
Pursuit of
Strategies
YR
Shifting
Gears
YR
Goal
Selection
MR
Pursuit of
Strategies
MR
Shifting
Gears
MR
Global
GPS
MR
-
Pursuit of
Strategies-YR
.56**
Shifting Gears
- YR
.58**
.43**
Goal Selection
-MR
.27
.22
.37*
Pursuit of
Strategies-MR
.37*
.25
.45**
.88**
-
Shifting Gears
-MR
.28
.14
.43**
.83**
.84**
-
-
.30*
.35*
.22
-
Global GPS
-YR
Global GPS
-MR
Global
GPS
YR
.33*
.19
-
.31a**
.41**
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
a
Value is reported for entire sample of younger and older adolescents (n=152). All other values are for older youth only (n=69).
21
Table 7
Mentor and Youth Correlations for PYD Growth Grid Dimensions
PYD
Dimension
Competence
- YR
Confidence
- YR
Caring
- YR
Character
- YR
Connection
- YR
Contribution
- YR
Competence
- MR
Competence
- YR
-
Confidence
- YR
.47**
-
Caring
- YR
.51**
.39**
-
Character
- YR
.54**
.34**
.55**
-
Connection
- YR
.43**
.45**
.41**
.34**
-
Contribution
- YR
.45**
.52**
.53**
.49**
.48**
-
Competence
- MR
.29**
.35**
.12
.22*
.25**
.25**
-
Confidence
- MR
Confidence
- MR
Caring
- MR
Character
- MR
Connection
- MR
.26**
.34**
.07
.18
.24*
.28**
.85**
-
Caring
- MR
.24*
.30**
.14
.17
.19*
.16
.78**
.65**
-
Character
- MR
.21*
.27**
.04
.15
.17
.17
.80**
.67**
.81**
-
Connection
- MR
.22*
.32**
.14
.21*
.21*
.21*
.87**
.81**
.75**
.81**
-
Contribution
- MR
.25**
.30**
.10
.17
.20*
.25**
.83**
.79**
.76**
.76**
.84**
Notes. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Across-rater correlations for the Five Cs of PYD and youth Contribution were more problematic (See
Table 7). For all pairs, correlations between analogous C growth grid scores were significant for
Competence, Confidence, Connection, and Contribution, but these values were low (ranging from r =
.21 to r = .34). Correlations between youth and mentors on Caring and Character were in the right
direction, but quite low. The discussion details possible reasons for these low levels of reliability.
However, these initial evaluation findings pertinent to the psychometric quality of the GPS to Success
tools suggested that the growth grids were suitable for larger-scale use.
Discussion
Intentional self regulation (ISR) has been linked consistently across the adolescent years to positive
youth development (PYD) and youth contribution (e.g., J. Lerner, et al., 2012). ISR, as a key
individual strength of youth, results in these features of youth thriving when enacted in the context of
key ecological developmental assets, such as youth development programs having competent,
reliable, and devoted adults serving as mentors to youth (e.g., Benson, Scales, & Syvertsen, 2011;
Rhodes, & Lowe, 2009; Theokas, & Lerner, 2006. The 4-H Study uses a model of ISR that
operationalizes this construct as involving the selection of positive goals, optimizing ones chances of
attaining ones goals through using effective strategies of resource recruitment and/or the cognitive
and behavioral skills reflected in executive functioning, and compensating when goals are blocked or
when strategies fail (Baltes, & Baltes, 1990; Freund, & Baltes, 2002; Lerner, at al., 2011a). The 4-H
Study of PYD (e.g., Lerner, et al., 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011b) has provided longitudinal data
documenting the links among ISR, PYD, and youth Contribution. The study verifies that covariation
22
Contribution
- MR
-
exists as well among these links and youth development programs, and the mentoring occurring
within them.
The goal of the 4-H Study was to not only describe and explain these patterns of association among
youth strengths, such as ISR; ecological assets, such as mentors within youth development programs;
and youth thriving (as indexed by scores for PYD and youth Contribution) but, as well, the intent was
to use this research base to devise means to optimize positive development among youth (Lerner,
Lerner, & Benson, 2011). Because there are few tools derived from theory-predicated developmental
research that can be used by mentors to enhance the links among ISR and PYD or youth
Contribution, we sought to develop a set of tools derived from the findings of the 4-H Study for
potential use by the practitioners involved in mentoring youth in community-based programs. The
present article presented initial information about the psychometric quality of the tools we have
developed, that is the GPS to Success growth grids (rubrics), which – as we have explained – use the
metaphor of a GPS navigational system (“G” standing for goal selection, “P” standing for pursuit of
strategies, and “S” standing for shifting gears, or compensatory skills needed when goals are blocked
or when strategies fail). We also developed growth grids assessing the Five Cs of PYD (competence,
confidence, connection, character, and caring) and youth Contribution.
We believe that our results are promising in regard to the reliability and validity of these growth grid
tools, at least among the younger and older adolescents and their mentors who were involved in 4-H
program sites in Oregon and North Carolina. This research is limited to assessing these psychometric
characteristics at one point in time within the program experiences of youth and mentors. There are
nevertheless indications of modest to high levels of reliability in both younger and older youth scoring
of the growth grids, somewhat higher levels of reliability in regard to the scores on the rubrics
provided by the mentors and, as well, scores indicative of validity. For instance, validity was
evidenced by the findings that rubric scores for “G” and “P” and for the global GPS score were
significantly related to the measure of ISR developed by Freund and Baltes (2002). Validity was
evidenced also by findings that within-pair mentor and youth growth grid scores for GPS, the Five Cs,
and Contribution were significantly positively correlated.
We are therefore encouraged that there is sufficient evidence of the psychometric quality of the tools
to promote their further use in longitudinal assessments of their usefulness and measurement quality.
We intend to conduct such research in a manner mindful of the several limitations of the present
research. Our further plans for developing the measurement quality of these tools involves not only
longitudinal assessments but, as well, use of samples that extend beyond the two geographic areas
assessed in the present research and, as well, that include more racially and ethnically diverse youth
than involved in the present research. In addition, we will study youth involved in programs other
than 4-H and, in this context, explore as well how program dosage and program type may moderate
the psychometric quality of the growth grids. For instance, we would expect that youth involved in
programs of greater intensity and duration might – within the context of the mentoring they
experience – show not only growth in their ISR skills and in the links between ISR and indices of
thriving but, in addition, they might evidence increasing convergence between their self appraisals on
the rubrics and the appraisals of their mentors. Here, it will be interesting to see whether, if such
relations exist, they vary in relation to participation in different youth development programs. Again,
the testing of these ideas awaits further longitudinal research.
Nevertheless, we can conclude that the present research has provided encouraging evidence that the
research developed within the 4-H Study of PYD can be translated into tools useful for mentors to
employ in their efforts to enhance a key individual strength among youth – ISR. Thus, mentors can
use the “GPS to Success” tools to catalyze the use of this strength among youth. Mentors can help
23
youth engage their context to effectively pursue goals and to access the ecological resources
associated with them, developmental assets that enable young people to thrive (Benson, et al.,
2011). If the quality of these tools can be enhanced through further tool-development research, we
believe that the importance of applied longitudinal research, such as the 4-H Study, will be
underscored. Most important, there will be a documentation of the importance of evidence-based
tools in facilitating mentors enacting their vital contributions to promote youth strengths and thriving.
Acknowledgment: This research was supported in part by grants from the Thrive Foundation for Youth and
the John Templeton Foundation.
References
Andrade, H.G. (2000). Using rubrics to promote thinking and learning. Educational Leadership, 57 (5):
13–18.
Baltes, P.B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and
compensation as foundations of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366–380.
Baltes, P.B., & Baltes, M.M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of
selective optimization with compensation. In P.B. Baltes & M.M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging:
Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1-34). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Baltes, P.B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U.M. (2006). Lifespan theory in developmental
psychology. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Theoretical models of human development. Vol. 1: Handbook of
Child Psychology (6th ed., pp. 569-664). Editors-in-chief: W. Damon & R.M. Lerner. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley.
Benson, P.L. (2008). Sparks: How parents can help ignite the hidden strengths of teenagers. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Benson, P.L., Leffert, N., Scales, P.C., & Blyth, D.A. (1998). Beyond the 'village' rhetoric: creating
healthy communities for children and adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 2(3), 138-159.
Benson, P.L., Scales, P.C., & Syvertsen, A.K. (2011). The contribution of the developmental assets
framework to positive youth development theory and practice. In R.M. Lerner, J.V. Lerner, & J.B.
Benson (Eds.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 41, 195-228.
Bowers, E.P., Li, Y., Kiely, M.K., Brittian, A., Lerner, J.V., & Lerner, R.M. (2010). The Five Cs Model of
Positive Youth Development: A longitudinal analysis of confirmatory factor structure and
measurement invariance. Journal of Youth and Adolescnce, 39(7), 720-735.
Bowers, E.P., Gestsdóttir, S., Geldhof, J., Nikitin, J., von Eye, A., & Lerner, R.M. (2011).
Developmental trajectories of intentional self regulation in adolescence: The role of parenting and
implications for positive and problematic outcomes among diverse youth. Journal of Adolescence,
34(6), 1193-1206.
Brandtstädter, J. (1989). Personal self-regulation of development: Cross-sequential analyses of
development-related control beliefs and emotions. Developmental Psychology, 25, 96–108.
24
Cattell, R.B. (1978). Scientific use of factor analysis in behavioral and life sciences. New York: Plenum
Press.
Cortina, J.M. (1993). What is Coefficient Alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 78, 98-104.
Cunha, F., Heckman, J., & Schennach, S. (2010) Estimating the technology of cognitive and
noncognitive skill formation. Econometrica, 78, 883-931.
Damon, W. (2008). The path to purpose: Helping our children find their calling in life. New York:
Simon and Schuster.
DuBois, D. L., Portillo, N., Rhodes, J.E., Silverthorn, N., Valentine, J.C. (2011). How Effective Are
Mentoring Programs for Youth? A Systematic Assessment of the Evidence. Psychological Science in
the Public Interest,12, 57-91.
Dweck, C.S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York: Random House.
Eccles, J.S. (2004). Schools, academic motivation, and stage-environment fit. In R.M. Lerner & L.
Steinberg (Eds.). Handbook of adolescent psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 125-153). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Freud, A. (1969). Adolescence as a developmental disturbance. In G. Caplan & S. Lebovici (Eds.),
Adolescence (pp. 5-10). New York: Basic Books.
Freund, A.M., & Baltes, P.B. (2002). Life-management strategies of Selection, Optimization and
Compensation: Measurement by self-report and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 82, 642-662.
Freund, A.M., Li, Z.H., & Baltes, P.B. (1999). The role of selection, optimization, and compensation in
successful aging. In J. Brandtstädter & R.M. Lerner (Eds.), Action and development: Origins and
functions of intentional self-development (pp. 401–434). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Geldhof, G.J., Little, T.D., & Colombo, J. (2010). Self-regulation across the life span. In R.M. Lerner
(Ed.), M.E. Lamb, & A.M. Freund (Volume Eds.), Handbook of Life-span Development, Vol. 2. Social
and emotional development (pp. 116-157). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Geldhof, G.J., Bowers, E.P., Gestsdottir, S., Napolitano, C.M., & Lerner, R.M. (in press). The Structure
of Selection, Optimization, and Compensation in Adolescence: Addressing an Unsolved Issue. Journal
of Research on Adolescence.
Gestsdóttir, S., Almerigi, J.B., & Lerner, R.M. (2007). Developmental Systems Theory. In R.S. New, &
M. Cochran (Eds.), Early Childhood Education: An International Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 (pp. 286-288).
Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
Gestsdóttir, S., & Lerner, R.M. (2007). Intentional self-regulation and positive youth development in
early adolescence: Findings from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development. Developmental
Psychology, 43(2), 508-521.
Gestsdóttir, G., & Lerner, R.M. (2008). Positive development in adolescence: The development and
role of intentional self regulation. Human Development, 51, 202-224.
25
Gestsdóttir, S., Lewin-Bizan, S., von Eye, A., Lerner, J.V. & Lerner, R.M. (2009). The structure and
function of Selection, Optimization, and Compensation in middle adolescence: Theoretical and applied
implications. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(5), 585-600.
Gestsdottir, S., Bowers, E.P., von Eye, A., Napolitano, C.M., & Lerner, R.M. (2010). Intentional self
regulation in middle adolescence: The emerging role of loss-based selection in Positive Youth
Development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(7), 764-782.
Goodrich, H. (1997). Understanding rubrics. Educational Leadership, 54(4), 14-17.
Kuhn, D. (2009). Adolescent thinking. In R.M. Lerner, L. Steinberg, (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent
psychology, Vol 1: Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed.) (pp. 152-186). Hoboken, NJ
US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Kurtines, W.M., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Berman, S.L., Cass Lorente, C., Briones, E., Montgomery, M.J., et
al. (2008b). Promoting positive youth development: The Miami Youth Development Project (YDP).
Journal of Adolescent Research, 23, 256-267.
Larson, R.W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist,
55(1), 170-183.
Larson, R. (2006). Positive youth development, willful adolescents, and mentoring. Journal of
Community Psychology, 34(6), 677 - 689.
Lerner, J.V., Bowers, E.P., Minor, K., Lewin-Bizan, S., Boyd, M.J., Mueller, M.K., et al. (2012). Positive
youth development: Processes, philosophies, and programs. In R.M. Lerner, M.A., Easterbrooks, & J.
Mistry (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology, Volume 6: Developmental Psychology (2nd edition). Editor-inchief: I.B. Weiner. (pp. 365-392). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., Almerigi, J., Theokas, C., Phelps, E., Gestsdottir, S., et al. (2005). Positive
youth development, participation in community youth development programs, and community
contributions of fifth grade adolescents: Findings from the first wave of the 4-H Study of Positive
Youth Development. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25(1), 17-71.
Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., & Benson, J. B. (2011). Research and applications for promoting thriving in
adolescence: A view of the issues. In R.M. Lerner, J.V. Lerner, & J.B. Benson, (Eds.), Advances in
Child Development and Behavior: Positive youth development: Research and applications for
promoting thriving in adolescence (pp. 1-16). Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing.
Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., Bowers, E.P., Lewin-Bizan, S., Gestsdottir, S, & Urban, J. (2011). Thriving
in childhood and adolescence: The role of self regulation processes. New Directions for Child and
Adolescent Development, 133.
Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., von Eye, A., Bowers, E.P., & Lewin-Bizan, S. (2011). Individual and
contextual bases of thriving in adolescence: A view of the issues. Journal of Adolescence.
Lerner, R.M., von Eye, A., Lerner, J.V., & Lewin-Bizan, S. (2009). Exploring the foundations and
functions of adolescent thriving within the 4-H study of positive youth development: A view of the
issues. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(5), 567-570.
26
Lerner, R.M., von Eye, A., Lerner, J.V., Lewin-Bizan, S., & Bowers, E.P. (2010). Special issue
introduction: The meaning and measurement of thriving: A view of the issues. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 39(7), 707-719.
Lerner, R.M. (2004). Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among America’s youth. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Marzano R.J., & Haystead, M.W. (2008). Making standards useful in the classroom. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
McClelland, M.M., Ponitz, C.C., Messersmith, E.E., & Tominey, S. (2010). Self-regulation: The
integration of cognition and emotion. In W.R. Overton (Ed.), Cognition, Biology, and Methods across
the Life Span: Vol. 1, Handbook of Life-span Development. Editor-in-chief: R.M. Lerner. (pp. 509553). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Moshman, D. (2013). Adolescent rationality. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 45, 155184.
Moskal, B.M. (2003). Recommendations for developing classroom performance assessments and
scoring rubrics. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 8(14). Available
http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=8&n=14 .
Paus, T. (2009). Brain development. In R.M. Lerner, L. Steinberg, (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent
psychology, Vol 1: Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed.) (pp. 95-115). Hoboken, NJ
US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Popham, J.W. (1997). What’s wrong—and what’s right—with rubrics. Educational Leadership, 55 (2):
72–75.
Rhodes, J. E., & Lowe, S.R. (2009). Mentoring in adolescence. In R.M. Lerner, L. Steinberg, (Eds.),
Handbook of Adolescent Psychology: Vol. 2. Contextual Influences on Adolescent Development (3rd
ed., pp. 152-190). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Small, S.A., & Rodgers, K.B. (1995). Teen Assessment Project (TAP) Survey Question Bank. Madison,
WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Susman, E.J., & Dorn, L.D. (2009). Puberty: Its Role in Development. In R.M. Lerner, L. Steinberg,
(Eds). Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (3rd ed.). (pp. 116-151). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Templeton, J.M. (2012). The essential worldwide laws of life. Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation
Press.
Theokas, C., & Lerner, R.M. (2006). Observed Ecological Assets in Families, Schools, and
Neighborhoods: Conceptualization, Measurement and Relations with Positive and Negative
Developmental Outcomes. Applied Developmental Science, 10(2), 61-74.
Werner, H. (1957). The concept of development from a comparative and organismic point of view. In
D.B. Harris (Ed.), The concept of development (pp. 125-148). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
Zimmerman, S., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R.M. (2007). Intentional self-regulation in early adolescence:
Assessing the structure of selection, optimization, and compensations processes. European Journal of
Developmental Science, 1(3), 272-299.
27
Zimmerman, S., Phelps, E., & Lerner, R.M. (2008). Positive and negative developmental trajectories in
U.S. adolescents: Where the PYD perspective meets the deficit model. Research in Human
Development,5(3),153-165.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
28
Appendix 1
Descriptions of GPS and the Cs of PYD
(G) Goal Selection
Before an adolescent can achieve a goal, he or she must choose that goal and understand the steps
needed for goal achievement. In the GPS framework, these behaviors are called “Goal Selection” (or
G) behaviors.
Choosing Your Destination – This behavior is the ability for a youth to select one or a small
number of meaningful, realistic and demanding long-term goals, for example, getting into
college or joining an athletic team.
Goals That Help Others – Long-term goals, goals that are the destination of youth, should
help themselves and also help the community, whether it be family, school, neighborhood, or
the environment.
Breaking Down Long Term Goals (Vertical Coherence) – Thriving adolescents are able
to select long-term goals that can be broken into short-term steps along the way. Having
logical and achievable short-term goals within a long-term goal improves the likelihood of
attaining that goal.
Identifying Relations Among Goals (Horizontal Coherence) – The best kinds of goals
help youth out in many different parts of life, and can even help youth to achieve other goals.
For example, the goal of joining a sports team helps youth become both physically fit and
make friends.
(P) Pursuit of Strategies
After selecting a goal, an adolescent must then use and/or develop the strategies needed to achieve
that goal. In the GPS framework, these behaviors are called “Pursuit of Strategies”, (or P) behaviors.
Sticking to a Plan – Making a detailed, step-by-step plan – and sticking to it by staying
focused – increases the likelihood that an individual will successfully achieve a goal.
Seizing the Moment – In order to achieve their goals, youth often have to know when and
how to act. To seize the moment, youth must be aware of their environment, and know when
and how to use their strategies most appropriately. For example, a youth may wait to ask his
parents for help when they are in a good mood.
Developing Strategies – In order to achieve their goals, youth must develop strategies that
will help them along the way. Sometimes, these may be strategies they already possess, such
as studying to prepare for a test. Other times, it might mean looking for new strategies in the
environment such as joining a study group to prepare for a test. It might also mean that
youth refine, or practice, the strategies that they are already using.
Showing Persistent Effort – Just having the right strategies in place isn’t enough for a
youth to achieve his or her goals. They must stay focused and show persistent effort with
their strategies, resisting the temptation (at least most of the time) to be distracted by other
things that may lead them off the path to goal achievement.
Checking Your Progress – An important – and often-overlooked – strategy for achieving
goals is keeping track of goal progress, and specifically, which strategies are working and
which are not. Some youth may do this primarily mentally, keeping track “in their head” about
how things are going and what is working and what isn’t. Other youth might need more
structure to check up on their progress.
(S) Shifting Gears
Sometimes the strategies that we use don’t work as well we planned. However, “roadblocks” don’t
necessarily mean that the goal is wrong; rather, there might be something not working with our
strategies. In other words, with some adjustments, there is still hope to achieve the goal. In the GPS
model, these are called “Shifting Gears” (or S) behaviors.
29
Substituting Strategies – Sometimes, a youth’s first choice of strategies won’t work quite
as well as they had planned for a particular goal. Keeping that long-term goal a reality
requires some adjustment or substitution of strategies. Youth might have to change their
plans, but the goal remains the same.
Seeking Different Help – When youth run into trouble or their original plans do not work
out, they often need to seek help from new and familiar people and resources to reach their
goals.
Adopting the Strategies of Others – One of the most important ways that youth can find
new strategies is by modeling or emulating the successful behavior of others. Society is full of
success stories, and often these individuals provide excellent advice for youth who are
struggling to achieve their goals.
Changing Goals Without Feeling Bad, or Loss-Based Selection (LBS) – LBS is all
about changing goals when things aren’t working as planned. Recognizing the need to move
to a new, more appropriate goal, LBS is about accepting loss as part of the learning process,
analyzing options and keeping an overall long-term goal in perspective.
What is PYD?
Positive Youth Development (PYD) is the capacity for all young people to Thrive. Whether it is
through their own actions and abilities, or through the support of caring adults and youth-serving
organizations, ALL young people can lead healthy, happy lives. Studies from Tufts University and
other research centers show that PYD is made up of Five Cs that are linked to youths’ positive
development: Competence, Confidence, Connection, Character, and Caring. When youth are
developing positively and reach the highest level of the Five Cs, they are more likely to become active
citizens and develop a sense of Contribution, a sixth C.
Competence
Competence is defined as a young person’s ability to perform successfully in a number of different
areas, such as social, academic, cognitive, and self-care skills.
Academic Competence – Youth’s ability to develop academic skills, participates in school
activities, and uses personal and academic resources for success in school.
Cognitive Competence – Youth’s ability to display curiosity and initiative to learn outside of
school settings, which leads to skills in these areas.
Social Competence – Youth’s ability to interact successfully in different situations with
people of various ages and cultures.
Emotional Competence – Youth’s ability to identify, control and adapt emotions in different
situations.
Healthy Habits – Youth’s ability to make healthy life choices by taking care of self with good
diet, rest, and exercise, while avoiding unsafe behaviors.
Confidence
Confidence is defined as a young person’s beliefs in his or her abilities to achieve in a variety of
domains.
Overall Confidence – Youth’s internal sense of overall positive self-worth and efficacy.
Confidence in School – Youth’s confidence in ability to succeed in an academic setting.
Confidence in Physical Appearance – Youth’s confidence in dress, hygiene, and features.
Confidence in Peer Acceptance – Youth’s confidence in ability to make and keep
friendships.
Confidence in an Area of Interest – Youth’s personal belief for success in a valued area.
30
Caring
Caring is defined by the sense of sympathy and empathy that a young person has for others, as well
as a dedication to social justice. A caring young person is not satisfied with just having his or her own
needs met, but is also concerned with the needs of others. Caring includes the expectation that
everyone should have equal opportunities and be free from discrimination.
Sympathy – Youth’s support and concern for the emotions of others.
Empathy – Youth’s ability to relate to others’ emotions and experiences, and ability to place
one’s self “in the other person’s shoes.”
Caring Actions – How kind and helpful youth’s behaviors are towards other people.
Promoting Social Justice – Youth’s willingness to help a community in need by working for
fairness and equality.
Connection
Connection is measured by the quality of relationships that a young person has with other people and
social groups.
Connection with Family – How well youth maintains healthy relationships with family
members, uses open communication skills, and deals with problems.
Connection with Friends – How well youth maintains strong, healthy relationships with
friends and is able to connect with many peers.
Connection with Community – How well youth creates successful relationships with
community members and institutions, and is able to improve and expand these ties.
Character
Character is defined as having a sense of morality – beliefs in standards for the behavior of oneself
and others – and the belief that integrity is an important part of a thriving life. Character can also be
described as doing what’s best for yourself and society.
Moral Compass – Youth’s sense of right and wrong that guides them in situations and
whether youth uses moral emotions (empathy, sympathy, admiration, shame, guilt, anger,
self-esteem) rather than snap judgments to make decisions.
Integrity – Youth’s ability to show sense of right and wrong in actions and ability to monitor
self to see if actions are consistent with beliefs.
Equal Treatment of Others – Youth’s equal and fair treatment of others, regardless of who
the others are and youth’s ability to stand up for the fair treatment of everyone.
Contribution
When the Five Cs are present in a young person, then a sixth C, Contribution, can emerge.
Contribution describes a person’s ability and desire to give back and contribute to his family,
community, and society.
Service to Community – Youth’s level of service to the community, such as getting involved
in service projects.
Leadership Roles – Youth’s ability and initiative to lead in a positive way.
Mentoring Peers – Youth’s willingness to mentor peers who need help.
Sense of Positive Purpose – Youth’s sense of purpose and desire to contribute now and in
the future.
31
4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a
Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention Program
Carrie Benke
4-Health Project
Montana State University Extension
carrie.benke@montana.edu
Sandra Bailey
Department of Health and Human Development
Montana State University
baileys@montana.edu
Galen Eldridge
4-Health Research
Montana State University Extension
galen.eldridge@montana.edu
Wesley Lynch
Department of Psychology
Montana State University
wlynch@montana.edu
Jill Martz
Montana State University Extension
jmartz@montana.edu
Lynn Paul
Department of Health and Human Development
Montana State University
lpaul@montana.edu
32
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA002
4-Health: A Programmatic Evaluation of a
Parent-Based Childhood Obesity Prevention
Program
Carrie Benke, Sandra Bailey, Galen Eldridge, Wesley Lynch, Jill Martz and Lynn Paul
Montana State University
Abstract: The 4-Health Project promotes healthy lifestyles for rural
families with an overall goal of reducing or preventing childhood
obesity. 4-Health is an integrated research and educational outreach
program delivered by agents located in Montana State University
Extension offices throughout the state. The collaborative project was
developed to provide healthy living programs focusing on the areas
of parenting and family communication, body image, food and
nutrition, and physical activity to rural parents of 8-12 year old
children participating in Montana’s 4-H Youth Development
programs. Evaluation outcomes of the 4-Health Educational
(experimental) program and the Healthy Living Information (control)
program both showed increases in participants’ knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors related to healthy living, with those
participating in the 4-Health Educational program making greater
gains.
Introduction
Childhood obesity continues to be a nationwide concern, as approximately one in three children is
overweight or obese (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Kit, & Flegal, 2012). Recent studies indicate that obesity
rates for children in rural settings are as high as or higher than that of their urban counterparts
(Davis, Bennett, Befort, & Nollen, 2011). During the preteen years, parents have the ability to greatly
impact food and nutrition choices, physical activity levels, and socio-emotional development of their
children, giving them an important role in the development of their children’s behavior related to
healthy living and the prevention of weight-related problems (Golan, & Crow, 2004; Rhee, 2008).
Because parents play such an important role in the lives of their preteen children, the focus of this
research and educational outreach program was to develop an evidence-based educational program
to improve the health and quality of life of rural children and families. A review of existing programs
was done to assist in program development. Current research suggests that effective family-based
33
interventions include modifications for the home environment, parental role modeling of healthy
behaviors, parental encouragement and support for healthy behaviors in children, and using goal
setting as a means to create behavior change (Bauer, Berge, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2011; Golley,
Hendrie, Slater, & Corsini, 2011).
To address childhood obesity from a family influence perspective, the Montana State University 4Health Project was created by an interdisciplinary team including a Professor of Psychology, the
Extension Food and Nutrition Specialist, the State 4-H Director, and the Extension Family and Human
Development Specialist. A project director, hired to oversee the 4-year project, and a research
assistant rounded out the team after funding was acquired from the United States Department of
Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
The 4-Health Project aims to promote healthy lifestyles for rural families and was developed to meet
the specific needs of rural parents of 8-12 year old 4-H members. The 4-Health Project consists of
integrated research and outreach components delivered by agents located in Extension Offices in
rural Montana counties. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of 4-Health, a pre-test/post-test design
with an intervention and control group was developed.
The 4-Health Educational program was the intervention program aimed at promoting healthy lifestyles
among rural Montana families through participation in 10, ninety-minute, face-to-face sessions taught
by a Montana State University Extension Agent in each participating county. The Healthy Living
Information program was delivered to participants in other counties and consisted of mailed packets
of information corresponding to topics similar to those in the experimental program. The evaluation
research hypothesis stated that parents in the 4-Health Educational program would show significantly
greater improvements in reported knowledge, attitudes, and family health-related behavior changes
pre- to post-intervention than parents in the Healthy Living Information program.
The 4-Health Project had three overarching research goals:
•
•
•
Develop an effective parent-centered obesity prevention educational program that changes
the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of rural families in order to promote health and wellbeing while preventing or reducing childhood obesity.
Implement the 4-Health Educational program (and a Healthy Living Information program) over
an 8-month period by offering it to parents of 8-12 year old children who are currently
participating in Montana’s 4-H Youth Development programs.
Evaluate participants’ self-reported knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors before and after the
programs in order to determine effectiveness of the 4-Health Educational program on family
healthy living habits versus the Healthy Living Information program.
Methodology
The 4-Health Project was developed over several phases. Prior to implementing the project, focus
groups (Phase 1) were conducted and a pilot study was carried out in three experimental and three
control counties located across the state (Phase 2). These components assisted the team in the
development of the final version of the 4-Health curriculum and the identification of written materials
for the Healthy Living information program. In Phase 3 the program was implemented in 21 counties
(11 experimental, 10 control).
Program sites for Phase 3 were selected in a semi-random, regional cluster design process in which
county Extension Agents were recruited to host a program and were assigned to a group based on
both their preference to be in either the experimental or control group, if needed, and their
34
geographic location. This assignment strategy allowed for some regional matching of experimental
and control groups to ensure statewide participation in both treatment conditions. A true random
assignment was not possible because we did not have the authority to require Extension Agents to
participate in the study. The 4-Health Educational program was delivered during face-to-face
meetings over an 8-month period between September 2011 and April 2012 to the experimental
group. Packets of information that made up the Healthy Living Information program were mailed to
the control group participants at specific intervals during the same time frame.
Participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors were assessed through a retrospective pre- and
post-program evaluation for the experimental and control groups. Nineteen quantitative questions
and four open-ended qualitative questions were used that focused on specific knowledge, attitudes,
and behaviors relating to the four program focus areas: parenting and family communication, body
image, food and nutrition, and physical activity. Quantitative data were managed using the SPSS
statistical package (v.20). Confirmatory factor analysis and repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to
analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative data were managed using MS Word processing and were
independently hand coded by four team members. The codes were entered into SPSS and an interrater reliability check was conducted.
Sample
The sample was drawn from 4-H families in Montana. Participants were parent and youth dyads, with
the youth being a 4-H between the ages of 8 and 12 at the start of the study. There were 194
parent-child dyads that began the program during the pilot and full year combined. Of the 169
parents who completed the evaluation, 91 were participants from the experimental group and 78
were participants from the control group. The average age of parent participants was 41.0 years. The
average age of youth participants was 10.7 years. Further participant demographics of dyads that
completed the project are shown in Table 1.
35
Table 1
Sample demographics N = 169 Parents/169 Youth
Variable
Parent Gender
Male
Female
Child Gender
Male
Female
Parent Ethnicity or Race
White or Caucasian
American Indian or Alaskan Native
Other
Child Ethnicity or Race
White or Caucasian
American Indian or Alaskan Native
Other
Family Income
Less than $14999
$15000 to $24999
$25000 to $34999
$35000 to $49999
$50000 to $74999
$75000 to $99999
$100000 or more
%
3.4%
96.6%
34.6%
65.4%
97.8%
0.6%
1.7%
98.3%
0.6%
1.1%
2.8%
4.5%
7.4%
23.3%
31.8%
18.8%
11.4%
Quantitative Results
Data were collected retrospectively from all parent participants following completion of the postintervention sessions of the pilot and full study. The 4-Health Final Participant Evaluation form
included 17 questions in the pilot study and 19 questions in the full study. The two questions that
were added concerned the focus area of physical activity. The two new questions addressed family
communication related to physical activity and taking advantage of community sites for physical
activity. The evaluation form covered the four program areas of being an active parent (AP), body
image (BI), food and nutrition (FN), and physical activity (PA). Parents were asked to rate each item
twice, once for the period prior to the program (pre) and once for the period following the program
(post). Ratings in both cases were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5).
During preliminary analysis of individual items in the quantitative questionnaire a consistent pattern
emerged for each group of questions, suggesting a high degree of correlation among items within
each of the four focus areas covered. As a result, a factor analysis of all items (using pre-intervention
data for all participants) was carried out prior to further analysis. This analysis confirmed the
existence of four factors (Eigenvalues > 1.0) corresponding to the four topic areas. Using mean
scores for each of the four areas, separate mixed-model ANOVAs were carried out, with group
(experimental versus control) as the between-subjects factor and pre- and post-program evaluations
as the within-subjects factor.
For all composite scores, the pre- to post- program improvement was greater in the 4-Health
Educational (experimental) program than in the Healthy Living Information (control) program,
36
demonstrating greater reported increases in knowledge and healthy behaviors among participants in
the face-to-face 4-Health Educational (experimental) program.
Being an Active Parent
The mean factor score for being an active parent, using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements:
•
I could use good communication skills when interacting with my family.
•
I could provide high levels of love and warmth.
•
I could provide appropriate boundaries based on my child's age.
•
I could advocate for my preteen when needed.
•
I could provide opportunities for my preteen to grow and develop his/her own identity.
Figure 1
Mean response to active parenting statements
Results, as shown in Figure 1, indicated a significant pre- to post-program change in parents’ reports
of practicing active parenting (p < .001), showing that both groups reported an increase. There was a
significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that
the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group.
Body Image
The body image factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements:
•
Our family could focus on each individual's positive traits and capabilities.
37
•
Our family could encourage size and body acceptance of self and others.
•
Our family could understand media and the environmental influences on the development of
body image.
•
Our family could teach and model healthy self-esteem, respect, and confidence.
Figure 2
Mean response to body image statements
As can be seen in Figure 2, there was a significant pre- to post-program change in parents’ reported
enhancing of positive body image (p < .001), showing that both groups increased. There was a
significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that
the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group.
Food and Nutrition
The food and nutrition factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements:
•
Our family could choose foods and beverages packed with nutrients.
•
Our family could eat meals and snacks regularly.
•
Our family could choose food portions appropriate for our activity level.
•
Our family could eat together regularly.
•
Our family could practice the principles of normal, healthy eating.
•
Our family could avoid unhealthy weight control practices.
38
Figure 3
Mean response to food and nutrition statements
Similar to the findings for active parenting and body image, Figure 3 shows, there was a significant
pre- to post-program change in parents’ reported enhancing of healthy food and nutrition behaviors
(p < .001), showing that both groups reported increases. There was again a significant pre- to postprogram change x experimental/control interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group
reported greater pre- to post-program change than the control group.
Physical Activity
The physical activity factor score consisted of participants’ responses to the following statements:
•
Our family could work to create an accessible environment that promotes an active lifestyle.
•
Our family could work to reduce sedentary time.
•
Our family could promote physical activity through family communication.
•
Our family could take advantage of community sites that provide places for physical activity.
39
Figure 4
Mean response to physical activity statements
The results shown in Figure 4 for physical activity showed there was a significant pre- to postprogram change in engaging in a physically active lifestyle (p < .001), showing that both groups
reported increases. There was a significant pre- to post-program change x experimental/control
interaction (p < .001), showing that the experimental group reported greater pre- to post-program
change than the control group.
Qualitative Results
In addition to the quantitative portion of the evaluation, four open-ended evaluation statements were
posed about potential changes that parents had made after participating in either program. The four
statements addressed the areas of focus: parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical
activity.
•
As a result of this program, describe what you have done to become a more active parent.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has worked to enhance positive body
image.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has changed their food and nutrition
behavior.
•
As a result of this program, describe how your family has made changes to engage in a more
physically active lifestyle.
40
The qualitative responses from the parents were analyzed using an analytic induction approach.
According to Patton (2002), qualitative research can be deductive in nature, where the researcher
analyzes data to confirm or verify an existing theoretical framework. As Patton notes, qualitative
analysis can first be deductive followed by (or alongside) an inductive process. In this way, a
researcher begins by examining the data in terms of “theory-derived sensitizing concepts” or applying
an existing framework (p. 454). During this deductive phase, the researcher can simultaneously
search for emergent patterns by using an inductive process. The 4-Health Team selected knowledge,
attitude, and behavior (KAB) to apply in the analysis. The KAB has been used in nutrition and health
related studies and evaluations (Baranowski, Cullen, Nicklas, Thompson, & Baranowski, 2003; Brown,
& Kiernan, 1998; Lin, Yang, Hang, & Pan, 2007). The KAB model was operationalized using the
following:
K – (Knowledge) Understanding of information
A – (Attitude) Belief about the value of the information
B – (Behavior) Application of knowledge gained from the information; action taken
Four members of the 4-Health team coded the responses using the KAB model to explore possible
changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors that participants reported. After the independent
coding was completed two of the team members compiled the responses. It was noted that the way
in which the open-ended questions were worded did not prompt responses related to attitude as was
assessed by the Likert scale questions, therefore no ‘A’s were coded. Next, team members found that
numerous participant responses used the term “trying” or “tried.” For example, in response to the
question about changes in being more physically active after participating in the program one parent
responded, “As a result of this program, we try to individually and as a family get out and get moving
more often. We each have our own exercise program but we also like to do things as a family.” In
responses that used the terms “trying” or “tried,” it was difficult for the team to determine if the
respondents had actually moved to making a change in behavior. Therefore, responses referencing
“trying” or “tried” were coded as KB, meaning that the participant had gained knowledge but it was
not clear whether or not the participant had changed his/her behavior.
As a result of these adaptations most responses were coded as KB (trying to make a change) or B
(behavior change). After the two changes were made in the coding the inter-rater reliability was
computed. Inter-rater reliability was .87 for the experimental group and .86 for the control group.
This inter-rater reliability was very conservative. If only one of the four team members had a different
rating on an item, the item was marked as inconsistent. Table 2 below provides a sample of
participant responses to each of the evaluation statements. As can be seen, the responses to the
open-ended statements supported the quantitative results of the evaluation.
41
Table 2
Examples of participant qualitative responses
Evaluation Statement
As a result of this program, describe
what you have done to become a
more active parent.
Example Participant Responses
“We do things with the children instead of telling them to do
physical activity, realizing that we are their most important role
models.”
“I’m involving my kids more in cooking and making some of the
choices, offering healthier snack options and discussing why we
need to make these changes.”
As a result of this program, describe
how your family has worked to
enhance positive body image.
“I am way more conscious of it [body image] and do way more to
promote positive body image – we really try to watch what we say
and what we expose ourselves to.”
“I am more aware of the way I listen to/respond to my daughter’s
comments about her body. It’s more of a conversation now.”
As a result of this program, describe
how your family has changed their
food and nutrition behavior choices.
“My family is now very aware of the importance of having a plate
full of color. We now use whole wheat pasta and try to eat some
sort of fresh vegetable or fruit daily.”
“We are eating more and a larger variety of vegetables and fruit,
now everyone eats cauliflower and broccoli. The course and the
discussion taught me new ways to incorporate vegetables into our
meals.”
As a result of this program, describe
how your family has made changes
to engage in a more physically active
lifestyle.
“We have made time to walk, ride bikes, or play ball together. We
also found that a fun, good way to be active together [inside] was
to play Wii.”
“I have decided to start dinner 30 minutes later so I can play
outside with the kids. We are doing things we all enjoy together –
and compromising on what we do. If I feel tired, I try to go for a
walk or bike ride with the kids.”
When participants responses were categorized using the KAB model, both the experimental and
control groups showed increases in knowledge (K), attempts to change behavior (KB), and actual
behavior changes (B) as a result of the program, but the experimental group consistently showed
greater levels of behavior change than the control group; the control group more frequently
answered that they were “trying” to change their behavior, as opposed to having actually made a
change. Table 3 below provides a comparison of the percentage of participants from the experimental
and control group that reported no changes, acquired knowledge, attempts to change behaviors, and
actual changes in behavior.
42
Table 3
Percentage of responses from participants in the experimental and control groups
As a result of this program
describe…
Reported no
change
Acquired
knowledge
Are trying to
change
behavior
Made
behavior
changes
…what you have done to become
a more active parent.
Experimental Group
Control Group
2.6%
40.6%
9.0%
4.3%
11.5%
17.4%
76.9%
37.7%
10.1%
40.0%
7.6%
6.2%
8.9%
13.8%
73.4%
40.0%
0%
17.6%
2.3%
5.9%
3.5%
20.6%
94.2%
55.9%
2.8%
32.1%
4.3%
5.4%
20.0%
23.2%
72.9%
39.3%
…how your family has worked to
enhance positive body image.
Experimental Group
Control Group
…how your family has changed
their food and nutrition behavior
choices.
Experimental Group
Control Group
… how your family has made
changes to engage in a more
physically active lifestyle.
Experimental Group
Control Group
The 4-Health Team followed up with participants from the full study with final evaluations 6 months
after the post program evaluation. Although only two-thirds of the participants from the full study
year were able to complete the follow up evaluation, 92.8% of respondents in the 4-Health
Educational program group reported having continued with changes they made in the areas of
parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity. In contrast, only 57% of parents in
the Healthy Living Information group reported continuing with changes they made in the same areas.
Discussion, Conclusions, and Implications for Practice
The evaluation findings show that although participants in both groups improved their knowledge and
behaviors related to parenting, body image, food and nutrition, and physical activity within their
families, the participants in the 4-Health Educational (experimental) program reported a significantly
greater level of learning and behavior change than the participants in the Healthy Living Information
(control) program. In other words, participants who were given the opportunity for face-to-face
facilitated sessions with peer interaction reported greater improvements in knowledge and behaviors
than participants who only received healthy living written materials. These findings contribute to the
body of knowledge that suggests even though health information is widely available through many
media sources, Extension’s facilitated programming efforts, especially in rural areas, are a more
43
effective method of providing education that has a significantly greater impact on participants than
educational materials alone.
Feedback from program participants and facilitators of the 4-Health Educational program on
components of the program that had the most impact on them was provided to the 4-Health Team.
The following suggestions may be helpful to Extension educators and those providing face-to-face
healthy living programs to 4-H families or other parents:
•
Provide Time for Interaction - In addition to finding the content of the program valuable,
participants found great value in having time, as parents, to talk about what was going on
with their families, in their homes, and in their communities. Most participants mentioned the
social support of the other parents in their group as one of the highlights of the 4-Health
Educational program, especially during discussions on topics that were newer to them, such as
body image.
•
Provide Healthy Snacks - Participants appreciated when healthy snacks were provided by
facilitators, especially when new foods were introduced, such as quinoa, couscous, or seasonal
fruits and vegetables. The introduction of these foods during sessions increased participant
confidence in serving them at home.
•
Provide Family Friendly Recipes with Take-Home Ingredients - Participants enjoyed take-home
recipes and simple, healthy ingredients provided by facilitators for engaging their preteen in
the kitchen. It encouraged them to try new foods at home and spend time with their families
discussing healthy living topics.
•
Provide Physical Activity Breaks Mid-Session - Participants appreciated an activity break midsession, especially when activities that were new to them were incorporated, such as strength
training exercises or yoga poses. They also enjoyed sharing ideas for activities that they could
use with their families at home during the cold winter months, such as having at home “dance
parties” or sharing local community opportunities for family fun and fitness.
The 4-Health Educational Program will continue to be facilitated across Montana in 2013-2014. The
program materials are currently being disseminated statewide and are available for download at
www.4health.org.
References
Baranowski, T., Cullen, K.W., Nicklas, T., Thompson, D., & Baranowski, J. (2003). Are current health
behavioral change models helpful in guiding prevention of weight gain efforts? Obesity Research, 11,
23S-43S.
Bauer, K.W., Berge, J.M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2011). The importance of families to adolescents’
physical activity and dietary intake. Adolescent Medicine, 22(3). 601-613.
Brown, J.L., & Kiernan, N.E. (1998). A model for inegrating program development and evaluation.
Journal of Extension, [On-line], 36(3), Article 3RIB5. Available at
http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/index.php.
Davis, A.M., Bennett, K.J., Befort, C., Nollen, N. (2011). Obesity and related health behaviors among
urbank and rural children in the United States: Data from the National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey 2003-2004 and 2005-2006. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36(6), 669-676. doi:
10.1093/jpepsy/jsq117.
44
Golan, M., & Crow, S. (2004). Parents are key players in the prevention and treatment of weightrelated problems. Nutrition Reviews, 62, 39-50.
Golley, R.K., Hendrie, G.A., Slater, A., & Corsini, N. (2011). Interventions that involve parents to
improve children's weight-related nutrition intake and activity patterns - what nutrition and activity
targets and behaviour change techniques are associated with intervention effectiveness? Obesity
Reviews, 12(2), 114-130.
Lin, W., Yang, H., Hang, C. & Pan, W. (2007). Nutrition knowledge, attitude, and behavior of
Taiwanese elementary school children. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 16(2), 534-546.
Ogden, C.L., Carroll, M.D., Curtin, L.R., Kit, B.K., & Flegal, K.M. (2012). Prevalence of Obesity and
Trends in Body Mass Index Among US Children and Adolescents. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 307(5), 483-490. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.40.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Rhee, K. (2008). Childhood overweight and the relationship between parent behaviors, parenting
style, and family functioning. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 615,
12-37.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
45
Training Teens to Teach Agricultural
Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science
Demonstration Project
Chad Ripberger
Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Mercer County
Trenton, New Jersey
ripberger@njaes.rutgers.edu
Lydia B. Blalock
Project Consultant
46
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA003
Training Teens to Teach Agricultural
Biotechnology: A National 4-H Science
Demonstration Project
Chad Ripberger
Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Mercer County
Lydia B. Blalock
Project Consultant
Abstract: This article discusses a National 4-H Science agricultural
biotechnology demonstration project and the impact of the pilot
programs on the teenage leaders and teachers. A total of 82
teenagers were extensively trained, who in turn, engaged 620 youth
participants with agricultural biotechnology education in afterschool
and summer programs in five states. This article details the national
and state level trainings for these teen teachers as well as the
content rich partners from agribusinesses, agricultural commodity
groups, and universities who supported their involvement. The
impact on the content knowledge, science process and life skills, and
program development and implementation skills of the teen leaders
and teachers was evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple
administrations (pre-training, post-training, and post-teaching).
Results indicate significant gains in most areas assessed. Project
recommendations and future plans are also discussed.
Introduction
Today, many young people are generationally and geographically removed from farming and
agriculture. Yet, it is vital that these young leaders and future decision makers understand the critical
role of agricultural science innovation in addressing the world’s most pressing problems. In 2012,
National 4-H Council in partnership with the United Soybean Board (USB) and five Land Grant
Universities conducted four, teen led agricultural biotechnology demonstration programs in ten urban
areas of Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and Ohio. These programs are part of the larger 4-H
Science in Urban Communities Initiative, and were designed using the 4-H Science in Urban
47
Communities Promising Practices Guide available at http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu (Ripberger, &
Blalock, 2011).
Teens as Teachers
The 4-H Youth Development Program has a long history of training and supporting teenagers to teach
or co-facilitate youth programs for their peers and/or younger youth. The teens as cross-age teachers
delivery model has been implemented with a variety of curricula, including healthy living (Emil,
Dworkin, & Skelly, 2007; Ripberger, Devitt, & Gore, 2009), job readiness (Ripberger, Bovitz, Cole, &
Lyons, 2008), and science (Bird, & Subramaniam, 2011; Smith & Enfield, 2002; Utah State University
Cooperative Extension, 2011). Lee and Murdock (2002) studied 14 teens as teachers programs, and
identified ten essential elements of programs that lead to positive outcomes for the teen teachers and
those they teach:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
dedicated adults who support teens,
active teen recruitment,
strong curriculum,
initial training,
ongoing training and support,
attention to details,
recognition and reward,
team building,
setting teens up for success, and
feedback and evaluation.
Based on their work, several resources have been created to support 4-H professionals developing
teens as teachers programs. These resources include a 4-H Afterschool resource guide to help
practitioners recruit and train teenagers to work with younger youth in afterschool settings (Junge,
2005) and a more concise 4-H Science fact sheet, Engaging Teens as Teachers through Youth-Adult
Partnerships in 4-H Science (Schmitt-McQuitty, 2012).
The agricultural biotechnology project discussed in this article is based on the work of Lee and
Murdock and the practices outlined in the Staffing with Teenagers and Teens as Cross-Age Teachers
chapter of the 4-H Science in Urban Communities Promising Practices Guide (Ripberger, & Blalock,
2011). Ripberger and Blalock worked with six 4-H professionals with extensive experience in “teens as
teachers” programs to identify “teens as teachers” promising practices in four areas:
a) program planning and evaluation,
b) recruitment,
c) training, and
d) resources and support (see Table 1).
48
Table 1
Staffing with Teenagers and Teens as Cross-Age Teachers Promising Practices
(Ripberger & Blalock, 2011)
Program Planning and Evaluation
Read the chapter 4-H Science Program Design – 4-H Science Checklist.
Offer authentic, meaningful teaching and/or leadership roles.
Make their role special.
Provide meaningful recognition.
Provide incentives to teens for their time and dedication.
Partner with other agencies or organizations that provide youth incentives.
Use flexible scheduling practices.
Extend service-learning beyond one program.
Evaluate teen program performance.
Recruitment
Recruit teens from a variety of sources.
Assess teens interested in becoming program partners.
Emphasize the employment process.
Training
Read the chapter Training Others to Deliver High Quality Science Programming.
Provide quality training for teens and their adult partners.
Create opportunities to practice.
Group youth into teaching teams.
Ask youth to visualize the teaching process.
Resources and Support
Provide research-based curricula and materials.
Supportive adult partners are a critical factor in great teen teaching.
Ensure that adults working with teens are trained and prepared.
Assist teens in reflecting on their teaching experience.
A full description of the practices along with a short video featuring the contributors, brief case
studies, and suggested resources is available at
http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu/practices/staffing/teens.html.
In addition, a 60-minute webinar about this chapter is available in the 4-H Online Learning Center at
http://4h.interactyx.com/login.aspx (Ripberger, Francis, & Wagoner, 2012).
Need for Agricultural Biotechnology Programming
Agricultural biotechnology is a “range of tools, including traditional breeding techniques, that alter
living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve plants or animals; or
develop microorganisms for specific agricultural uses. Modern biotechnology today includes the tools
of genetic engineering” (USDA, n.d., p. 1). To date, agricultural biotechnology has primarily been
used to increase crop yields through the development of a variety of transgenic crops that are
herbicide tolerant, insect resistant, and/or disease resistant. However, a variety of agricultural
biotechnology products are in various stages of research, development, and commercialization that
have the potential of addressing some of our most pressing issues related to global food security,
nutrition, energy, and sustainability (USDA; National Research Council, 2008; Pew Initiative on Food
and Biotechnology, 2001).
49
Through 2015, it is estimated that there will be 54,400 annual job openings for those with agricultural
college degrees (Goecker, Smith, Smith, & Goetz, 2010). While the percentage of these opportunities
in production agriculture (farming) has declined, 27% of these jobs will be in science and engineering
and 47% will be in management and business. A shortfall of graduates for these science and business
positions is projected as we approach 2015, especially for the anticipated demand for plant
geneticists and plant breeders. The 4-H Teens Teaching Youth Agricultural Biotechnology project was
designed to help youth increase their knowledge of agricultural biotechnology and to increase their
awareness of career opportunities available in this growing field. This project is consistent with the
recommendations for K-12 and youth outreach from Transforming Agricultural Education for a
Changing World, a report from the National Research Council (2009),
Many of the messages in the report about the changing nature of agriculture also apply to
the way that it is portrayed in youth-focused programs. These activities have the same
responsibility as agriculture faculty to ensure that the treatment of agriculture in courses and
curricula reflects the cutting edge and the increasing focus on issues such as sustainability
and concern for the environment. (p. 83)
As a pilot project, 4-H Teens Teaching Youth Agricultural Biotechnology was designed to serve as a
foundation for an increased focus on AgriScience programming by 4-H.
Project Design
In 2011 National 4-H Council, with support from the United Soybean Board (USB), solicited interest
from 4-H professionals to participate in a year-long “teens as teachers” project focused on agricultural
biotechnology. Through a competitive proposal process, four grants of $25,000 were awarded to 4-H
programs in Delaware, Illinois/Missouri (a partnership), Indiana, and Ohio. Each of these 4-H
programs agreed to the overall project objectives and outcome objectives.
Project Objectives
1. Each demonstration program will include a leadership team composed of four Teen Leaders, at
least one 4‐H Program professional, and at least one agricultural biotechnology partner from their
state soybean board, industry, and/or their Land Grant University.
2. All leadership team members will attend the project kickoff/grantee training, January 11‐14, 2012
in Indianapolis, Indiana.
3. The project will engage a total of 80 urban teens and 400 younger youth participants with
biotechnology education in order to identify promising practices for future replication with
expanded audiences. Eighty urban teens will be recruited and extensively trained to deliver a
minimum of 20 hours of biotechnology programming for youth in afterschool, club, and
summer/camp programs.
Outcome Objectives
1. Content Knowledge – Agricultural Biotechnology
a. Participants will increase their knowledge of biotechnology/AgriScience principles and
concepts.
b. Participants will increase their awareness of potential careers in agricultural biotechnology
fields.
c. Participants will feel comfortable communicating the biotechnology story.
2. Science Process and Life Skills
50
a. Participants will increase in 4-H Science Abilities (science process skills) (Worker, 2012).
b. Participants will increase in Life Skills as measured by the Youth, Engagement, Attitudes and
Knowledge (YEAK) Survey.
3. Program Development and Implementation
a. Participants will improve their teaching and communication skills.
b. Participants will increase their skills in 4-H Science program design.
c. Participants will understand how to effectively use content rich partners as part of their
trainings.
d. Participants will understand how to integrate biotechnology/AgriScience activities from
recommended curricula sources into program plans.
Concepts and Related Activities and Curricular Resources
In the absence of a comprehensive and current 4-H agricultural biotechnology curriculum, the
demonstration program leadership teams were introduced to a variety of activities from suggested
curricula at the national training. These activities, along with field trips, presentations from contentrich partners, and computer-based resources, were sequenced to address the following concepts (see
Table 2). Suggested curricula included the 4-H AgriScience Online biotechnology activities (Horton,
Warkentien, & Gogolski, 2011) and resources from the Iowa State University Biotech Office (2012).
Teams also utilized selected components of an agricultural biotechnology curriculum from The
Children’s Museum of Indianapolis (2007) and the GetBiotechSmart.com website (United Soybean
Board, 2012).
51
Table 2
Ag Science Concepts and Related Activities and Resources
Ag Science Concepts
Agricultural Literacy
Agricultural Products
(how and where they are
produced)
Plants & People - Food, Feed,
Fuel, Fiber
Seed Production
Yield and Yield Trends
Factors Influencing Yield
Challenges for Agriculture
Global Food Security
Sustainability
Intro to Agricultural
Biotechnology
Biotechnology Defined
Historical Perspective
Input and Output Traits
Types of Biotech Crops
Regulation of Biotechnology
Public Concerns Regarding
Biotechnology
International Perspective
Science of Biotechnology
Cell Biology
DNA
Genetics
Genetic Engineering
Tools and Techniques
Selected Activities and Resources
Bio Plastic from 4-H AgriScience Online
Soy Ink from 4-H AgriScience Online
Biomass to Biofuel from 4-H AgriScience Online
Soap – Plant Oils Matter from 4-H AgriScience Online
Field trip to seed company addressed seed production, yield
and yield trends, and factors influencing yields. Youth
spoke with staff and toured seed production facilities.
Primarily addressed through guest speakers, field trips, PPT,
and video.
History of Agricultural Biotechnology from Agricultural
Biotechnology, pg. 6-11, 27
Engineering a Better Oil from 4-H AgriScience Online
Trait Testing Activity from Iowa State University Biotech
Office
Bioethics Case Studies from Iowa State University Biotech
Office
Also addressed through guest speakers, field trips, PPT, and
video. Staff from agribusinesses and commodity groups
were especially helpful in addressing input and output traits
and the types of biotech crops. Due to their work in many
countries, the Danforth Plant Science Center was key in
providing a global perspective.
Cell Model Activities:
Background info from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 12-14
Cell Pudding Pie Model from Field of Genes
DNA Model Activities:
Paper Clip Model from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg. 18-20
Candy Model (licorice & gum drops) from
GetBiotechSmart.com (some did similar with pipe
cleaners)
DNA Extraction Activities:
Fruit Smoothie Version from Iowa State University Biotech
Office
Wheat Germ Version from Agricultural Biotechnology, pg.
21-23
Strawberry Version from Pioneer
LEGO Analogy for Sequencing
In Delaware, Missouri, and Illinois, participants completed
PCR and microarray lab activities at the Delaware
Biotechnology Institute and the Danforth Plant Science
Center.
52
Ag Science Concepts
Agricultural Biotechnology Career
Awareness
Selected Activities and Resources
Youth met many in the field of biotechnology through field
trips and guest speakers. Youth (both teens and younger
participants) visited the labs and greenhouses of many
partnering agribusinesses and organizations.
National Kickoff Training
The Kickoff Training was a four-day program held in Indianapolis, Indiana for 16 Teen Leaders and
16 adults serving on state leadership teams. Program kickoff partners included USB, the Indiana
Soybean Alliance (new uses, communicating the biotech story, and a panel of Purdue students and
faculty from the Soybean Innovation Contest), Purdue University (Biotechnology 101, DNA extraction
and sequencing activities), Beck’s Hybrids (seed production, input and output traits, trait testing
activity, tour), Dow AgroSciences (biotechnology and global food security, product pipeline, tour), and
Adayana, Inc. (GetBiotechSmart.com). In addition to presentations and tours from partners, the
youth also experienced several activities from suggested curricula and practiced teaching these
activities on the last day. Participants also had time to brainstorm ideas for teen recruitment, training,
and program implementation.
State Level Teen Recruitment and Training
After attending the national kickoff training, state leadership teams (four teens, 4-H professional, and
content rich partner) were responsible for recruiting additional teen teachers and planning and
implementing a 15-hour training to help prepare them for their responsibilities. State teams were
strongly encouraged to utilize content rich partners from agribusinesses, universities, and agricultural
commodity groups in their training events. Highlights of their partners, trainings, and programming
are below.
Demonstration Program Highlights and Content Rich Partners
Delaware (Claymont, Dover, Hartly, and Wilmington)
Delaware 4-H partnered with Boys and Girls Club in Clayton, the Delaware Housing Authority in
Dover, Urban Promise in Wilmington, and a local school to deliver four agricultural biotechnology
summer camps from June through August. The program’s content rich partners included the
Delaware Biotechnology Institute, a University of Delaware agronomist, and a member of the
Delaware Soybean Board. In addition to hosting part of the two-day state teen training in March, the
Delaware Biotechnology Institute also allowed access to research labs and provided activities for the
youth camp participants. In addition, the Delaware team also incorporated several of the biotech
activities into the annual science adventure camp.
Illinois/Missouri (Cahokia and Madison, Illinois; Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri)
Illinois and Missouri 4-H programs joined forces to implement nine 20-hour programs with
afterschool, camp, and summer school partners in the greater St. Louis and Kansas City areas. From
the beginning, the program benefitted from the expertise of Dr. Terry Woodford-Thomas of the
Danforth Plant Science Center, who hosted a weekend planning retreat in January and the weekend
teen training in February. Dr. Woodford-Thomas also assisted with activities and mentoring the Teen
Teachers. In addition to their regular programming, the teenagers incorporated agricultural
biotechnology activities into the Missouri State 4-H Congress in May and the Youth Futures
Conference in July. The program was presented to afterschool professionals at the Midwest Regional
Science Conference.
53
Indiana (Columbus and Lafayette)
Two county 4-H educators partnered to deliver the program in afterschool sites in Columbus and
Lafayette. Agricultural biotechnology content was also incorporated into two three-day campus-based
summer camps in June, Purdue 4-H Roundup and one of the Purdue 4-H Science Workshops (PINE—
Plants, Insects, Natural Resources, Environment). Dr. Kathryn Orvis, State 4-H Specialist, served as
the primary content partner, lending a background in plant science and biotechnology education to
the Indiana team. Dr. Orvis was instrumental in training the Teen Teachers and in engaging other
content rich partners such as the Biotechnology Learning Center of the Children’s Museum of
Indianapolis, host of part of the two-day teen training in February.
Ohio (Dayton)
The Teen Leaders conducted a pilot of the program at a partnering afterschool site in Dayton, Ohio
from February to April before recruiting and training additional teens to deliver the program as part of
the six-week Adventure Central summer camp in June and July for 111 youth. The agricultural
biotechnology training was incorporated into the weeklong teen counselor training prior to camp. In
addition to the camp-based programming, the Ohio 4-H team partnered with the Ohio Soybean
Council and the Ohio BioProducts Innovation Center to coordinate a day trip to The Ohio State
University to meet with faculty from Food Science, Horticulture and Crop Science, and Agricultural
Engineering.
USA Science and Engineering Festival
All leadership teams (teens and staff) traveled to Washington DC in April 2012 to represent National
4-H and this project at the USA Science and Engineering Festival—the largest celebration of science in
the US – featuring over 500 interactive exhibits for approximately 500,000 people. In addition to time
spent staffing the 4-H booth, the teens participated in activities from a variety of universities, federal
agencies, and science centers.
Project Evaluation
Teen Teachers and Teen Leaders were evaluated using multiple instruments over multiple
administrations. Teen Leaders were Teen Teachers who had the additional responsibility of attending
the National Kickoff Training and planning and implementing state trainings for their peers.
Instruments included a Knowledge Assessment, several open-ended questions, a Retrospective
Assessment, and the Youth Engagement, Attitudes, and Knowledge Survey (YEAK). In addition, the
adult program leaders were asked to provide feedback regarding the project.
Methods
Knowledge Assessment
A 29-item (36 points) Knowledge Assessment was developed specifically for this project. The
assessment included items on genetics, the science of biotechnology, input and output traits, types of
biotechnology crops, biotechnology benefits and concerns, and biotechnology regulation. Question
formats included multiple choice, matching, true/false, and short answer. The assessment was
administered to the Teen Teachers and Leaders three times, pre-training, post-training, and postteaching. Scores were assigned based upon number of correct items. Results were analyzed with
SPSS using paired t-tests for dependent samples.
Open-ended Questions
The teens were asked to answer three open-ended questions about their experiences. The questions
included:
1. What are the three (3) most valuable things you learned about biotechnology this week?
54
2. What was the most valuable part of this training?
3. What was the most valuable part of this biotechnology program experience?
Responses were analyzed by clustering the answers into similar groups. The authors then looked for
emerging themes, and labeled the clusters accordingly.
Retrospective Assessment
A 7-item Retrospective Assessment was also developed for this project to assess how students felt
about their:
• understanding of the science of biotechnology,
• awareness of careers in biotechnology,
• confidence to speak intelligently about biotechnology,
• confidence to implement the 4-H biotechnology program in their state,
• confidence to teach/facilitate biotechnology activities with other youth,
• confidence to work as part of a team to develop the program, and
• awareness of the many opportunities to engage content-rich partners in programming.
The response set included strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), agree (3), and strongly agree (4). The
assessment was administered twice, once after the trainings and again after completion of the teens’
teaching responsibilities. Results were analyzed with SPSS using paired t-tests for dependent
samples.
Youth Engagement, Attitudes, and Knowledge Survey (YEAK)
The YEAK survey is a national instrument developed to assess the impact of 4-H Science
programming on youth participants (Mielke, LaFleur, & Sanzone, 2010). The survey was administered
twice to the Teen Teachers, before training (pre-survey) and again after completing their teaching
responsibilities (post-survey). The survey asked youth to provide a self-report on personal decision
making, critical thinking, and problem solving skills. The survey also included a series of questions
intended to gauge respondents’ enthusiasm for science as a subject that touches their everyday lives.
Respondents were also asked to describe their own science skills. Results were analyzed using SPSS
by Policy Studies Associates, Inc.
Program Leaders
Program leaders were asked to identify promising practices in program development, implementation,
and evaluation that could be shared with others to enhance future programming. Responses were
analyzed by clustering the answers into similar groups. The authors then looked for emerging
themes, and labeled the clusters accordingly.
Results
The program was evaluated using several instruments over multiple administrations. Often, a single
instrument was used to assess multiple dimensions of the project. As this is a program evaluation,
results are reported here according to project and outcome objectives, instead of reporting by
instrument.
Project Objectives
Each of the four demonstration programs included a leadership team composed of four Teen Leaders,
at least one 4‐H Program professional, and at least one agricultural biotechnology partner from their
state soybean board, industry, and/or their Land Grant University. All leadership team members
attended the project kickoff/grantee training, January 11‐14, 2012 in Indianapolis, Indiana.
55
Eighty-two teenagers, an average of 20.5 per demonstration program, were trained as Teen
Teachers. Demographics of the Teen Teachers were as follows: 49% African American, 48% White,
and 3% American Indian or Asian. 4% were Hispanic. 60% were female. Seventy-six percent (76%)
lived in urban or metropolitan areas. This program was the first experience with 4-H for 45% of the
teens, and 47% had participated in 4-H for three or more years (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1
Demographics: Teen Teachers
3%
Race
Gender
African‐American
49%
40%
Female
White
Male
48%
Other
60%
Residence
6%
Exposure to 4-H
7%
Farm
11%
45%
47%
Town<10K
1st experience
2 years
Town 10‐50K
3+ years
Urban/Metro>50K
76%
8%
Eighteen 20-hour programs were implemented by the Teen Teachers. The programs reached a total
of 620 youth participants, an average of 155 per demonstration program. Demographics of the youth
participants were as follows: 71% African American; 27% White; and 2% either American Indian,
Asian, or Pacific Islander. In addition, 10% were Hispanic and 53% were female. Youth came from all
grade levels: 9% lower elementary, 36% upper elementary, 39% middle school, and 16% high
school. Eighty-five (85%) of the youth lived in urban or metropolitan areas (see Fig. 2).
56
Figure 2
Demographics: Youth Participants
2%
Race
Gender
27%
African‐American
47%
Female
White
Male
53%
Other
71%
16%
Grade Level
9%
5%
Farm
5%
Lower Elementary
Town<10K
Upper Elementary
36%
Residence
5%
Middle School
Town 10‐50K
High School
39%
85%
Urban/Metro>50K
Table 3 provides a snapshot of the expected and achieved project objectives. All stated objectives
were achieved.
Table 3
Reach At-a-Glance
Achieved
10
Item
Demonstration programs in 5 states: Delaware, Illinois/Missouri
(partnership), Indiana, Ohio
Urban areas
16
Teen Leaders
16
18
Out-of-school Time (OST) sites/programs
8
82
Teen Teachers (includes Teen Leaders)
80
620
Youth participants
400
4
Expected
4
4
Though not one of the stated objectives, 800 additional youth were reached at the USA Science and
Engineering Festival in Washington, DC (April 2012). Leadership teams from the four demonstration
programs led a DNA Extraction activity for participants.
57
Outcome Objectives
Agricultural Biotechnology Knowledge and Career Awareness
The Teen Teachers were expected to: increase knowledge of agricultural biotechnology principles and
concepts, increase awareness of potential careers in agricultural biotechnology fields, and to become
more comfortable communicating the biotechnology story. The Knowledge Assessment was
developed to track changes in the teens’ knowledge over the course of the project. It was
administered three times, pre-training (n=73), post-training (n=72), and post-teaching (n=40).
The teens demonstrated statistically significant (p < 0.05) improvements on the Knowledge
Assessment over time. Teen Leaders, however, scored significantly better than Teen Teachers on the
post-training and post-teaching administrations (see Figure 3).
Figure 3
Knowledge Assessment Scores
30
25
20.63*
17.73*
20
15
26.13*
24.06*
14.31
11.96
10
5
0
Pre‐Training
Post‐Training
Teen Teacher
Teen Leader
Post‐Teaching
*p<0.05
Teen Teachers were also asked an open-ended question in the pre- and post-assessments: What are
the three most valuable things you learned about biotechnology? Results tended to cluster around
seven major themes, though 19% (n=28) of the responses did not fall into any of the themes (see
Table 4).
58
Table 4
Most Valuable Things Learned About Biotechnology (n=144)
Concept
Number Responses
Breadth of Biotechnology (it’s
everywhere, used beyond farming, in the
supermarkets, affects our lives every day)
Science of Biotechnology (cells, DNA,
genetics)
Bio-products (soybeans are a huge part of
many things used daily, lots of alternatives to
crude oil, bio-plastics are eco-friendly, can
use soybeans to make common products)
Application of Biotechnology (biotech
traits, longer shelf life, can drastically
improve a plant’s genetic traits, make plants
healthier)
Careers in Biotechnology (a rapidly
growing field, opportunities are limitless,
many different scientists for this field, there
are many careers to choose from that involve
biotechnology)
Food Security (can produce more food for a
growing population)
Environment (examples of how it positively
impacts the environment)
24
24
23
17
10
9
9
A 7-item Retrospective Assessment was administered twice to Teen Teachers, after training and
again after teaching. It included items that asked teens about their:
• understanding of the science of biotechnology,
• awareness of careers in biotechnology, and
• confidence to speak intelligently about biotechnology.
T-test analyses of both administrations (n=39 pairs) indicated statistically significant (p < 0.05)
improvements across all items (see Figure 4).
59
Figure 4
Retrospective Assessment: Biotechnology Items (n=39 pairs)
4
3.59*
3.48*
3.5
3.44*
3.38*
3.32*
3.22*
3
2.44
2.5
2.21
2.09
2.13
2.03
1.87
2
Pre‐Training
Post‐Training
Pre‐Teaching
1.5
Post‐Teaching
1
0.5
0
*p<0.05
Understand Biotechnology
Career Awareness
Confident to Speak About
Biotechnology
Science Process and Life Skills
It was expected that the Teen Teachers would exhibit increases or gains in 4-H Science Abilities
(science process skills) and the Life Skills measured by the YEAK survey. A total of 49 teens returned
both the pre- and post-survey. Results for selected science and life skills can be found in Table 5.
Table 5
YEAK Survey Results (selected)
Percent
Reporting
Item
Science Skills
Number of
Matched Pairs
Increased Confidence
I can analyze the results of a scientific investigation.
51% (n=20)
39
I can communicate a scientific procedure to others.
45% (n=18)
40
I can use science terms to share my results.
43% (n=17)
40
I can design a scientific procedure to answer a
question.
41% (n=16)
39
Life Skills
Increased Behavior
When solving a problem I compare each possible
solution with others to find the best one.
45% (n=20)
44
I compare ideas when thinking about a topic.
38% (n=17)
45
60
Program Development and Implementation Skills and Abilities
The project was designed to increase the Teen Teachers’ skills and understanding in:
(a) teaching and communication, (b) program design, (c) including content-rich partners in trainings,
and (d) integrating biotechnology/AgriScience activities into program plans.
The 7-item Retrospective Assessment included items that asked teens about their:
• confidence to implement the 4-H biotechnology program in my state,
• confidence to teach/facilitate biotechnology activities with other youth,
• confidence to work as part of a team to develop the program, and
• awareness of the many opportunities to engage content-rich partners in programming.
Analyses of both administrations (n=39 pairs) indicated statistically significant (p < 0.05)
improvements across all items (see Figure 5).
Figure 5
Programming Skills and Abilities (n=39 pairs)
4.00
3.44*
3.50
3.62*
3.41*
3.00
2.50
3.38*
2.57
2.06
1.99
1.88
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Confident to
Implement
Program
Confident
to Teach
Confident to Work Aware of Content
in Team
Rich Partners
Pre‐Training
Post‐Teaching
*p<0.05
Teen Teachers’ Perceptions of Most Valuable Components of Training and Program
Teen Teachers were asked to provide responses to several open-ended questions in the pre– and
post-assessments. These questions were designed to illicit feedback about the overall project as well
as the trainings (see Table 6).
61
Table 6
Teen Teachers’ Perceptions of Training and Program
Item
What was the most
valuable part of this
training? (n=67)
What was the most
valuable part of this
biotechnology program
experience? (n=37)
Responses
Learning about project content and how to
teach it
Gaining confidence to speak in front of
others/practice teaching or teachbacks
Interacting with a variety of people involved in
biotechnology and visiting their work places
The experience of working together as a team
Number
Responding
34
9
8
6
Learning about agriculture and biotechnology
11
The experience of teaching
Life/job experience (e.g., leadership,
teamwork)
Meeting so many new people
11
5
4
The YEAK post-survey asked teens to select three things (from a list of 10 items) they liked best
about the program as a measure of their opinions of the program environment. Teens selected three
items most often:
• 67% - the opportunity to do hands-on activities and projects;
• 47% - the opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned in front of others; and
• 41% - that adult staff, leaders, and volunteers were kind and caring.
Promising Practices Identified by Program Leaders
The four Demonstration Programs developed and implemented programs according to principles
outlined in the 4-H Science in Urban Communities Promising Practices Guide
(http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu). When asked to identify five “Promising Practices” for this
project, Program Directors considered the items in Table 7 especially important.
62
Table 7
Promising Practices Identified by Program Leaders
Principle
4-H Science Core Principles and
Program Design
Partnering with Afterschool and
Summer Program Providers
Engaging Content Rich Partners
Staffing with Teenagers and Teens as
Cross-Age Teachers
Practice
Teen Involvement in Program Design. Teen leaders
must be intimately involved in all aspects of program
planning, curriculum development, training, and
teaching.
Frequency and Duration. After-school and summer
programs should meet for a minimum of 20 hours to
allow adequate time for youth to master basic
concepts.
Roles and Responsibilities. Partnership agreements
should clearly outline all roles, requirements, and
expectations.
Colleges and Universities. Faculty, staff, and students
can serve as content rich volunteers for training,
activities, supplies, and getting youth on-campus.
Utilize University resources (research, curricula, labs,
etc.).
Science Centers and Museums. These institutions
have resources to assist with field trips, training, and
activities.
Content Rich Volunteers. Include representatives
from science/agricultural related
businesses/institutions and commodity groups on the
leadership team. They can also provide assistance
with program implementation.
Recruitment. Develop a detailed position description
including expectations and time commitment
required.
Training. Provide quality training for teens. Include
adequate time to practice and reflect upon all
lessons.
Program Implementation. Create teaching teams to
provide support and accountability.
Make Role Special. Provide customized t-shirts so
teens will stand out and to foster a sense of
inclusiveness.
Discussion and Recommendations
Value of Content Rich Partners
State teams engaged content rich partners to assist with program planning, curriculum, equipment
and resources for activities, facilities, state trainings, and ongoing teen teacher mentoring. Based on
evaluation results, and consistent with recommendations in the 4-H Science in Urban Communities
Promising Practices Guide, the Teen Teachers and 4-H professionals both recognized significant value
in working with these partners. The Teen Teachers identified interactions with partners as one of the
most valuable components of the training and of the overall program experience. One teen succinctly
63
stated that, “Connecting and hearing from a variety of people with different jobs and experiences in
biotechnology” was an important component of the program experience. The Program Directors also
identified several practices related to partnerships as being the most critical to the success of the
programs. “The level of partner support within the state has been amazing and continues to grow all
of the time . . . These were all new resources that we had not engaged with previously.”
The following recommendations are based upon these results. Program leaders should:
(a) actively seek out content rich partners to assist in all aspects of program planning,
implementation, and evaluation;
(b) carefully choose program partners who understand and are willing to fulfill program
responsibilities; and
(c) engage partners who enjoy and can work effectively with youth from a positive youth
development perspective.
Knowledge Gains - Teen Leaders vs. Teen Teachers
The Teen Leaders scored significantly better (p<0.05) than the Teen Teachers on the post-training
and post-teaching administrations of the Knowledge Assessment. There are several possible reasons
for this outcome. The Teen Leaders were carefully selected for their State Leadership Team based on
leadership abilities, maturity, responsibility, and demonstrated interest in science. Teen Leaders also
benefitted from attending the four-day national training with numerous activities, presentations, and
tours. In addition, Teen Leaders had to further process the information and activities in order to plan
and implement state trainings for the additional Teen Teachers prior to implementing the
programming.
The following recommendations are based upon the differences in evaluation results between the
Teen Leaders and Teen Teachers.
1. Program Leaders should use the same care and focus in recruiting Teen Teachers as used
when recruiting Teen Leaders.
2. The state level training for Teen Teachers should mirror the duration and scope of the
National Training, including emphasis on participation by content rich partners.
3. Teen Teachers should be given additional opportunities to process the information presented
at the initial state training and to practice the selected activities prior to teaching.
Teaching as Most Useful Component
The Teen Teachers identified the opportunity for teachbacks or to practice teaching as one of the
most valuable components of the training. In addition, Teen Teachers reported that teaching
experiences during program implementation was one of the most valuable parts of the overall
program (this item tied with content knowledge). The Program Directors also identified teachbacks or
practice teaching as a critical element of the training for building confidence in the teens and the
teens’ ability to effectively teach the activities. The importance of teachbacks and practice teaching
cannot be overstated. These results are similar to those achieved by the Teen Reaching Youth (TRY)
STEM program led by Utah State University Cooperative Extension (2011).
Curriculum Development for Future Programming
While the individual programs drew from a collection of sources such as 4-H AgriScience Online and
the Iowa State University Office of Biotechnology, development of a unified curriculum is strongly
recommended. Based on the experiences of the Program Directors, partners, and Teen Teachers:
1. The scope and sequence of activities should be developed based on gaps in resources
currently available,
2. Activities must be specifically developed for delivery by Teen Teachers,
3. The agricultural literacy component of the curriculum must be emphasized before
64
biotechnology concepts – to provide a foundation in basic agricultural production practices,
and
4. A strong international perspective is vital for youth to develop a global view of food
production and utilization.
The success of this Project demonstrates the potential impact of this type of programming.
Supportive adults, content rich partners, appropriate curriculum, initial training, and ongoing support
are key elements to developing and implementing a sustainable teens as teachers 4-H Science
program. The authors are currently exploring opportunities to enhance and expand this Project, as
well as to bolster the “teens as teachers” approach in other 4-H Science areas.
Acknowledgements: This project was funded by National 4-H Council through a grant from the United
Soybean Board. Directors of the demonstration programs included Nate Arnett, Ohio State University Extension;
Kristin Cook, University of Delaware Extension; Stephanie Femrite, Purdue University Extension; and Steve
Wagoner, University of Illinois Extension. Kathryn Orvis, Ph.D., Purdue University, served as the primary content
expert for the national training. Policy Studies Associates administered the YEAK survey.
References
Bird, M., & Subramaniam, A. (2011). Teens as teachers enhance environmental education and
personal skills through service learning. In A. Subramaniam, K. Heck, R. Carlos, & S. Junge (Eds.),
Advances in youth development: Research and evaluation from the University of California
Cooperative Extension 2001-2010 (pp. 32-40). Davis, CA: University of California Agriculture and
Natural Resources.
Emil, C., Dworkin, J., & Skelly, C. (2007). Youth teaching youth: Evaluation of the alcohol/tobacco
decisions cross-age teaching program. The Forum for Family and Consumer Issues, 12 (2).
Goecker, A.D., Smith, P.G., Smith, E., & Goetz, R. (2010). Employment opportunities for college
graduates in food, renewable energy, and the environment, United States, 2010-2015. Retrieved from
http://www3.ag.purdue.edu/USDA/employment/Documents/USDAEmployOp2010.pdf
Horton, R.L., Warkentien, C., & Gogolski, J. (2011). 4-H agriscience biotechnology activities. Retrieved
from http://www.4-h.org/agriscience/
Iowa State University. (2012). Office of Biotechnology Outreach Education website. Retrieved from
http://www.biotech.iastate.edu/outreach.html
Junge, S. (2005). Teens as volunteer leaders: Recruiting and training teens to work with younger
youth in after-school programs. Chevy Chase, MD: National 4-H Council.
Lee, F.C.H. & Murdock, S. (2001). Teens as teachers programs: Ten essential elements. Journal of
Extension, 39(1). Retrieved from http://joe.org/joe/2001february/rb1.html
Mielke, M., LaFleur, J., & Sanzone, J. (2010). 4-H Science, Engineering and Technology (SET)
Initiative: Youth Engagement, Attitudes, and Knowledge Study. Retrieved from http://www.4h.org/about/youth-development-research/science-program-research/
National Research Council. (2008). Global challenges and directions for agricultural biotechnology:
Workshop report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
65
National Research Council. (2009). Transforming agricultural education for a changing world.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology. (2001). Harvest on the horizon: Future uses of agricultural
biotechnology. Retrieved from http://www.pewtrusts.org/our_work_report_detail.aspx?id=33392
Ripberger, C., & Blalock, L.B. (2011). Staffing with teenagers and teens as cross-age teachers. In 4-H
Science in urban communities promising practices guide (pp. 92-99). Retrieved from
http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu
Ripberger, C., Bovitz, L., Cole, D., & Lyons, R. (2008). Teenagers as volunteer cross-age teachers in
out-of-school programs: Introducing job readiness skills to middle school youth. The International
Journal of Volunteer Administration, 24 (6), 72-79.
Ripberger, C., Devitt, A., & Gore, S. (2009). Training teenagers as food and fitness ambassadors for
out-of-school programs. Journal of Extension, 47(5). Retrieved from
http://www.joe.org/joe/2009october/iw5.php
Ripberger, C., Francis, D., & Wagoner, S. (2012). Teenagers as cross-age teachers [Webinar].
Retrieved from http://4h.interactyx.com/login.aspx
Schmitt-McQuitty, L. (2012). Engaging teens as teachers through youth-adult partnerships in
4-H Science [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from http://www.ca4h.org/files/142237.pdf
Smith, M.H., & Enfield, R.P. (2002). Training 4-H teen facilitators in inquiry-based science methods:
The evaluation of a “step-up” incremental training model. Journal of Extension, 40(6). Retrieved from
http://www.joe.org/joe/2002december/a3.php
The Children’s Museum of Indianapolis. (2007). Yesterday, today and tomorrow: Agricultural
biotechnology: A grade 6-8 unit of study. Retrieved from
http://www.childrensmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/%20TCM%20BIOTECH%20UOS.pdf
United Soybean Board. (2012). GetBiotechSmart.com [Website]. Retrieved from
http://getbiotechsmart.com/.
United States Department of Agriculture. (n.d.). USDA’s agricultural biotechnology website:
Frequently asked questions on biotechnology. Retrieved from
http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?navid=BIOTECH)
Utah State University Cooperative Extension. (2011). 4-H TRY STEM: Teens reaching youth in
science, technology, engineering and math [Site report]. Retrieved from
http://urban4hscience.rutgers.edu/pdfs/TRY-STEM-Report.pdf
Worker, S.M. (2012). 4-H Science Abilities: Providing youth with opportunities to engage in the
process of science [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from http://www.ca4h.org/files/131248.pdf
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
66
A Longitudinal Comparison of Parent and Child
Influence on Sports Participation
Arena Chang
University of California, Irvine
Joseph L. Mahoney
University of California, Irvine
67
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803FA004
A Longitudinal Comparison of Parent and Child
Influence on Sports Participation
Arena Chang and Joseph L. Mahoney
University of California, Irvine
Abstract: Drawing on expectancy-value theory, this study
examines children’s motivational attributes and parental influences
on how children spend their leisure time in middle childhood and
adolescence. Specifically, the study examined if parent
encouragement and beliefs (i.e., perceived importance of sports and
perceived child ability) and child motivation (expectancy and value
for sports) are predictive of sports participation over the course of
middle childhood and adolescence. Parent and child reports are
compared using data from the Childhood and Beyond (CAB)
longitudinal study. Findings reveal that parent beliefs and
encouragement and child motivation were positively associated with
sports participation in middle childhood. Both parental influences
and children’s motivation measured in middle childhood were
predictive of time spent participating in adolescence. However, only
parent influences were predictive of whether the child continued to
participate in sports in adolescence.
Introduction
There are many benefits associated with participating in organized youth sports ranging from physical
health to psychosocial competence and educational attainment. For example, childhood obesity is a
global epidemic that is a concern of parents and policymakers alike. Involvement in organized sports
activities can be an effective method to ensure regular physical activity (Mahoney, 2011). In addition
to physical health benefits, participation in organized sports activities is associated with increased
school attendance, educational expectations, academic achievement, and positive social relationships.
Participation is also associated with reduced chances of school dropout and criminal offenses,
especially for at-risk youth (Barber, Eccles, & Stone, 2001; Harrison, & Narayan, 2003; Mahoney,
Larson, Eccles, & Lord, 2005). Overall, participation in high-quality extracurricular activities, such as
sports, is a productive use of youth’s leisure time and can provide unique opportunities for
development (Larson, 2000).
68
However, although many of associated benefits referenced above have been noted for adolescents,
as children get older their participation rates in organized sports declines (Mahoney, Vandell,
Simpkins, & Zarrett, 2009; National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 2002). Considering the
benefits, more research is needed to identify and overcome barriers or deterrents to continued sports
participation. Therefore, it is important to learn what factors are influential in getting and keeping
youth involved from childhood to adolescence. Drawing on expectancy-value theory, this study
examines the influences of parents as socializers (parental encouragement and beliefs) and youth
motivation (expectancies and values for sports) in relation to organized sports participation. The study
examines if parental influence and child motivation during middle childhood are predictive of youth
participation and time spent in sport during adolescence.
Expectancy-Value Model for Choices and Behaviors
Eccles’ expectancy-value model (Eccles, 1993; 2007) of motivation is often used to explain individual
differences in choice behaviors, engagement, persistence, and achievement. Expectancies are selfpredictions of how well one will do on an upcoming task, and values are one’s beliefs about the
reasons he/she might engage in a task (Wigfield, & Eccles, 2000). Task value is composed of four
components: attainment value (importance of the activity to one’s self-identity), intrinsic value
(interest and enjoyment one gets from the task), utility value (usefulness of the activity to fulfill
short- or long-term goals) and cost (what the child has to give up to do a task). In colloquial terms,
one’s expectancies answer the question, “Can I do it?” and one’s values answer, “Do I want to do it?”
The current expectancy-value model has strong support for achievement-related choices in
educational settings (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008) and has been applied to explain choices
related to extracurricular activities and occupations (Eccles, 1994; Fredricks, & Eccles, 2005; 2006;
Pugliese, 2011). The expectancy-value framework can explain why one child pursues and persists in
sports whereas another child opts out. For example, a child who has high self-perceptions of sports
competence (expectancy) and places high importance on sports (value) is more likely to participate in
organized sports activities in his/her leisure time than a child with low expectancies and value for
sports.
In the early school years, children’s sports preferences (i.e., motivation) and the choices and
opportunities parents provide for them equally predict the type of sports children choose to play
(Jacobs, Vernon, & Eccles, 2005). However, with development, parent guidance diminishes as the
child’s autonomy in decision-making increases. Despite the heavy influence parents have in early
childhood, some research shows that time spent with parents, emotional closeness, and yielding to
parent decision-making all decrease in adolescence (e.g., Paikoff, & Brooks-Gunn, 1991).
However, motivation research stresses the importance of youth motivation in middle childhood and
adolescence—the developmental periods when motivation for school subjects and organized
extracurricular activities begins to decline (Eccles, 1993; Jacobs, et al., 2002). Thus, it is unclear how
youth motivation predicts sports participation across development, particularly in middle childhood
and adolescence, and its relation to parental influences as a predictor of later participation in
adolescence. In particular, it is less clear how decreased parental influence and youth’s choice
behavior in adolescence (Eccles, 1993; Montemayor, & Hanson, 1985) are associated with whether
youth decide to continue sports participation and the depth of their participation in adolescence. To
the degree that benefits of youth sport participation depend on long-term, stable involvement in
athletic activities, understanding the relations between youth choice behavior and parent influence
over time remains an important gap in the knowledge base (Bohnert, Fredricks, & Randall, 2010).
69
Parent Socializing Processes
One of the commonly reported reasons for participating in extracurricular organized activities given by
adolescents is encouragement and support from friends or parents (Fletcher, Elder, Mekos, 2000;
Huebner, & Manicini, 2003). According to Eccles’ expectancy-value framework, parents help to guide
their children’s engagement and performance on tasks by influencing youth self-perceptions and task
values. Specifically, parents engage in socializing behavior and communicate their values to influence
their children’s behaviors in two ways—directly through encouragement and indirectly through their
beliefs regarding the importance of the activity and their perception of their child’s ability.
Direct Influence: Parental Encouragement
One of the commonly reported reasons adolescents participate in extracurricular organized activities
is encouragement from parents (Fletcher, et al., 2000; Huebner, & Manicini, 2003). Encouragement
can take the form of verbal support of youth behavior or through the provision of materials and
opportunities (e.g., sports equipment or taking them to sporting events or practice), thereby
structuring their children’s experiences.
Eccles (2007) theorized that parental encouragement influences youth’s choice behaviors, such as in
extracurricular activities, in three ways.
1) First, parent encouragement may support youth’s self-view of ability and value for that
particular activity.
2) Second, parental encouragement can be indicative of their personal values for a specific
activity, which may motivate students to engage in that activity and internalize the same
values as their parents.
3) Third, parental encouragement of the child may produce a positive affective state in children,
which can create a positive association for that particular activity.
This study examines the first two pathways—the relation of parent encouragement to youth
expectancies and values for sports.
Studies examining parents’ role in children’s choice of extracurricular activities show that parenting
styles and behaviors (such as warmth and clear rules and expectations) are positive indicators of
adolescent participation in organized activities (Eccles, 1993; Fletcher, et al., 2000; Fredricks, &
Eccles, 2005; Mahoney, et al., 2009). A meta-analysis (Pugliese, & Tinsley, 2007) found that common
parenting practices used to successfully elicit physical activity in children were encouragement,
modeling, and instrumental support. These findings are not surprising—children can only learn about
what they are exposed to. Thus, parents play a critical role of introducing children to organized
activities, providing them with the opportunity to develop the skills and interest needed to pursue
those activities independently.
Indirect Influence: Parents Beliefs
Parents possess many beliefs about their children’s abilities, which should affect motivationally-linked
outcomes. These beliefs include parents’ expectancies and values for an activity. Such beliefs,
particularly parents’ perceptions of their children’s competencies and likely success, predict children’s
subsequent self and task beliefs (see Eccles, 2007 for review). Studies that support this relationship
for sports found that parents’ perceptions of child ability are related to children’s beliefs and sports
participation concurrently and over time (Bois, Brustad, Chanal, & Trouilloud, 2005; Fredricks, &
Eccles, 2002; 2005).
70
Parents’ beliefs about the value of an activity also influence children’s beliefs and participation
(Jacobs, & Eccles, 2000). Parents demonstrate their value for an activity through explicit or implicit
messages, such as rewarding or encouraging their children, getting involved in the activity with the
child, or role modeling by playing a sport. For example, parents’ value for sports were linked with
elementary children’s sports beliefs and participation even when parents’ socialization practices were
taken into account (Fredricks, & Eccles, 2005), suggesting that parents convey their values of sports
to children in subtle ways.
The majority of studies on parents’ beliefs have been based on samples with mothers. Less is known
on how fathers contribute to individual differences in children’s athletic motivation and behavior from
an expectancy-value perspective. Nonetheless, research suggests that mothers and fathers have
differential impacts on children’s sports engagement and participation. A meta-analysis found that
fathers are more likely to promote gender-stereotyped behavior than mothers, though the strength of
this effect decreases with the age of the child (Lytton, & Romney, 1991). Pressure from fathers is
associated with decreased enjoyment in sports whereas there was no association with pressure from
mothers (Kanters, & Casper, 2007). These findings suggest that fathers have a unique role on child’s
pursuit of sports. Fathers tend to promote gender-stereotyped behavior, which can support boys’
sports participation. However, fathers’ support can be perceived by the child as pressure to perform
and achieve, thereby undermining intrinsic enjoyment in the activity.
As socializing agents, parents shape child’s competence beliefs and values for activities and thus their
participation choices. Early family influences and opportunities provided may be critical for supporting
the development of motivation and skills. However, less is known about the role parents play in
supporting domain-specific self-concept beliefs and subjective task values as children get older
(Eccles, 2007). Child motivation matters for how they choose to spend their leisure time, especially as
autonomy for decision-making increases with age. In middle childhood and adolescence, children
have more say in opting in and out of organized extracurricular activities. However, less is known
about the role of parents and child motivation in sports participation choices from middle childhood
through adolescence.
Current Study
Much research on youth participation in sports has focused on demographic factors (such as family
socioeconomic status and gender) to the neglect of social-motivational influences (Simpkins, DavisKean, & Eccles, 2005). This study examines the influence of parents’ sports-related beliefs and
behaviors and how they compare to children’s motivational beliefs in predicting later organized sports
participation in adolescence. Due to decreased parental influence and youth’s motivation for
extracurricular activities in adolescence, it is of interest how both factors are associated with whether
youth decide to continue sports participation in adolescence and the depth (time spent) of
participation (Eccles, 1993; Montemayor, & Hanson, 1985). Furthermore, this study uses data from a
longitudinal investigation that measures parent and child sports-related beliefs and behaviors across
two developmental stages characterized by declines in child motivation and organized sports
participation—middle childhood and adolescence (Eccles, 1993; Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, &
Wigfield, 2002). In addition, this study uses data collected from a sample of mothers and fathers to
examine the role of both parental figures in relation to youth sports participation.
This study addresses two research questions.
1) First, how are parents’ sports-related beliefs (expectancies and values) and encouragement
associated with children’s expectancies and values for sports and participation in middle
childhood?
2) Second, what factors measured in middle childhood continue to be predictive of children’s
71
participation in organized sports activities in adolescence—child motivation, parent
encouragement, and/or parent beliefs?
We expect that parents’ sports-related beliefs and encouragement, children’s motivational beliefs, and
time spent participating in organized sports activities are positively associated. It is also expected that
children’s expectancies and value for sports and parental encouragement and beliefs measured in
middle childhood will be predictive of children’s participation choices in adolescence (i.e., whether
adolescents participate in sports and time spent participating).
Methods
Participants
This study examined data from Childhood and Beyond (CAB) study, a 13-year longitudinal field-based
investigation (1987-1999) conducted by Eccles and colleagues at the University of Michigan. Data
were collected from children and their parents and teachers from 10 schools in four school districts in
Southeastern Michigan. The sample consisted of primarily White students from two-parent, intact,
lower-middle- to middle-class families living in urban/suburban communities near Detroit. The mean
family income ranged from $10,000 to $80,000, with a median range of $50,000 to $59,000.
Parent and child questionnaire data from Wave 4 (Spring 1990) and Wave 6 (Spring 1995) were
included in this current study to compare changes in middle childhood (Wave 4) to adolescence
(Wave 6). Children who completed the child questionnaire in both Waves 4 and 6 and whose
parent(s) completed the parent questionnaire in both waves were included in this current study.
Wave 4 had a total of 386 children with valid data in Grades 3, 4, and 6. Wave 6 had a total of 221
children with valid data in Grades 8, 9, and 10. The final, intact sample from which findings are
reported included 160 mothers and 95 fathers, with 89 children having both mother and father data.
Measures
Composite measures of parent beliefs and children motivational beliefs at Waves 4 and 6 were
created by averaging the items responses within each construct and wave. All questionnaire items
were measured on a 7-point Likert scale except for the items assessing average time spent in
organized sport activities (Table 1).
72
Table 1
Childhood and Beyond Survey Items
Scale and Items
Parent Beliefs
How good is this child at sports?
Compared to other children, how much innate ability or talent does this child have in sports?
How well do you think this child will do next year in sports?
How important is it to you that this child does well in sports?
Parent Encouragement
Indicate the extent to which you encourage playing competitive sports for this child.
Children Motivation
Expectancies
How good at sports are you?
If you were to list all the students your age from best to worst in sports, where would you
put yourself?
How good would you be at learning something new in sports?
Compared to most of your other activities, how good are you at sports?
How well do you expect to do in your favorite sport this year?
Task value
For me, being good in sports is important.
Compared to your other activities (including schoolwork), how useful is learning sports?
Compared to most of your other activities, how important is it to be good in sports?
In general, I find playing sports interesting.
How much do you like sports?
Children Sports Participation
Dichotomous
Whether the child participated in organized sports activities that year
Frequency
About how many hours each week do you usually spend on taking part in organized
sports?
(1=none; 8=21 or more hours)
Note: All items were measured on a 7-point Likert scale unless stated otherwise.
Parent beliefs. Four items were used to measure parent perceptions of children’s ability in sports
and parent perception of the importance of sports. Example questions include, “How good is this child
at sports?” and “How important is it to you that this child does well in sports?” The reliability of this 4item scale was acceptable across parents and waves (α = .84 - .85 for mothers; α = .85 – .87 for
fathers).
Parent encouragement. One item was used to assess parent encouragement: “Please indicate the
extent to which you encourage playing competitive sports for this child
(1 = strongly discourage; 7 = strongly encourage).”
Child motivation. Both children’s expectancies and task values for sports were measured. Five
items were used to assess children’s expectancies or self-concept of ability in sports. For example,
one question asked, “If you were to list all the students your age from worst to best in sports, where
would you put yourself (1 = one of the worst; 7 = one of the best)?” Five items were used to assess
73
children’s task value for sports. An example of a task value item is, “For me, being good in sports is…
(1 = unimportant; 7 = important).” The reliability of the composite child motivation scale was
acceptable across waves (α = .93 for Wave 4; α = .95 for Wave 6).
Child participation. The outcome variable, child participation, was operationalized in two ways. The
first method measured participation as a dichotomous variable—whether or not the child participated
in organized sports during particular academic years (i.e., Waves 4 and 6). The second
operationalization of participation was average time spent participating in organized sports. Children
were asked to report time spent “taking part in organized sports” in a typical week (1 = none; 8 = 21
or more hours).
Control variables. Parent reports provided information on average family income, parent education
(highest level of educational attainment within a parental pair), and child gender, age, and ethnicity.
These aspects were included in the analyses as control variables.
Analytic strategy. Pearson correlations were calculated to examine the association between parent
beliefs, parent encouragement, and child motivation in middle childhood (Wave 4). Marginal effects
logistic regression was used to determine which variables measured in middle childhood (Wave 4)
predicted the dichotomous outcome, whether a child participated in organized sports activities in
adolescence (Wave 6). Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was used to examine whether parent
beliefs, parent encouragement, and child motivation measured in middle childhood (Wave 4)
predicted average weekly hours spent in organized sports activities in adolescence (Wave 6).
Results
To determine if parents’ sports-related beliefs and encouragement were associated with children’s
motivational beliefs and participation in middle childhood, Pearson correlations were calculated (Table
2). Correlations among child participation, the variables of interest (parent encouragement, parent
behavior, and child motivation), and child gender were positive and of moderate strength (r = .35 .61). This indicates that males, parent beliefs, parent encouragement, and child motivation were
positively associated with time spent in organized sports activities in middle childhood.
74
Table 2
Pearson correlations among variables (N=255)
Measured at middle childhood (wave 4)
1
Parent
1.
2.
3.
4.
Youth
5.
6.
influences
Mother beliefs
Father beliefs
Mother
encouragement
Father
encouragement
variables
Motivation
Participationa
Controls
7. Male (youth)
8. Youth age
9. Youth ethnicityb
10. Family income
11. Parent education
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
--.02
.05
.00
-.04
--.01
-.08*
-.01
-.01
.14***
-.44***
-.71***
--
.45***
.48***
--
.41***
.56***
.46***
--
.51***
.35***
.70***
.47***
.38***
.44***
.44***
.41***
-.61***
--
.10
.00
-.05
.09
-.05
.25**
.16
-.16
.03
-.02
.23***
-.07
-.01
.05
.06
.29***
-.08
-.07
.03
.02
.39***
.13
-.11
.21**
.00
.41***
-.07
.00
.06
.08*
11
--
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001
a Continuous variable measuring average time spent on organized sports activities per week
b Continuous variable with White coded as “1” and other ethnicities coded as higher numbers.
Marginal effects logistic regression was used to predict the dichotomous outcome, whether the child
participated in organized sports in adolescence during Wave 6 (Table 3). Mother encouragement and
father sports-related beliefs reported in middle childhood were associated with a significant
percentage point increase in the probability of the child being involved in organized sports activities in
adolescence. A one-unit increase in mother encouragement was associated with a 7% increase in the
probability of the child participating in sports in adolescence. A one-unit increase in father beliefs was
associated with an 18% increase in the probability of the child participating in sports in adolescence.
Previous child motivation and whether the child participated in organized sports in middle childhood
were not predictive of later participation.
75
Table 3
Marginal effects logistic regression results (N=153 Mothers, 93 Fathers)
for middle childhood (Wave 4) measures predicting whether youth reported participating in organized
sports in adolescence (Wave 6).
Mother beliefs
Child-Reported
Participation
w/ Maternal Sample
0.05
(0.04)
0.18*
(0.07)
Father beliefs
Mother encouragement
0.07*
(0.03)
Father encouragement
Childhood motivation
Childhood participation
Child-Reported
Participation w/ Paternal
Sample
0.08
(0.04)
0.09
(0.12)
0.03
(0.04)
0.00
(0.06)
0.04
(0.15)
Background information
-0.15
(0.09)
0.04
Age
(0.03)
0.00
Avg. Family Income
(0.03)
0.03
Parent Education
(0.03)
Note. Standard errors are presented in parentheses.
**
* p < .05.
p < .01. *** p < .001.
Male
-0.19
(0.11)
0.03
(0.05)
0.00
(0.04)
0.03
(0.04)
To examine whether child motivation or parent encouragement and beliefs measured in middle
childhood are predictive of sports participation in adolescence, OLS regression analysis was used. OLS
regression was used to predict weekly average time spent participating in organized sports in
adolescence (Table 4). Net of other variables in the equation, mother encouragement and child
motivation reported in middle childhood were positively associated with weekly time spent in sports
during adolescence. Father beliefs reported in middle childhood and being female were positively
associated with time spent in organized sports in adolescence.
76
Table 4
Standardized OSL regression results (N = 160 Mothers, 95 Fathers) for middle childhood
(Wave 4) measures predicting average sports participation frequency in adolescence (Wave 6).
Child-Reported
Participation
w/ Maternal Sample
Mother beliefs
Child-Reported
Participation w/ Paternal
Sample
0.17
Father beliefs
0.29*
Mother encouragement
0.27**
Father encouragement
0.12
Childhood motivation
0.24*
0.27
Childhood participation
-0.13
-0.12
Male
-0.13
-0.26*
Age
0.01
0.06
Ethnicity
-0.14
-0.14
Avg. Family Income
-0.01
-0.06
0.05
-0.02
.232
.285
Background information
Parent Education
R2
* p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.
An exploratory, multiplicative regression model was also analyzed to determine if parent beliefs and
encouragement interacted with child gender. The gender interaction terms were not significant.
Discussion
Results from this longitudinal study showed that, in middle childhood, time spent in organized sports
activities is concurrently and positively associated with parent encouragement and beliefs (i.e.,
perceived importance of sports and perceived child ability) and child motivational beliefs for sports.
When predicting whether a child continues to participate in sports as an adolescent or not, middle
childhood assessments of mother encouragement and father beliefs were positive predictors. In
contrast, none of the child-reported motivation measures were significant predictors of whether or
not adolescents participated in organized sports during adolescence. However, when predicting the
amount of time spent in organized sports during adolescence, child motivational beliefs (i.e.,
perceived self-abilities and value for sports) as well as mother encouragement and father beliefs were
significant predictors.
Although sports participation has been shown to decline from middle childhood through adolescence,
it remains the most common form of organized activity involvement for young people (Mahoney,
Harris, & Eccles, 2005). Consistent with a bioecological perspective to organized activity participation
(e.g., Mahoney, et al., 2009) the findings from this study suggest that both the child and his/her
parents play an active role in the ongoing process of activity participation. Results from this study
77
indicate that this process can only be identified from a developmental perspective using longitudinal
data. The findings point to the possibility that parental influences linked to sports participation in
middle childhood may be unique and continue to exert an influence on children’s involvement in
organized sports years later during adolescence. Whether adolescent participation is measured
dichotomously or continuously, fathers’ beliefs and mothers’ encouragement toward activity
involvement years earlier appear to have an influence on later participation in the expected direction.
Moreover, for reasons that are not known, mothers and fathers seemed to influence their child’s
participation through different behavior processes (i.e., encouragement and values, respectively).
That there are multiple routes to support participation is potentially good news for those young
people residing in single parent families and those for whom one parent is unable or unwilling to
provide support. In this case, the motivational system favoring adolescent sport participation may be
open to influence from more than one family subsystem.
The finding that parental behaviors affect youth decision-making concerned with future sport
participation raises an important new question for the field; namely, why do some parents support
their child’s participation in sports when others do not? Although we do not have data on this point, it
seems likely some portion of parent support is derived from their own past experiences as activity
participants. Parents who themselves participated in organized sports might be most likely to hold the
belief that activity participation is valuable and encourage their child to participate. In this case,
parent belief and encouragement fall along gender stereotypical patterns, with father’s values and
mother’s encouragement reaching statistical significance in relation to the child’s sport participation in
adolescence. Although Title IX legislation became law over 40 years ago and is meant to ensure equal
educational opportunities for boys and girls, including participation in sport, in practice it has not
produced an entirely “level playing field” (e.g., Sabo, & Veliz, 2011). This is consistent with the
current findings that parent support is predictive of later participation, but the type of support
provided differs for mothers and fathers.
However, the greatest prediction of the amount of sports participation in adolescence involves
obtaining information from both the child and his/her parents. This suggests that middle childhood
may be a relatively open period for young people to develop their interests in organized sports. When
this interest is supported by parent behaviors during childhood – whether directly or indirectly – it
may set in motion a long-term process that favors continued participation, rather than activity
dropout, during adolescence.
With respect to the child, motivation for sport during middle childhood predicts the weekly frequency
of sport participation during adolescence. Therefore, individual motivation is part of an active process
whereby the child himself or herself significantly affects his or her own developmental trajectory of
participation and associated outcomes. The upshot is that individual motivations for organized sport
participation developed early on may have a lasting impact that increases the stability of participation
over time. According to existing research, this is important because adolescent participation may, in
turn, help to offset risks and promote competence in the physical, social, and educational domains
during adolescence (Mahoney, et al., 2009).
In addition, we note that some popular writers contend that youth are over-scheduled in organized
activities such as sports. (e.g., Elkind, 2001; Rosenfeld, & Wise, 2000). The over-scheduling is
thought to be driven by adults, including parents, who push their children to participate beyond their
desire. Findings from this study indicate this is not ordinarily the case insofar as the relation between
child and parent affinity for sports involvement was positive and statistically significant. In other
words, when it comes to amount of sports involvement, parents and their children tend to see eye to
78
eye or are at least looking in the same direction. In fact, it may require a high degree of synergy and
agreement between parent(s) and youth to devote considerable amounts of time to sports, which
thereby leads to positive developmental outcomes (Mahoney, et al., 2005). Nonetheless, the
associations are only moderately strong indicating that, in at least some cases, room for disagreement
exists about the amount of time youth spend participating in sports within families. Future work might
help to identify whether the over-scheduling phenomenon is observed in families that are discordant
about the value of time children and adolescents devote to sports.
Finally, in terms the most significant limitations of this study, we note that the CAB data were initially
collected over 15 years ago and it is possible that a more recent cohort of nationally representative
families would demonstrate a different, less stereotyped connection between parent support of youth
sports and their children’s actual participation. Thus, we call for efforts to replicate the current study
using more recently collected and nationally representative data or for meta-analytic study that can
synthesize these findings amidst related studies in the existing literature to be carried out.
References
Barber, B.L., Eccles, J.S., & Stone, M.R. (2001). Whatever happened to the jock, the brain, and the
princess?: Young adult pathways linked to adolescent activity involvement and social
identity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16(5), 429-455.
Bohnert, A., Fredricks, J., & Randall, E. (2010). Capturing unique dimensions of youth organized
activity involvement: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Review of Educational Research,
80, 576-610.
Bois, J.E., Brustad, R.J., Chanal, J.P., & Trouilloud, D.O. (2005). Parents’ appraisals, reflected
appraisals, and children’s self-appraisals of sport competence: A yearlong study. Journal
of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 273-289.
Eccles, J.S. (1993). School and family effects on the ontogeny of children’s interests, self
perceptions, and activity choice. In J. Jacobs (Ed.), Nebraska symposium of motivation:
Developmental perspectives on motivation (pp. 145-208). Lincoln, NE: University of
Nebraska Press.
Eccles, J.S. (1994). Understanding women’s educational and occupational choices: Applying the
Eccles, et al., model of achievement-related choices Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18,
585-609.
Eccles, J.S. (2007). Families, schools, and developing achievement-related motivations and
engagement. In J.E. Grusec & P.D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization: Theory and research
(pp. 665-691). New York: Guilford.
Fletcher, A.C., Elder, G.H., Jr., & Mekos, D. (2000). Parental influences on adolescent
involvement in community activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 29-48.
Fredricks, J.A., & Eccles, J.S. (2002). Children’s competence and value beliefs from childhood
through adolescence: Growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains. Developmental Psychology,
38, 519-533.
79
Fredricks, J.A., & Eccles, J.S. (2005). Family socialization, gender, and sports motivation and
involvement. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 27, 3-31.
Fredricks, J.A., & Eccles, J.S. (2006). Extracurricular involvement and adolescent adjustment:
Impact of duration, number of activities, and breadth of participation. Applied Developmental Science,
10(3), 132-146.
Harrison, P.A., & Narayan, G. (2003). Differences in behavior, psychological factors, and
environmental factors associated with participation in school sports and other activities in
adolescence. Journal of School Health, 73(3), 113-120. doi: 10.1111/j.1746
1561.2003.tb03585.x.
Huebner, M.A., & Mancini, J. (2003). Shaping structured out-of-school time use among youth:
The effects of self, family, and friend systems. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 453-463.
Jacobs, J.E., & Eccles, J.S. (2000). Parents, task values, and real-life achievement related
choices. In C. Sansone & J.M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation:
The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 405-439). San Diego: Academic
Press.
Jacobs, J.E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D.W., Eccles, J.S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in
children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one
to twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.
Jacobs, J.E., Vernon, M.K., & Eccles, J. (2005). Activity choices in middle childhood: The role
of gender, self-beliefs, and parents’ influence. In J.L. Mahoney, R.W. Larson, & J.S.
Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities,
after-school and community programs (pp. 235-254). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Kanters, M.A., & Casper, J. (2007). Supported or pressured?: An examination of agreement
among parent’s and children on parent’s role in youth sports. Journal of Sport Behavior,
31(1), 64-80.
Larson, R.W. (2000). Towards a psychology of positive youth development. American
Psychologist, 55, 170-183.
Lytton, J., & Romney, D.M. (1991). Parents’ differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta
analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 2, 267-296.
Mahoney, J.L. (2011). Adolescent summer care arrangements and risk for obesity the following school
year. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 737-749.
Mahoney, J.L., Harris, A.L., & Eccles, J.S. (2006). Organized activity participation, positive youth
development, and the over-scheduling hypothesis. SRCD Social Policy Report, 20 (4), 1-31.
Mahoney, J.L., Larson, R.W., Eccles, J.S., & Lord, H. (2005). Organized activities as
developmental contexts for children and adolescents. In J. Mahoney, R. Larson, & J.S.
Eccles (Eds.), Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities,
after-school, and community programs (pp. 3-22). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
80
Mahoney, J.L., Vandell, D.L., Simpkins, S.D., & Zarrett, N.R. (2009). Adolescent out-of
school activities. In R.M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent
Psychology (3rd ed.). Vol. 2: Contextual influences on adolescent development (pp. 228267). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.
Montemayor, R., & Hanson, E.A. (1985). A naturalistic view of conflict between adolescents
and their parents and siblings. Journal of Early Adolescence, 5, 23-30.
National Household Survey on Drugs Abuse Report. (2002). Team sports participation and
substance use among youths. Retrieved from
http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k2/athletes/athletes_DrugUse.htm
Paikoff, R.L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Do parent-child relationships change during puberty?
Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 47-66.
Pugliese, J. (2011). Parent-child relationships and parental tactic use: The socialization of physical
activity within the context of an expectancy-value model (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Arizona
State University, AZ.
Pugliese, J., & Tinsley, B. (2007). Parental socialization of child and adolescent physical activity: A
meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 331-343.
Sabo, D., & Veliz, P. (2011). Progress without equity: The provision of high school athletic opportunity
in the United States by gender 1993-94 through 2005-06. Women’s Sports Foundation.
Schunk, D.H., Pintrich, P.R., & Meece, J. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory,
research, and application (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
Simpkins, S.D., Davis-Kean, P.E., & Eccles, J.E. (2005). Parents’ socializing behavior and
children’s participation in math, science, and computer out-of-school activities. Applied
Developmental Science, 9(1), 14-30.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J.S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of motivation. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
81
The Role of Youth Program Leaders in the Use of
Technology: Challenges and Opportunities for YouthServing Organizations
Mimi Nichter
School of Anthropology
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
mimi.nichter@gmail.com
Lynne Borden
Family Social Science
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota
lmborden@umn.edu
Veronica Przybyl
School of Anthropology
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
przybyl@email.arizona.edu
82
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803PA001
The Role of Youth Program Leaders in the Use of
Technology: Challenges and Opportunities for
Youth-Serving Organizations
Mimi Nichter and Veronica Przybyl
University of Arizona
Lynne Borden
University of Minnesota
Abstract: Youth-serving organizations offer young people an
opportunity to gain skills and advance their knowledge of current
and evolving technology through experiential learning. The key to
ensuring that young people have meaningful learning experiences is
directly related to the youth program leader who is responsible for
designing and implementing these programs. Programs conducted
by well-trained and well-prepared adults are an essential component
of community-based interventions. To date, there is relatively limited
research on how technology such as smart phones can be used in
community-based programs and the success or failure of this as a
strategy for delivering information and engaging young people in a
program. In this paper, we discuss how technology was introduced
into eight programs conducted by youth-serving organizations in the
Southwest. We discuss the training of youth program leaders and
their experience using technology at their sites, highlighting what
worked and what was problematic, how challenges were overcome,
and lessons learned.
Introduction
Youth-serving organizations can provide young people with the skills and opportunities needed for
making a successful transition to young adulthood by addressing their social, emotional, physical, and
educational needs. Indeed, for the past 100 years, youth-serving organizations (e.g., 4-H Youth
Development, Boys and Girls Clubs, Girls and Boys Scouting, & others) have worked to meet the
needs of the young people they serve (Borden, Schlomer, & Wiggs, 2011). There is growing evidence
that these programs can and do address health issues (e.g., drugs, alcohol, sexual health, and
83
others) directly relevant to youth. Through their participation, young people gain important skills and
knowledge that promote their overall positive development (Borden, & Perkins, 2003; Borden, &
Perkins, 2006; Durlak, & Weissberg, 2007; Eccles, & Gootman, 2002).
Training of youth program leaders (sometimes referred to as youth workers) is critical to the creation
and maintenance of high quality youth-serving organizations (Mahoney, & Stattin, 2000; Pierce,
Hamm, & Vandell, 1999). Studies have shown that youth benefit most from programs where the
adult leaders have been well trained and benefit less from programs that are less focused and where
youth program leaders have insufficient training and experience (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak,
& Hawkins, 1998; Durlak, & Weissberg, 2007; Vandell, & Pierce, 2001). Shernoff and Vandell (2007)
examined youth engagement in a variety of afterschool enrichment programs (e.g., sports and arts)
and found that youth reported the highest levels of engagement in activities that involved both peers
and adults, compared to activities involving peers alone. Confirming other studies (Mahoney, &
Stattin, 2000; Pierce, Hamm, & Vandell, 1999), their findings indicate that youth-serving programs
that are conducted by adult leaders who possess knowledge, skills, and expertise can yield the
greatest benefit to youth participants.
The importance of skilled program leaders in youth-serving organizations cannot be underestimated.
The relationships that adults form with young people within a program often contribute to a youth’s
decision to continue to participate or not participate in the program (Borden, & Serido, 2009). Once
youth feel connected to a program, the program leader is then responsible for guiding youths’
attention to important issues, challenging them, and providing support in meeting these challenges
while allowing the youth to explore their abilities and to develop new ones (Pearce, & Larson, 2006).
This open atmosphere helps youth to learn that they can initiate decisions and take part in decisionmaking with adults, fostering the youths’ need for mutual respect (Borden, & Serido, 2009),
empowering youth, and encouraging them to become engaged in many aspects of their lives.
Creating such an environment requires a compassionate and savvy adult who is willing and able to
make time for youth and their needs.
High quality youth-serving organizations conducted by well-trained and well-prepared adults are an
essential component of community-based interventions. These programs often offer programming
that is innovative, designed to provide skills and knowledge that young people may not have access
to in other places. One approach these programs have used as a tool to engage young people is
technology (e.g., robotics, electric cars, handheld gaming devices, and other types of technology).
For example, Mahoney (2013) notes that young people are often more responsive to educational
programs conducted by youth-serving organizations than those that are offered in a standard
classroom.
Today’s young people have grown up in a world filled with technology (e.g., computers, cell phones,
handheld gaming devices, and other electronic devices). They are accustomed and comfortable with
texting, using the internet, playing games online and other technological skills. Therefore, it is
important to recognize that the use of technology as a tool in youth-serving programs is a timely and
relevant way to engage young people.
To date, there is relatively limited research on how technology can be used in community-based
programs and the success or failure of this as a strategy for delivering information and engaging
young people in the program. Importantly, findings from one study suggested that integrating
computer technology in youth-serving organizations allows youth to gain valuable skills that can be
beneficial in school and in their future careers (Coe-Regan, & O’Donnell, 2006). Moreover, providing
young people with an opportunity to learn a skill that might personally benefit them may serve as
84
encouragement to actively participate in the program (Coe-Regan, & O’Donnell, 2006). Thus, it seems
important to consider how to utilize technology when designing and implementing programs,
recognizing that it is the adults who implement this technology that makes the difference in whether
the program is successful. In this paper, we discuss the use of technology in programs conducted by
youth-serving organizations and the training of youth program leaders, highlighting what worked and
what was problematic, how challenges were overcome, and lessons learned when implementing
technology into the program.
Project Background
This interdisciplinary research project (involving nutritionists, anthropologists, geospatial and
computer scientists, and youth development specialists) had as its overall goal to promote physical
activity and healthy eating among youth utilizing technology and informal learning approaches
(Hingle, et al., 2013). The project was based on earlier formative research with youth conducted by
the researchers in which GPS technology was utilized to promote mapping of green spaces and
invasive plant species, with a goal of fostering civic engagement and environmental education
(Wisneski, 2012). Building on the success of this earlier work and advances in technology which made
GPS accessible on smartphones, our research team designed a larger program which provided
smartphones loaded with relevant applications (GPS and others) to youth. These apps were
specifically developed to assist in identifying and solving a community/environmental problem and the
mapping of social spaces of importance to youth. We reasoned that engaging in mapping activities
that required exploration of one’s physical environment would increase youths’ physical activity by
encouraging them to walk outdoors.
In this paper, our focus is on the training of youth program leaders to implement smartphone-based
programs in their community organization. Specifically, we address the following questions:
1. How much and what type of training do youth program leaders require?
2. After training, do program leaders have sufficient knowledge and skills to implement a
technology-based program at their site?
3. What is the experience of program leaders in promoting youth involvement in such programs?
4. What are the challenges and opportunities faced in the training and implementation of
technology-based programs in youth-serving organizations?
Methodology
Eight youth programs in the urban Southwest participated in this project. The focus of these groups
varied and included: youth leadership and civic engagement, environmental education, and team
sports. Youth programs differed in their organizational structure ranging from a national youth
organization like the YMCA to small local youth-serving organizations; programs also differed in the
duration of meeting times with youth. Program leaders had varying levels of experience working with
youth, with a range from 5 to 15 years of experience.
In this paper, we discuss the involvement of youth-serving organizations in Phase 1 and 2 of the
project (2010-2011). Phase 1 and Phase 2 were iterative in that the technology introduced in the first
phase was modified and reintroduced in the second phase based on feedback from program leaders
and youth participants. During Phase 1, Windows Mobile GPS-enabled HTC Touch Pro smartphones
were given to the program leader at each site and to each of the youth participants to use for the
duration of the program, which ranged from 2-4 months. Training was provided to youth program
leaders and participants and involved learning how to use the phone and project applications (GPS,
taking pictures, etc.), data upload, and data manipulation, among other topics. Within one to two
weeks of receiving the smartphones, each site engaged in a project visioning session in which the
program leader worked with the youth to identify how they would use the technology in ways that
85
addressed group interest and dovetailed with the mission of the center. At the conclusion of the
program, phones were returned to the project.
Smartphones allowed youth to work both individually or jointly in a group-determined civic
engagement project (such as mapping green spaces in their community). The basic mapping software
employed on these phones was an in-house developed application (app) which allowed geospatial
content to be uploaded into maps. Content from the smartphones and the mapping app were
manually transferred to computers by the youth for analysis. Most,
but not all of the program sites had computers, and those that did not came to our university office
to upload their data.
After some difficulty with the Windows Mobile platform in Phase 1, we shifted phones in Phase 2 to
an Android® myTouch smartphone. A new app (called GeoSnap) permitting geotagged photography
and commentary was introduced. One of the end goals of the project was that content created by
youth participants on their phones could be sent through 3G or Wifi from the smartphone to our
project website which served as a repository for content where youth could share, view, and
comment on content created project-wide. The project website contained some aspects of a social
network, where participants could contribute content, comment on each other’s work, monitor
progress, etc. In addition, in Phase II we incorporated “connectors” into the project sites. Connectors
were undergraduate students who were trained in the smartphone technology, and who rotated to
the project sites serving as “trouble shooters” and assisting the program leaders and the youth in
mapping and uploading data.
Members of the anthropology team conducted participant observation during training sessions with
program leaders and during program implementation at each site. Overall, 31 observations at eight
separate sites took place. Observations generally lasted one to two hours, unless a group field trip
was planned, in which case an observation could last anywhere from four to eight hours.
Observations were aimed at understanding how program leaders implemented the program, the types
of challenges they faced, and how youth used the smartphones. Beyond observation, the
anthropologist researchers had informal conversations with participants during observational sessions.
Observations were audio recorded and detailed notes were taken. All necessary approvals were
obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the University of Arizona.
In addition to observations, 12 interviews were conducted with youth program leaders and 5 with
connectors. Some youth program leaders and connectors were interviewed more than once, at
various points throughout the project. Several interviews took place after the first phase, with the
majority taking place after the second phase. Program leader interviews were either conducted in
person or over the phone and, with approval, were audio recorded. Each interview was one to two
hours in duration and included general questions about how program leaders felt about the training,
the overall project, what was successful, and what was problematic. Similar to the questions asked of
the program leaders, connectors were asked about their experiences working with the program and
the youth and for their opinions on the challenges and successes faced and suggestions for
improvement.
The connector and program leader interviews were transcribed, carefully read, and hand-coded by
the two anthropologist authors. Using these transcripts, key themes were identified that were
relevant to program leaders, youth engagement, and enhancing the overall success of the program.
Likewise, observation notes were carefully read and hand-coded in order to identify key themes.
These form the basis for the discussion in this paper, which focus on the experiences of the program
leaders and their role in making this type of intervention successful.
86
Results
How much and what type of training do youth program leaders require?
Initial training consisted of a half day in-class training led by a skilled facilitator who was
knowledgeable in the program goals, smartphone technologies, and the applications that had been
developed specifically for our program. The trainer had previous experience working with four of the
program leaders on previous technology-based projects. At the time of the first training (Phase 1,
2010), smartphones were not as widely used as they are today. Thus, at the onset, the program
leaders’ different levels of comfort in using this technology made the training itself challenging, as not
all participants had prior experience with smartphones. Therefore, training for some needed to begin
at a more basic level than for others. Others had familiarity with smartphone technology but were
lacking in familiarity with GPS, and this made addressing the group as a whole difficult.
On the day of the training, program leaders were each given a smartphone that was the same as
would be distributed to youth in their program. They participated in an interactive presentation on
how to use the phone and apps, viewed online “how to” videos (developed by our project) which
could also be used for later reference, and reviewed a manual which had been developed to provide
them with background information on the phones and the goals of the program. In addition to how to
use the phone and apps, these materials emphasized online and mapping safety when working with
youth.
Although the program leaders received smartphones at the workshop so they could train hands-on
and participate in instructive activities, the phones were not ready for distribution and they were
unable to keep them after the training. When they received their phones at their program sites (about
two weeks later), they felt they had lost some of the knowledge they had gained in the training
session. This experience taught us that program leaders needed to have the technology in hand
several weeks prior to training, so they could become familiar with its basic functions, and so that
following training, they could practice before members of their youth group received their
smartphones. In addition, program leaders suggested that they should be given small take home
assignments that would allow them to engage with the applications in the same ways the youth
would be using them.
Several program leaders noted that they valued the participatory learning that came from
brainstorming with leaders from different community-based organizations at their initial training
session. They suggested that having monthly meetings of the program leaders who were involved in
the smartphone project would help them garner new ideas and would help them work out problems
which arose in the field.
Two program leaders were unable to attend the program leader training and therefore took part in
on-site training that was less extensive than what was provided to the other program leaders. Each of
these program leaders cited lack of training as a barrier to their integrating the technology into their
programs, thus emphasizing the importance of participation in an in-depth training which involved
others who would use the technology in similar ways.
After training, do youth program leaders have sufficient knowledge and skills to
implement a technology-based program at their site?
While one relatively short training session was sufficient to introduce the program leaders to the use
of the smartphones and apps, more intensive training was required to facilitate a technology transfer
to youth in their programs. During Phase 1, we did not include a translational component into the
87
training, meaning that program leaders were not taught explicitly how to introduce the technology
into their particular programs. This translational component varied across projects. For the
environmental groups, the program leader(s) needed to explain how the phone and apps were to be
used in the field as research tools, while the civic engagement program leaders needed to learn how
applications (like mapping) could enhance their mission. One program leader noted the difficulty of
playing the role of “facilitator” connecting technology with the goals of her program while ensuring
that the technology enhanced the program rather than creating an “additional burden.” Thus, we
learned that it is important that training of program leaders goes well beyond the technical aspects of
the technology to include training in the concrete ways in which the technology can be used with
youth.
Prior background in the use of technology—specifically with smartphones—did have an impact on the
ability of the program leader to carry out the program. The program leaders who possessed the
requisite skills to effectively use and troubleshoot the smartphone technology were able to run their
programs smoothly and without an abundance of outside assistance. Those program leaders who
were uncomfortable with technology found it difficult to transfer the necessary skills to youth
participants in their groups. These program leaders relied heavily on “connectors,” the
undergraduates who assisted them in the implementation of the program. Program leaders at all sites
appreciated the assistance provided by connectors as it lessened their burden and allowed them to
focus on their role as group coordinator. This was especially true since the youth participants were
not nearly as tech savvy as we initially assumed they would be. This made the translational
component of the training and the presence of the connectors particularly important.
What is the experience of program leaders in promoting youth involvement in such
programs?
The structure and dynamics of each youth program was found to be very important in achieving
success. Overall, the programs that were highly structured by program leaders were more successful
than those that lacked structure or were loosely structured. Programs that were highly structured
were characterized by program leaders who had regular and more frequent meeting times with youth
participants, and had established programs of longer duration with clear program goals. These groups
benefited from greater group cohesion as they were comprised of youth participants who had known
one another for long periods of time, thus facilitating their ability to work together. These program
leaders also had a clearer idea of what their youth participants found interesting or important and
were better able to identify issues that were meaningful to youth that could be addressed using the
smartphones and apps. On the other hand, those groups where the program leader had not
delineated clear goals had a difficult time understanding the potential uses for the technology. Other
groups that lacked cohesion simply had difficulty agreeing upon a project that the youth would find
fun and interesting.
Beyond the structure of the program, we observed that introducing the technology to youth
participants was an easier and more natural process for some program leaders than it was for others.
Much of this depended on the program leader’s ability to use the technology and to recognize the
potential it offered to their program. For example, one program leader from an urban local group
serving a low-income neighborhood quickly recognized how technology could benefit her group. In
her long established group, youth participants often complained about not having enough money to
buy and do the things they wanted and she saw the phones and apps as a tool for financial mapping,
so youth could track their spending habits. Other groups had more difficulty with this process.
Many program leaders found that the youth participants needed constant reinforcement in order to
keep using the technologies to the programs’ ends. Program leaders therefore developed certain
88
strategies for maintaining engagement. Some program leaders encouraged competition among their
members, keeping track of who collected and uploaded the most data. Another strategy was to
encourage group work. Some program leaders felt that youth participants were more likely to engage
if their friends were also participating. Similarly, one program leader often sent groups of kids “out on
missions.” This tactic was much more successful in maintaining youth engagement than expecting
youth to actively collect data on their own. This was not always true, however. Some participants
found other uses for the technology. One participant, for instance, was passionate about the
homeless youth problem and found ways to use her smartphone to gather a list of safe places for
homeless youth to go. This program leader encouraged individual, outside uses of the technology,
stating, “They can work on their passions, no matter what it is.” Program leaders employed various
strategies to maintain youth engagement, but those who had a close relationship with their youth and
who provided an encouraging atmosphere ultimately experienced more success in the program.
What are the challenges and opportunities in training and implementation of technologybased programs in youth-serving organizations?
Technology is not a panacea, and its integration into a youth program by program leaders requires an
understanding of its potential as well as its limitations. Below we discuss challenges we identified in
this process.
Time Commitment: Introducing the use of technology into youth-serving programs required a
substantial time commitment on the part of the program leader. Program leader training, youth
training, project development, and testing the technology and adjusting it to suit the program needs
are all time-consuming endeavors. Many of the program leaders who participated did not anticipate
this and thus felt unprepared. This was especially true in programs that had short runs (i.e., summer
programs) and had concrete goals that needed to be accomplished. When this time commitment
became overwhelming for the program leader or when it conflicted with existing program goals, using
technology can become too great a challenge. Furthermore, when too much time is needed to fully
and successfully integrate technology or to make the technology work properly, youth may lose
interest and become unengaged in the process.
Technological Failures: Each of the program leaders whom we trained did learn to skillfully use the
technology, some with the added assistance of tech savvy youth in their group and the connectors. In
Phase 1, however, when our apps were newly designed, technology failure created a difficult situation
for program leaders. Not only did they have to manage their youth group who were learning new
technologies (phones, apps), but they also had to manage group frustrations with phones that did not
always work as intended. While some of the reasons for phone failure had to do with the youth
themselves (insufficient charge of phones; dropped phones, etc.), failure also was caused by apps not
working or lack of mobile service as youth programs went on excursions outside the urban areas.
Cost of Supplying Technology: Youth participants were given expensive pieces of technology that had
to be carefully managed (preventing youth from making long distance calls, troubleshooting,
replacing lost or broken phones, etc.). There was a high cost associated with providing the phones
and with keeping the phones in appropriate working order. We had several dedicated people working
on the upkeep of the technology. Program leaders felt responsible for the care of the phones, even if
it was largely out of their control.
Shift in Group Dynamics: Several program leaders described a shift in their group dynamic after the
introduction of the smartphones. They observed that youth participants became less engaged with
one another and more engaged with their phones. One program leader observed that youth were
communicating via text messages even when face-to-face communication was possible, a
89
phenomenon that was common throughout the duration of the project. Phones could also serve as a
distraction from listening to the program leader and other youth group members, allowing one to text
friends outside of the group or surf the internet. Thus, smartphone technology has the potential to
lessen group cohesion. Along these same lines, it can be difficult for the program leader to promote
group work when each individual has the required tools at hand in one convenient piece of
technology. One program leader noted that when they used more traditional tools, such as paper
maps and recording devices, youth needed to work in groups wherein each member fulfilled a specific
role. Using a smartphone, each individual can simultaneously fulfill all roles, meaning that it becomes
more difficult to encourage teamwork.
It is worth reiterating that at the time of project inception, much of the utilized technology was
relatively new and unfamiliar. In the future, implementing this kind of program should prove easier,
as technology is improved, the cost is reduced, and a greater number of people become familiar with
its functions. Some of the challenges described above of integrating technology into a youth program,
however, may remain.
Opportunities
Despite the challenges listed above, our team also identified opportunities in working with
smartphones in youth-serving organizations.
Fostering relationship: The use of smartphones in youth-serving organizations can serve as a tool that
can foster the relationship between the program leader and the youth within their program. First,
technology provides a way for program leaders to build on the relationship they have with the young
people and to remain in contact with them even when the young people are away from the program.
Technology offers program leaders the opportunity to create mentoring leadership roles for tech
savvy youth who can assist them in developing projects, training other youth, and troubleshooting the
technology. This builds youth-adult collaboration allowing for a horizontal rather than a vertical group
dynamic, in which the program leader and the youth can learn from each other.
Developing skills for the 21st century: Using technology as a tool can provide young people the
opportunity to learn many important skills (leadership, mapping skills, basic coding skills, and others).
Further, the use of technology can assist program leaders in empowering young people to address
critical social issues within the community using the skills they have learned. For example, in one of
the project sites, youth focused a group project on financial mapping, which enabled them to track
how they spent their money and to learn about budgeting. Clearly these are skills that are applicable
to their present experience as well as their future well-being. At another site, youth identified
community service and volunteer opportunities for teens throughout the city, while at another project
site, youth collected data on invasive local species growing in the urban area.
Organizational tool for program leaders: Using the smartphones, program leaders could better plan
their group activities and could more easily organize themselves via mass text messages. This could
give program leaders a jumpstart on future meetings and could encourage group cohesion and
involvement in planning activities. Youth could also more easily be involved in planning future
activities. For example, youth at one site used their smartphone communication to coordinate a
fundraising activity.
Disseminating project results: Program leaders recognized the need for a tangible end product from a
technology project, noting that providing a platform for youth to present their projects to other youth
would be worthwhile. This was especially true when the youth had collected data that could positively
impact other youth or garner interest in or awareness of important issues such as environmental
90
sustainability or youth homelessness. The creation of an end product also allows youth to see what is
possible given the right tools. For example, the environmental group program leaders envisioned a
youth-produced, online natural history in which youth could take geo-tagged photos of native plant
and animal species, providing location and habitat information. Thus, findings from their project could
provide the community with usable data which could document changes in their local environment.
Discussion/Conclusion
There is an ever growing demand for those individuals who can successfully use technology in today’s
society. The lack of highly skilled individuals who can successfully work in the industries related to
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) has become a national focus at the local,
state, and national levels. Educational institutions at all levels are trying to create learning
opportunities that will increase not only the level of knowledge of the STEM areas, but also interest in
pursuing these areas as careers. Taraman (2010) notes that there are too few students entering into
fields related to STEM careers and thus it is critical to find ways in which to support young people
who have an interest in these fields of study. Youth-serving organizations offer young people the
opportunity to explore and advance their knowledge of current and evolving technology through
experiential learning opportunities. These organizations can then serve as a gateway for encouraging
and supporting exploration by young people in these STEM areas. The key to ensuring that young
people have rich and meaningful learning experiences is directly related to the program leader who is
responsible for designing and implementing these programs.
Although there were challenges in implementation of this innovative program, the use of smartphones
in community-based organizations can be beneficial for the program leader. Technology provides a
way for increased communication between program leaders and youth, and has the potential to
enhance these relationships. Some program leaders were able to rely on technologically
knowledgeable youth to aide them in developing projects, training other youth in program activities,
and troubleshooting. This can be particularly important for older youth because it not only engages
them but also allows them to have a mentoring role, potentially grooming them to be youth leaders.
Using technology as a tool to further the goals of youth-serving programs provides the opportunity to
learn many important skills. Program leaders felt that the use of technology enabled youth
participants to learn mapping and GPS, photography, and basic internet skills. Further, the use of
technology, especially for civic engagement, can help program leaders empower youth with an
experiential tool to become informed and active members of their communities.
Finally, there is a growing literature that suggests that youth program leaders are the lynch pin to
ensure that there is a positive benefit to youth participants (Smith, Peck, & Denault, 2010; Walker, et
al., 2005). The ability of the program leader to implement a program that will offer knowledge, skills
and opportunities for further exploration to youth is key to both program success and positive youth
outcomes. Given the importance of technological competence in today’s world, it is clear that youth
program leaders are well positioned to help youth develop skills to survive and thrive in the digital
world.
91
References
Borden, L.M., & Perkins, D.F. (2003). Volunteers as essential members of community collaborations.
The Journal of Volunteer Administration, 21(3), 20-24.
Borden, L.M., & Perkins, D.F. (2006). Community youth development professionals: Providing
the necessary supports. Child and Youth Care Forum, 35(2), 101-158.
Borden, L.M., Schlomer, G.L., & Wiggs, C.W. (2011). The Evolving Role of Program Leaders. Journal
of Youth Development, 6(3), 126-138.
Borden, L., & Serido, J. (2009). From program participant to engaged citizen: A developmental
journey. Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 423-438.
Catalano, R.F., Berglund, M.L., Ryan, J.A.M., Lonczak, H.S., & Hawkins, J.D. (1998). Defining and
evaluating positive youth development. In Positive Youth Development in the United States: Research
Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development Programs.
Coe-Regan, J.R., & O’Donnell, J. (2006). Best Practices for Integrating Technology and Service
Learning in a Youth Development Program. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, 3, 201-220.
Durlak, J.A., & Weissberg, R.P. (2007). A meta-analysis of after school programs that seek to
promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 36,
211-221.
Eccles, J.S., & Gootman, J.A. (Eds.). (2002). Community programs to promote youth
development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Hingle, M., Nichter, M., Medeiros, M., Grace, S. (2013). Texting for Health: The Use of Participatory
Methods to Develop Healthy Lifestyle Messages for Teens. Journal of Nutrition Education and
Behavior, 45(1), 12-19.
Mahoney, J.L., & Stattin, H. (2000). Leisure activities and adolescent antisocial behavior: The role and
structure of social context. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 113-127.
Mahoney, M. (2013). Reinventing the electric car: Education beyond the classroom. Technology &
Engineering Teacher, 72 (7), 6-12.
Pearce, N., & Larson, R. (2006). How teens become engaged in youth development programs: The
process of motivational change in a civic activism organization. Applied Developmental Science, 10,
121-131.
Pierce, K.M., Hamm, J.V., & Vandell, D.L. (1999). Experiences in after-school programs and children’s
adjustment in first-grade classrooms. Child Development, 65, 440-457.
Shernoff, D.J., & Vandell, D.L. (2007). Engagement in after-school program activities: Quality of
experience from the perspective of participants. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 891-903.
Smith, C., Peck, S.T., & Denault, A. (2010). Quality at the point of service: Profiles of practices in
after-school settings. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45, 358-369.
92
Taraman, K.S. (2010). Preparing the Next American Manufacturing Workforce. Techniques:
Connecting Education & Careers, 85(3), 30-33.
Vandell, D.L., & Pierce, K.M. (2001). Experiences in after-school programs and child well-being. In J.L.
Mahoney (Chair), Protective aspects of after-school activities: Processes and mechanisms. Paper
symposium conducted at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development,
Minneapolis, MN.
Walker, J.A., Marczak, M., Blythe, D.A., & Borden, L. (2005). Designing youth development programs:
Toward a theory of developmental intentionality. In J.L. Mahoney, R.W. Larson, & J.S. Eccles (Eds.),
Organized activities as contexts of development: Extracurricular activities, after-school and community
programs (pp. 399-418). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Wisneski, K. (2012). Reconnecting youth with community and environment: Keys to civic engagement
education program success. (Master’s Thesis) School of Natural Resources and the Environment,
University of Arizona.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
93
Mitigating Barriers to Civic Engagement for
Low-Income, Minority Youth Ages 13-18:
Best Practices from Environmental
Youth Conferences
Haco Hoang
Department of Political Science
California Lutheran University
Thousand Oaks, Ca
hhoang@callutheran.edu
94
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803PA002
Mitigating Barriers to Civic Engagement for
Low-Income, Minority Youth Ages 13-18:
Best Practices from Environmental
Youth Conferences
Haco Hoang
California Lutheran University
Abstract: Several studies indicate that there is a civic engagement
gap for low-income, minority youth even though they reside in
communities grappling with deteriorating social, environmental and
economic conditions. Using the annual Environmental Youth
Conference (EYC) in Los Angeles as a case study, this article offers
best practices for identifying: 1) factors that foster civic engagement
among low-income, minority youth ages 13-18, and 2) strategies to
mobilize the targeted youth populations on environmental issues.
Los Angeles is a useful case study because it is a large and
demographically diverse city facing extreme environmental
challenges due to its significant agricultural and industrial sectors.
Introduction
On September 30, 2006, Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa launched the Million Trees LA
Initiative (MTLA) to plant one million trees and foster environmental stewardship in the city. To help
achieve those goals, MTLA created educational programs that engaged the community, environmental
organizations, and corporate sponsors. One of the primary educational programs implemented from
2007-2009 was the Environmental Youth Conference (EYC) in Los Angeles. Youth became an
important constituency to engage on stewardship, particularly in communities facing environmental
problems, because they are the ones who will likely suffer the long-term consequences of
environmental pollution and degradation.
Unfortunately, several studies indicate that there is a “civic achievement gap between poor, minority
and immigrant youth (and) middle-class, white and native born youth” (Levinson, 2007). The lack or
under-engagement of marginalized youth is troubling because they often reside in communities with
deteriorating environmental, social and economic conditions. In California, many low-income,
minority youth and their families live or work in proximity to agricultural or industrial work sites with
95
high concentrations of pollution exposure and contamination. Understanding the reasons why and
how the affected youth are disengaged from civic life, particularly on environmental issues, is vital to
promoting healthy, sustainable communities and a vibrant civil society.
Using the EYC in Los Angeles as a case study, this article offers policy recommendations for
identifying factors that foster environmental awareness among youth from impacted communities,
and strategies for mobilizing affected youth on environmental issues. The EYC is a useful case study
because Los Angeles is a large, diverse city facing extreme environmental challenges due to its
significant agricultural and industrial sectors. The major conclusion of this study is that effective
policies and programs can be designed and implemented to overcome barriers that prevent or
discourage low-income, minority youth from promoting environmental health and sustainability in
their communities.
Fostering environmental stewardship among youth is important because “how young people think
about their neighborhoods, schools and communities is critical to supporting their capacity to help
build, shape and challenge the institutions in those settings” (Kirshner, et al., 2003). The engagement
of marginalized youth populations on environmental issues is particularly vital for two reasons. First,
low-income, minority youth constitute significant and increasing percentages of the national and
California populations. Moreover, 37% of Latino children in the United States are living in poverty
which is more than any other racial/ethnic group (U.S. Census 2010). In California, 51% of residents
under the age of 18 are Latino and the city of Los Angeles has the largest percentage of Latinos at
48.5% (U.S. Census, 2010).
Second, this project addresses a public and social justice need to identify practices and programs that
effectively mobilize communities that are often underserved by public policy but disproportionately
impacted by environmental problems. Ever since the low-income, minority residents of Kettlemen
City, California mobilized against a waste incinerator in 1991, there has been mounting public
pressure from “a more environmentally aware and concerned minority population” to ameliorate risk
and exposure to pollution and other environmental problems (Whitaker, et al., 2005). Numerous
studies indicate that marginalized populations such as the target population in this study - minority
youth from low-income areas - are especially vulnerable to environmental problems (Bullard, et al.,
2008). The EYC offers insights into how programs can: 1) identify communities with high
environmental needs; 2) target youth in affected communities; and 3) overcome or mitigate barriers
to youth civic engagement and environmentalism.
Methodology and Data
The data for this case study analysis consists of: 1) EYC surveys of youth between the ages of 13 and
18; 2) demographic data from the 2000 U.S. Census; and 3) a tree canopy analysis of Los Angeles
conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Forest Service. The surveys were collected from
youth attending the annual EYC in Los Angeles from 2007 to 2009. Each year, youth participants at
the conference were asked to offer feedback on event programming and share their attitudes about
environmental issues and activism. The surveys provide insight into the types of activities and
information that are appealing to youth, and help to identify the institutional settings, policies and
programs that foster youth environmental activism.
The target population was identified using the census and canopy data. Census data tracks highdensity concentrations of minorities in low-income communities in Los Angeles. Using Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) technology, the canopy study identified areas in Los Angeles that have
high environmental need because they lack trees and/or green space. Combining the two data sets
96
provides an understanding of the geographic areas where low-income, minority youth populations
may be particularly affected by environmental issues.
Engaging Disadvantaged Youth:
The Environmental Youth Conference as a Case Study
The 2007 conference was attended by 3,000 youth, followed by 5,000 in 2008, and 7,000 in 2009.
The Environmental Youth Conference included panels led by youth environmentalists and offered
volunteer opportunities with community-based environmental groups through an exhibit fair. The
logistical planning, outreach and program development for the EYC focused on three components:
1) identifying communities with environmental needs;
2) targeting affected youth populations; and
3) overcoming or mitigating barriers to civic engagement.
Identifying Communities in Los Angeles with High Environmental Need
The city of Los Angeles consists of fifteen (15) council districts, and is often identified by seven (7)
geographic areas (Downtown/Central City, Northeast LA, Harbor Area, San Fernando/East Valley,
Crescent/West Valley, South LA, and West LA). Outreach efforts for the EYC focused on youth
residing in areas of Los Angeles facing environmental problems. Impacted communities were
identified using a tree canopy assessment conducted by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (2008), and measured Los Angeles’ existing tree canopy cover, the feasibility of planting
one million trees, and the potential benefits of tree plantings.
The Forest Service found that there is an inequitable distribution of tree canopy coverage (TCC)
among the 15 council districts in Los Angeles. Council districts representing Downtown/Central City,
San Fernando Valley, Harbor, Northeast and South Los Angeles had much lower TCC levels than the
overall city average (see Table 1). Communities in West Los Angeles and the Crescent Valley had
TCC levels as high as 53% compared to the city average of 20.8% (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
2008). The study also estimated that tree plantings in low TCC areas would yield significant
environmental benefits in air quality, increased property values, and reductions of carbon dioxide,
storm water runoff and energy use.
97
Table 1
Los Angeles Council districts with low rates of tree canopy coverage (TCC)
Council District
Geographic areas
represented in
District
Tree Canopy
Coverage
Percentage
Council District 1
Downtown/Central
15.9
City, Northeast East
Council District 6
San Fernando Valley
15.0
Council District 7
San Fernando Valley
16.3
Council District 8
South Los Angeles
10.7
Council District 9
South Los Angeles,
7.5
Downtown/Central
City
Council District 10
Downtown/Central
11.9
City, South Los
Angeles
Council District 13
San Fernando Valley
13.7
Council District 15
Harbor Area
8.9
City of Los Angeles
Citywide
20.8
Source: US Forest Service Final Report 2007. Note: The City of Los Angeles is described by the following
geographic areas: San Fernando Valley, Crescent Valley, Westside, Downtown/Central City, Northeast,
Beach/Airport, South and Harbor.
The results of the canopy analysis were cross-tabulated with census data on poverty rates, median
home values, and racial/ethnic composition for Los Angeles communities in low TCC areas (see Table
2). Communities with some of the lowest rates of tree canopy coverage had higher poverty rates and
lower median home values compared to the rest of the city. Combining the canopy analysis and
census data revealed that areas in Los Angeles that had the greatest environmental need were:
Downtown (Pico Union, Chinatown, Central City), Northeast San Fernando Valley (Arleta), East Los
Angeles (Lincoln Heights) and South Los Angeles (Crenshaw, Koreatown, Watts, Wilshire Center).
Not surprisingly, the communities with low-income indicators and low TCC rates also had significant
population concentrations of Latinos and/or African Americans. Combining the analyses of the tree
canopy study and census data revealed a need emerged to target communities with low TCC
percentages, low-income residents, and significant Latino and/or African American populations.
98
Table 2
Income indicators and racial/ethnic composition of selected LA Communities in low TCC areas
Community
Median
Home
Value*
Poverty
rate
Arleta
$153,617
19.02%
Boyle
$144,665
32.59%
Heights
Chinatown
$140,000
61.19%
El Sereno
$154,667
21.55%
Highland
$159,523
19.52%
Park
Hyde Park
$152, 525
22.50%
Jefferson
$150,500
27.42%
Koreatown
$100,764
35.89%
Lincoln
$151,450
34.09%
Heights
Mission Hills
$142,420
8.51%
Montecito
$159,850
24.67%
Heights
Pacoima
$140,908
21.41%
Panorama
$142,067
25.70%
City
Pico Union
$152,542
44.24%
South LA
$152,716
35.75%
Southeast LA $144,858
38.82%
Watts
$106,325
47.66%
West Adams $158,700
21.71%
Westlake
$130,658
35.30%
Wilmington
$160,900
27.05%
Wilshire
$171,720
30.78%
Center
Source: LA Almanac and 2000 US Census.
Note: Median home value in City of LA is $221,600.
Latino
population
African
American
population
Geographic
area
77.53%
92.46%
1.52%
1.16%
Valley
Northeast
25.67%
83.73%
71.69%
3.45%
1.64%
2.13%
Downtown
Northeast
Northeast
35.23%
60.23%
62.90%
68.71%
60.77%
32.40%
3.90%
2.06%
South
South
Downtown
Northeast
71.52%
71.52%
3.19%
3.07%
Valley
Northeast
90.85%
73.87%
4.60%
3.15%
Valley
Valley
82.30%
59.66%
80.56%
69.85%
63.58%
70.95%
90.11%
51.25%
1.17%
37.46%
18.13%
28.61%
30.76%
4.73%
2.69%
4.44%
Downtown
South
South
South
South
Downtown
Harbor
Downtown
Engaging the Targeted Youth Populations
EYC planners focused their outreach efforts on youth from areas with low tree canopy, low-income
residents and concentrated populations of racial/ethnic minorities. The conference organizers worked
with local schools and community-based organizations in the target areas to identify youth leaders
and participants for the EYC. In 2007, organizers were effective in their outreach efforts to youth in
the San Fernando Valley, Northeast LA and Downtown communities. A majority of the youth
attending the conference came from areas with high concentrations of Latinos, low-income residents,
and low tree canopy coverage. The percentage of youth from South Los Angeles was relatively low in
relation to the environmental needs of those communities (see Table 1).
In 2008, MTLA focused significant energy and time to recruit youth in South L.A. and increase their
participation and attendance at the second EYC. Additional outreach staff members were assigned to
work with local schools and youth or environmental organizations in South L.A. several months before
the conference. Its efforts were successful and resulted in a significant increase in the number of
South L.A. youth attending the conference, from 11.3% in 2007 to 28% in 2008. One-third of the
99
EYC participants still came from the other areas with high environmental need – San Fernando Valley,
Northeast LA and Downtown (see Table 3).
Table 3
Geographic representation of youth participants/attendees at the EYC
Year
Northeast
2007
2008
2009
Source: EYC surveys,
12.8%
13%
9%
2007-2009.
SF Valley
Downtown
South LA
West LA
Other
43.5%
14%
50%
17.8%
6%
13%
11.3%
28%
7%
12.6%
25%
15%
2.0%
15.0%
14%
In 2009, half of the survey respondents were from the San Fernando Valley but youth from the other
target communities were lower than in the two previous years. However, the 2009 surveys may not
have been a representative sample of the participants at the conference. Nearly 500 surveys were
collected at the 2007 conference, and nearly 300 at the 2008 conference. However, only 108 surveys
were collected at the 2009 conference due to staffing shortages and logistical problems at the events.
Nevertheless, the surveys collected over three years indicate that EYC outreach efforts to youth in the
target communities were relatively successful. The youth attendees from the target communities
(low-income, minority populations in low TCC areas) constituted at least 70 percent of the survey
respondents at each of the three conferences in 2007, 2008 and 2009 (see Table 3).
Cross-tabulating the canopy analysis and census data allowed EYC planners to identify areas with
high environmental needs (low tree canopy coverage) and marginalized youth populations (lowincome Latinos and African Americans). Furthermore, the two data sets reaffirmed the claim made
by environmental justice scholars and advocacy groups that low-income, minority communities are
disproportionately impacted by environmental problems compared to wealthier neighborhoods.
Furthermore, the correlation between demographic trends (low-income minorities) and environmental
need emerged as an important factor to consider in the design, delivery and evaluation of educational
programming for the EYC.
Mitigating Barriers to Civic Engagement and Environmentalism
Identifying communities with need was only part of the goal. EYC organizers wanted educational
programming at the conference that directly addressed common civic engagement barriers
encountered by low-income, minority youth:
1) lack of opportunities for civic action,
2) lack of relevant information, and
3) lack of resources.
One of the challenges faced by marginalized youth is the lack of opportunities for meaningful civic
engagement opportunities. At the conference, youth were able to visit an exhibit fair where they
could learn about and volunteer for environmental organizations such as TreePeople, Pacoima
Beautiful and Los Angeles Conservation Corps. The goal was to offer youth ways that they could
pursue and sustain their environmental awareness and activism after the conference. An
overwhelming majority of youth indicated on their surveys that they planned to volunteer or get
involved with one of the environmental organizations after the EYC (see Table 4).
100
Table 4
EYC attendees who expressed an intend to volunteer or get involved with an environmental
organization
Conference
Percentage of youth responses
Year
2007
54%
2008
71%
2009
52%
Source: EYC surveys, 2007-2009.
The educational program for the EYC was also designed to offer relevant information to the target
youth populations about the environment and community involvement. The presenters at the
conference were youth leaders from the target areas who organized and participated in communitybased environmental projects through their schools and/or local organizations. Several of the
projects were aimed at community development as well as environmental quality such as recycling
programs, the use of alternative energy buses, tree plantings, and community gardens. The hope
was that youth attendees would receive specific information on how to get involved and promote
environmentalism in their own communities rather than just discussing abstract principles like
conservation, preservation and global warming. Survey responses from each year indicated that the
EYC programming was effective in providing youth with concrete actions that can be taken to
promote environmental health and well-being in their own communities (see Table 5).
Table 5
EYC attendees who expressed that the conference provided specific information and
concrete actions to improve the environment in their communities
Conference Percentage of youth
Year
responses
2007
91%
2008
98%
2009
89%
Source: EYC surveys, 2007-2009.
Many of the EYC attendees reside in low-income communities that lack resources and logistical
support for environmental activism. Transportation, flexibility and time are three often cited civic
engagement barriers for low-income and minority individuals (McBride, et al., 2004, 12). Therefore,
the EYC events were held on Saturdays from 9am to 1pm so that school and work schedules were
less likely to be interrupted, and EYC organizers provided bus transportation for schools and
community-based organizations in the target communities. Incorporating basic logistical support into
the EYC planning process significantly contributed to the high rates of youth turnout from lowincome, low TCC communities with concentrated populations of racial/ethnic minorities.
Concerns about resources also informed the educational content of the EYC programming. Each year,
the EYC developed a “green menu” of environmental actions that youth can incorporate into their
daily lives without a significant commitment of time or money. Examples of green menu action items
included taking shorter showers or baths, buying reusable water bottles, and using alternative energy
like compact fluorescent lights. Youth were also told how each green menu item contributes to
environmental health and well-being. Each youth was asked to incorporate one green menu item into
his/her daily routine for 30 days. Furthermore, the EYC inspired youth to be environmental stewards
101
in their own communities by encouraging a friend or family member to commit to one green menu
action item for 30 days (see Table 6).
Table 6
EYC attendees who would encourage a friend or family member to be
environmentally conscious and/or commit to a green menu action item
Conference Percentage of youth
Year
responses
2007
82%
2008
90%
2009
84%
Source: EYC surveys, 2007-2009.
Best Practices and Strategies from the Environmental Youth Conference
An analysis of the EYC offers three useful insights into programs that are designed to foster civic
engagement and environmentalism among low-income, minority youth. First, it is important to
accurately identify the target populations that are under-served and under-represented in public
policy based on empirical data and an ideological commitment to social justice. The canopy analysis
by the Forest Service allowed EYC organizers to determine which geographic areas in Los Angeles
required environmental attention because they lack trees and green spaces, and the benefits that
accompany them. Using the census data, EYC planners determined that communities with high
environmental need also had significant youth populations that are often marginalized due to their
economic, immigration, and racial/ethnic minority status.
Second, programming and services offered to target communities must be directly relevant to the
lives of the affected populations. In this case, the content of the EYC program had to address some
of the civic engagement barriers that low-income, minority youth encounter including the lack of
resources, opportunities for community involvement, and relevant information. Providing logistical
assistance like transportation ensured that youth could attend the conferences each year. Holding
the events on Saturday also allowed families to attend the conferences and reduced the likelihood
that work and school schedules would be an obstacle. The green menu action items and volunteer
opportunities at the exhibit fair gave youth participants specific ideas or ways to channel
environmentalism into their daily lives with little or no commitment of money.
Third, peer modeling is a powerful tool for promoting youth activism and leadership. An
overwhelming number of youth responded in the surveys that hearing the youth presenters inspired
them to take action in their own communities and encourage others to be environmentally conscious.
Having youth presenters from the target communities was particularly powerful because hearing
about environmental projects in communities like their own enhanced the sense of political efficacy
among the youth attending the conferences. Although EYC planners were not able to systematically
track the youth participants and their activism after the conferences, the events did meet the
objective of inspiring youth to be environmental stewards in their communities through peer role
models and opportunities to interact with community organizations that focus on youth and/or
environmental issues.
Policy Recommendations and Conclusions
Effective policy for mobilizing marginalized youth on environmental issues must include opportunities
for the development and practice of civic skills. Three strategies can help to achieve this policy.
102
First, schools and other educational institutions can and should be used more effectively by youth and
environmental advocates as partners in the development of civic skills for low-income, minority youth.
Schools create a setting which can “nurture the kinds of beliefs and commitments that ultimately
sustain democracy… (because) young people are more likely to develop a vested interest if they feel
affective ties to people and institutions in their communities” (Flanagan, et al., 2007). Environmental
and youth groups should institutionalize partnerships with schools to create curricula that foster civic
literacy and practice. For instance, EYC planners developed a service learning curriculum that
teachers and students attending the conferences could use to fulfill the community service
requirement for high school graduation in California. Teachers from science and government courses
were particularly receptive to incorporating the EYC service learning curriculum into their lessons
plans.
Second, local organizations may be the most effective venue for civic action or practice among lowincome, minority youth because they focus on the social problems facing stakeholders in specific
communities. Activism among marginalized youth is more effective if the issues being addressed are
relevant to their daily lives and are seen as redressing an injustice in their communities such as failing
schools, crime, graffiti, and racial profiling (Flanagan & Levine, 2008). Framing environmental
problems as community development or social justice issues rather than abstract principles is more
relevant and inspiring to low-income, minority youth.
And last, policy makers must develop ways to identify populations that are disproportionately
impacted by social problems because they require specialized attention and resources in public policy,
programs and services. Promoting environmentalism among youth is important because a significant
portion of immigrants and minorities live in communities that are grappling with multiple
socioeconomic and environmental problems (Bullard & Johnson, 2000). Due to budget constraints
and a change in mayoral leadership in Los Angeles, the EYC is no longer in existence but engaging
these youth populations is not only a matter of social justice but one of public need. Neglecting
disproportionately impacted populations is bad for public policy and a democratic society, especially
when mobilizing the affected youth populations can cultivate the next generation of environmental
stewards.
References
Bullard, R.D., & Johnson, G. (2000). Environmental justice: Grassroots activism and its impact on
public policy decision-making. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), 555-578.
Bullard, R., Mohai, P., Saha, R., & Wright, B. (2008). Toxic wastes and race at twenty: Why race still
matters after all of these years. Environmental Law, 38 Envtl. L. 371, 371-411.
Flanagan, C.P., Cumsille, Gill, S., & Gallay, L. (2007). “School and Community Climates and Civic
Commitments: Patterns for Ethnic Minority and Majority Students.” Journal of Education Psychology.
99(2): 421-430.
Flanagan, C., & Levine, P. (2008). “Summary of Civic Engagement and the Transition to Adulthood.”
Transitions to Adulthood. 20(1): 159-179.
Levinson, M. (2007). The Civic Achievement Gap. Medford: Tisch College of Citizenship and Public
Service.
103
McBride, A.M., Sherraden, M.S., & Pritzker, S. (2004). Civic Engagement among Low-Income and
Low-Wealth Families: In Their Words. St. Louis: Washington University.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2010), Oxnard, California Population. Washington, DC: Government
Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008). Los Angeles One Million Tree Canopy Cover Assessment.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
104
The Impact of Parental Involvement on a
Structured Youth Program Experience:
A Qualitative Inquiry
Mat D. Duerden
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT
duerden@byu.edu
Peter A. Witt
Texas A&M University
Christopher J. Harrist
Texas A&M University
105
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803RS001
The Impact of Parental Involvement on a
Structured Youth Program Experience:
A Qualitative Inquiry
Mat D. Duerden
Brigham Young University
Peter A. Witt and Christopher J. Harrist
Texas A&M University
Abstract: Parental involvement is an often proposed, but rarely
researched, key element of youth programs. Questions remain
regarding the impact of parental involvement on program processes
and outcomes. Qualitative data were collected over a one-year
period with youth participants (n=46), parents (n=26), and teachers
(n=5) associated with an international immersion/service learning
program for adolescents. Three main research questions guided the
data analysis: (1) what role does parental involvement play in the
youths’ experience in the program; (2) how does parental
involvement in the program influence the parent/child relationship;
and (3) what role does parental involvement play in terms of the
program’s long-term impact on the youth participants? Findings
suggest a relationship between parental involvement in youth
programs and improved parent/child communication, bonding, and
perceptions of one another. Findings also suggest that having a
common ground experience prolonged the experience’s positive
post-participation effects.
Introduction
Positive youth development literature promotes increasing competencies and providing adolescents
access to key developmental assets (Witt, & Caldwell, 2005). Two key assets include positive
youth/adult interactions (including those with parents) and participation in structured leisure
activities. A wide range of literature highlights the impact of parents on youth development. For
example, literature suggests parental influence on youth extends beyond the home and impacts
adolescents’ behavior (Baumrind, 1991), the peers they choose (Brown, Mounts, Lamborn, &
Steinberg, 1993; Ladd, & Le Sieur, 1995), their leisure time activities (Green & Chalip, 1998; Outley &
106
Floyd, 2002), and their academic performance (Woolley, & Grogan-Kaylor, 2006). Evidence related to
the ability of structured leisure activities (i.e., youth programs) to serve as developmental contexts is
also well documented (e.g., Larson, 2000; Mahoney, & Stattin, 2000). Consequently, it would seem a
promising strategy to involve parents where appropriate in the programs frequented by their children.
Indeed, parental involvement is a common best practice suggestion for youth program providers and
educators and a noted characteristic of successful youth programs (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan,
Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004; Eccles, & Harold, 1993; Trotman, 2001). Although parental involvement
appears to be an effective component of youth development programs, it is often not easily facilitated
for a number of reasons. First, while parents may be a positive addition to some programs, the
opportunity for negative impact may be just as real, depending on the parents and the nature of their
involvement. Some practitioners may hesitate to involve parents due to previous negative
experiences. Second, while involving parents appears efficacious in theory, in practice it is often more
difficult. Finally, some practitioners may value opportunities to work and interact with youth in
program settings free from the influence of parents. An increased understanding of the underlying
mechanisms that are put into action when parents become involved in youth programs might make it
easier for practitioners to promote parental involvement.
Unfortunately, there is a lack of research regarding the processes that occur when parents engage in
youth programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to qualitatively investigate the role of
parental involvement in a structured youth program, in this case an international immersion/service
learning program. The study’s findings provide insights into what happens when parents become
involved in their children’s out-of-school time programs. A qualitative approach was deemed
appropriate for the study as it enabled the individuals most directly connected with these processes
(e.g., youth participants and their parents) to inform researchers regarding key concepts and
relationships (Auerbach, & Silverstein, 2003). It was also hoped the study could identify key parental
involvement processes occurring within the observed program in order to facilitate future research
with more representative samples.
Literature Review
Parental Involvement
The ability of adults to positively contribute to the healthy development of youth is supported by
research from a variety of disciplines. Prevention and resiliency researchers have identified positive
adult relationships as a key protective factor against a variety of risks (Benard, 1991; Coie, et al.,
1993). Positive youth development advocates promote such relationships as key assets associated
with youths’ successful navigation of adolescence (Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000). The focus
of these recommendations, especially within youth program contexts, is often on the role of nonparental adults. For example, there is an established body of research related to the impact of
coaching (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, & Briere, 2001; Smoll, Smith, Barnett, & Everett, 1993) and
mentoring relationships (DuBois, Holloway, Valentine, & Cooper, 2002; Grossman, & Johnson, 1999)
with adolescents.
While research related to parents’ direct involvement in youth program contexts remains sparse,
studies have been conducted related to the influence that parents have on the types of leisure
activities in which their children participate. For example, middle school–age youth whose parents
more closely monitor their behavior and activities were found to participate in lower levels of
substance abuse than non-monitored youth (Caldwell, & Darling, 1999). Youth also appear to adopt
parental participation patterns; for example, findings show that school-age youth (5–17 years) are
more likely to become involved in the community and in extracurricular activities if their parents are
107
involved in the community (Coulton, & Irwin, 2009) and if their parents support and encourage their
child’s participation (Fletcher, Elder, & Mekos, 2000). While such findings provide insights related to
parents’ indirect involvement in their children’s leisure, research is needed to understand what
happens when parents directly participate in their children’s structured leisure experiences.
Fortunately, research exists regarding the direct involvement in some other non-leisure and leisure
contexts, which provides insights pertinent to this study’s focus.
School. In educational circles, teachers and administrators have long identified strengthening
parental participation as an issue that should receive the highest public education policy priority (U.S.
Department of Education, 1994). Extant research overwhelmingly demonstrates that parental
involvement in children’s learning is positively related to achievement (Cotton, & Wikelund, 2001).
Findings from a meta-analysis of 52 studies on this topic indicate that parental involvement positively
impacted academic achievement among urban secondary students across ethnic groups (Jeynes,
2007). Relationships that develop between parents and teachers have also been found to impact
elementary age–students’ classroom engagement and academic achievement (Hughes, & Kwok,
2007), and positive parental school involvement has been linked to lower levels of problem behaviors
for middle and high school students (Hill, et al., 2004) and increased academic achievement among
8- to 12-year-old students with ADHD (Rogers, Wiener, Marton, & Tannock, 2009). Together these
findings make a case for the impact parents can have on their children’s overall academic experience
if they become positively involved with school. The question remains whether or not the same degree
of positive benefits is associated with parental involvement in out-of-school time contexts.
Youth sports. Youth sports represent an out-of-school time setting that has received some
attention related to parental involvement. While research in this area is not extensive, most who have
explored parental involvement in youth sports view positive support as fundamental to children’s
participation and success (Wylleman, DeKnop, Ewing, & Cummings, 2000). For example, research
looking at the impact of parental support on middle school–age tennis players found that youth who
felt their parents supported their involvement reported higher levels of enjoyment and felt more
attached to tennis than less supported youth (Hoyle & Leff, 1997). Parents’ encouragement of and
commitment to their children’s (M = 8 years old) participation in youth soccer has also been shown to
positively relate to youths’ perceptions of enjoyment, skill, and continued involvement in the sport
(Green, & Chalip, 1997).
Family recreation. Family recreation, another out-of-school time context, is an especially powerful
setting for parents to interact with and influence their children. Qualitative findings regarding parents’
perception of family leisure reveal that those parents interviewed felt family leisure should be
purposive (Shaw, & Dawson, 2001). In other words, family leisure was a prime opportunity to teach
principles and promote the development of desired characteristics. Research findings support the
efficacy of joint family leisure activities to promote positive functioning (Zabriskie, & McCormick,
2001). For example, families who participated in a challenging outdoor recreation program
experienced improved levels of family communication and problem solving efficacy (Huff, Widmer,
McCoy, & Hill, 2003; Wells, Widmer, & McCoy, 2004).
Interest development represents another potential outcome of family recreation. Research indicates
that adolescents identified as interested in the world around them (i.e., open to new activities,
fascinated, apt to explore, etc.) score higher on measures of self-esteem, locus of control, and
optimism than adolescents identified as being bored (Hunter, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2003). Interest is
also an important concept because interested youth are more likely to explore the world around
them, and this process of exploration is one of the main forces associated with identity formation
(Marcia, 1980; Schmitt-Rodermund, & Vondracek, 1999). Schmitt-Rodermund and Vondracek’s (1999)
108
research indicates that adolescents who were actively engaged in a wider variety of activities as
children are more likely to be active explorers during adolescence. They additionally note that
parental involvement in these childhood activities had a strong positive impact on later adolescent
exploration and identity development. In summary, parents who both expose their children to a
breadth of different activities and also participate with their children in these activities are more likely
to have interested adolescents who actively explore the world around them.
Structured Youth Programs
The positive benefits associated with parental involvement in the reviewed contexts should also
extend to structured youth programs. However, research related to parental involvement in
structured youth programs is fairly sparse (e.g., Catalano, et al., 2004; Roth, & Brooks-Gunn, 1998).
In their review, Catalano, et al. (2004) noted that many of the most effective programs intentionally
targeted multiple contexts (e.g., program, school, family, etc.) and often involved parents. Parental
involvement strategies included providing direct services to parents, requiring parents to participate in
take-home activities, and involving parents directly in program implementation. While factors of
effective youth programs identified in this study have proved an invaluable resource to researchers
and practitioners, it does not provide insights into the efficacy of parental involvement in these
programs. McCurdy and Daro (2001) developed an integrated theory of parental involvement that
considers the multiple influences that affect familial program participation, but the scope of their work
focused on family-centered rather than youth-centered programs. Research is needed that specifically
looks at the involvement of parents in programs where the main target audience is the youth
themselves. Additionally, this research needs to consider the impacts of involvement as well as the
processes that account for many observable outcomes.
Summary and Research Questions
Given previous research and the need for additional studies of parental involvement in youth leisure
contexts, this study qualitatively investigated the impacts and processes associated with parental
involvement in an out-of-school program for middle and high school students. The following research
questions guided the study:
1. What role does parental involvement play in the youths’ experiences in the program?
2. How does parental involvement in the program influence the parent/child relationship?
3. What role does parental involvement play in terms of the program’s long-term impact on
youth participants?
Method
Program Description
The provider of the observed program was a non-profit organization that offers international
immersion experiences for middle and high school students. The proximal goal of the program is to
increase participants’ knowledge and attitudes related to science, culture, leadership, and service with
a distal goal of promoting global citizenship. The programs consist of three stages: (a) a preparatory
after-school program, (b) an international field workshop, and (c) a post-trip service project.
Programs are offered for a variety of international destinations (e.g., Peru, Costa Rica, Africa, etc.)
and are marketed to private and public school teachers. Teachers who wish to sponsor a program
recruit students from their school to participate. Travel groups range in size from 10 to 80
participants, which includes students, teachers, and parents.
After-school program. The program provides teachers with an after-school curriculum that consists
of 9 to 12 sessions ranging in length from 1 to 3 hours. These lessons occur during the fall or spring
109
prior to the group’s international experience. The length of the preparatory program varies between
groups—some implement multiple sessions over a few weeks whereas other groups implement one
session every couple of weeks. Many of the groups also participate in additional fundraising and other
preparatory activities.
International field workshop. The international portion of the program consists of a one- to twoweek field workshop and usually occurs during the summer. Larger groups are divided into smaller
teams for the field workshop to facilitate participation and hands-on learning. The workshop consists
of experiential education focused on ecology and conservation biology as well as cultural immersion
activities with the indigenous people (e.g., community service projects and cultural education). The
provider coordinates all aspects of the international portion of the program (e.g., logistics, food and
lodging, programming, etc.). A provider staff member accompanies each group, and additional incountry field guides facilitate the bulk of the activities and instruction.
Post-trip service project. Following the international field workshop, each group implements a
service project designed to benefit their local community or a community visited during the
international field workshop and build leadership abilities for the participating students.
Participant Description
Participants in this study came from a group located in a suburb of a large Midwestern city in the
United States. This group was selected due to its size (N = 77) and teacher supportiveness. This
group also was a good fit for the study’s aims because it had a higher ratio of traveling parents than
any other group. The group included 46 youth (18 females and 28 males) with a mean age of 13.4
(SD = .65), 26 parents (9 females and 17 males) with a mean age of 44.7 (SD = 3.78), and 5
teachers (3 females and 2 males) with a mean age of 43.4 (SD = 8.96). The group spent a week
visiting a variety of locations within the Peruvian Amazon basin, and a smaller portion of the group
took an additional week to hike the Inca Trail and visit Machu Picchu.
The group included in this study presented a unique opportunity to investigate processes associated
with parental involvement because a significant portion of the youth participants’ parents were heavily
involved with the program. Almost half of the youth had parents who traveled with the group to the
international workshop, thus providing ample opportunities for parents to play a role in their children’s
experiences. At the same time, contrasts could be drawn within the same group between those youth
with and without traveling parents. The opportunity to travel was open to all parents but there was
no concentrated effort to recruit traveling parents as the main focus of the program was on the
youth. The high cost of traveling may have been prohibitive for some parents, though the study did
not collect data on reasons why parents chose not to travel.
While not required, parents had the option to take part in each component of the program including
the preparatory classes, the international workshop, and the follow-up service project. Parents could
also get involved with preparatory homework activities and other trip preparations (e.g., acquiring
travel supplies, packing, etc.). Parents who chose to travel with a group served as chaperones. The
provider required that chaperones be placed in separate field workshop teams from their participating
children. This policy was developed to allow for both the participation of parents as well as the
promotion of an autonomous experience for youth participants. Teams could come together at meal
times and in the evenings, allowing parents and children to interact and share their experiences from
the day.
110
Data Collection
Qualitative data collection took part as a component of a larger evaluation conducted by the principle
investigator (PI) for the sponsoring organization. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Texas A&M
University approved all data collection protocols. Qualitative data collection involved focus groups and
dyadic interviews (Table 1). Separate focus groups for youth and adult interviews occurred
throughout the study. In other words, youth were not interviewed in the presence of their teachers
and/or parents. Focus groups and dyadic interviews were conducted with youth participants and their
parents during three three-day site visits conducted by the PI. The first two site visits occurred during
the preparatory portion of the program (one during the middle and one towards the end), and a posttravel visit took place during the fall after the summer international travel experience. During each
site visit, multiple student focus groups (from four to six participants) and one large parent focus
group (from eight to twelve parents) were conducted. Focus groups allowed participants to share
thoughts about their experiences in the program and to respond to a variety of questions designed to
facilitate discussion regarding the study’s research questions. Each focus group lasted anywhere from
15 to 30 minutes. The PI also observed various activities associated with the program, such as after
school meetings. The follow-up visit allowed the PI to interview the same groups of individuals
regarding their overall assessment of the program as well as their perceptions of the long-term
impact of their experiences.
Table 1
Summary of Case Study Interviews/Focus Groups
Preparatory
International
Program
Workshop
Follow-up
Total
Youth
10
23
11
44
Parents
2
5
1
8
Teachers
3
1
1
5
Staff
---
2
---
2
The PI also conducted program observations and interviews during the group’s two-week
international field workshop in Peru. The first week was spent in the Peruvian Amazon basin and
included activities such as wildlife observations, service projects, and learning about the local culture.
The second week of the program took place in central Peru where participants hiked the Inca Trail to
Machu Picchu. The entire group participated in the Amazon portion of the trip while approximately
half of the group stayed for the Inca Trail portion. Interviews and focus groups were conducted with
all youth, parents, teachers, and program staff members participating in the program. In addition, the
PI conducted participant observations and took field notes regarding all aspects of the program.
These notes were transcribed and incorporated into the analysis.
111
Analysis Procedures
The analysis was guided by grounded theory methodology as outlined by Strauss and Corbin (1998a)
and the study’s research questions. This process included reading pertinent portions of the transcripts
in order to identify repeated words, phrases, and themes. Open coding enabled the development of
themes that were grounded in the data themselves (Strauss, & Corbin, 1998b). Through axial coding,
commonalities between categories allowed for the development of more abstract categories under
which related subcategories were grouped (Strauss, & Corbin, 1998b). Axial coding occurred
concurrently with open coding. Once fairly developed categories emerged, the researchers moved to
selective coding, whereby a core category was identified and the focus of the analysis shifted to
connecting other categories to this core category in order to begin the development of a grounded
theory (Strauss, & Corbin, 1998b).
The final step of the analysis involved the integration of themes and relationships between these
categories relative to the study’s research questions. Creswell (2007) suggests researchers employ at
least two validation strategies to ensure the quality of their work; this study employed four: (a)
extensive time spent in the field with the subjects, (b) the use of multiple forms of data collection
(e.g., interviews with parents, teachers, staff, and youth; field notes; and open-ended survey
questions), (c) member checking, and (d) peer review.
Researcher’s Relationship to the Data
As noted, the PI spent time with members of the case study group as a participant observer of the
program. The PI was introduced to the group during the first site visit as the external evaluator of the
program who would be conducting interviews and program observations. The PI’s role as an objective
observer was explained and participants were invited to openly share their thoughts and opinions
throughout the data collection process. The PI focused on building rapport with participants to
develop relationships that would foster the open sharing of information. The PI had previous
experience as a youth program director, so taking on the role of observer required a conscious effort
to avoid taking a participatory position in the program. However, the PI’s presence in the field still
influenced the youths’ experiences. For example, without the interviews and focus groups, many of
the youth would not have had intentional opportunities to discuss their program experiences.
Results
The research questions addressed the impact of parental involvement on the children’s experiences in
a leisure-oriented enrichment program, the effects of parental involvement in the program on the
parent/child relationship, and the role of parental involvement on the program’s long-term impact on
the children. The data dealt generally with parental involvement in the program (e.g., attending
meetings, helping students prepare for travel, etc.) and dealt specifically with the perceived influence
of traveling parents on the experience of traveling youth. The findings are organized into sections
related to each research question.
What Role Did Parents’ Involvement in the Program Play in the Youths’ Program
Experience?
The data suggest that parents did play a role in their children’s program experience to varying
degrees—from collaborative engagement with the sponsoring teachers to more direct involvement
with their children during the program. For example, teachers frequently mentioned how they relied
on the parents to make the program successful (“I can’t imagine [running the program] without the
parents”). Parents were asked to fill multiple roles including participating in fundraisers (“when we
[the teachers] begin fundraising we say, you guys [parents] bring the resources . . . you need to
112
bring to us your expertise, your experience, your connections to help us raise funds”) and acting as
disciplinarians. One of the teachers explained the disciplinarian role as follows:
We rely on [parents] so much just on the spur of the moment. I mean, they don’t technically
have a duty—you know, we inform them that they’re kind of a link in the chain, you know. If
they’re in a small group and some kid is doing something they probably shouldn’t, we tell
them, you know, just quietly say a little something to them and refocus them or whatever
they need.
Sponsoring the international immersion program required teachers to take on numerous
responsibilities in addition to their regular teaching duties. Parental involvement helped ease this
burden. Additionally, teachers felt that if they were able to get parents to buy into the program, it
would enhance the experience for their kids. One youth noted: “If the parent . . . knows what we’re
doing and listens to us and understands kind of what our goals are, they can reinforce that at home
and then the kid is more apt to get more out of the experience.” Teachers did report that some
parents caused problems. As one teacher put it, “they badger you at meetings,” but these instances
seemed to be the exception. Based upon teachers’ comments, it is clear that the program would not
be the same without the parents.
For some of the youth, their parents played a major role, beyond merely financing the experience,
during both the preparatory program and international workshop. Youth perceived parental
involvement to have a variety of both positive and negative consequences. For example, youth with
involved parents noted a variety of ways their parents supported them during the program. Examples
of such assistance included fundraising support (“Mom helped me write a letter to her boss so I could
get a donation from the company that they worked at”), program-related homework help (“We talk
about all the things I learn in the meetings, [my parents] help me so that I understand my homework
ok”), and emotional support (“My parents provided mental support in the pressure that you have to
prepare and all that stuff”).
Conversely, a number of the youth who did not have parents travel with them on the international
workshop noted the experience, without parents, promoted their sense of independence. As one
participant stated:
And I think being away from home and my family and put in this totally different
environment has definitely made me stronger and kind of showed me that I can do this. I
have really gained a lot of confidence, I think, because I am usually, you know, with my
parents or my best friends or whatever, and I was kind of put in a group that I did not have
any close friends or anything so [I] kind of had to make friends.
In an effort to promote opportunities for independence, even for youth with traveling parents, the
program enforces a rule whereby youth and their parents do not participate directly together in most
portions of the workshop. For example, parents and children are never placed within the same groups
or teams during the international workshop. The adult leaders of the case study group expressed
support for this policy as it appeared to promote independence:
The way we set it up is we don’t put parents in the same group, that’s a [program provider]
request and that’s one of the best things to do because then she really doesn’t have to go is
it ok to do that Dad? You know that kind of a thing, and that’s really important for them to
really stretch out and kind of experience it for themselves.
113
Even with the intentional separation of parents from their children, some youth expressed a perceived
lack of independence associated with having a parent travel with the group. One male youth
expressed his frustration at having to watch out for his mom and stated that he would have preferred
to have come on his own. While this sentiment highlights a potentially negative aspect of parental
involvement, it was one of the only negative parental involvement comments from youth.
Interestingly enough, a few days after expressing dissatisfaction with the presence of his mom on the
trip, the same youth had an experience that may have modified his view about the value of parental
involvement. While hiking on the Inca Trail in one of the steeper portions of the trail, this youth found
his mother needed his support to successfully complete the hike. He had the following to say about
the experience:
I feel like the biggest, most important thing I learned today was that helping somebody
else’s experience could end up helping yours in the end. Because I stayed back with my
mom today, and I know that she appreciated it a lot because me and [two other youth] all
kept supporting her and tell[ing] her to keep going, and I know that it meant a lot to her,
and in the end it made me feel like I had really changed her experience.
This quote also indicates that, at least for this mother/son pair, parental involvement in the program
impacted the parent/child relationship in a variety of ways, which is the topic of the study’s next
research question.
How Did Parental Involvement in the Program Influence the Parent/Child Relationship?
Parent and youth comments suggested that having a parent involved in the program enriched the
parent/child relationship. While this statement appears to apply more strongly to parents who
participated in the international workshop, relationships were also impacted during the program’s
preparatory phase. For example, a number of students reported that the involvement of their parents
in the preparatory program fostered increased positive family interactions. One male participant
explained that in order to prepare for the Inca Trail he had begun exercising (“We are getting out and
riding bikes together to prep me for the trail”) and that this activity had a variety of spillover effects
as the following conversation illustrates:
PI: Ok. So you are exercising as a family?
YOUTH: Yeah . . . We like to ride down to the gas station, we like to hang out and talk as
we go. We are starting to eat dinner on the table more than [in front of] the TV. We talk
about like how each day went, we play more games together.
PI: So how is that related to [the program]?
YOUTH: I don’t know, there are just some connections I have made since we started
exercising as a family; more things have started to connect together, playing games.
Even parents reported that preparing for the program provided extra opportunities to interact with
their children. One father noted:
The nice thing is, you know, we study this together, and we do our homework and stuff—
Or, you know, and so we’ll be driving along and we’ll just be talking about something in the
car rain forest related, and I think if I weren’t experiencing this [program], this conversation
wouldn’t be taking place.
Involvement in the program seems to have provided some youth and their parents a variety of
experiences that impacted their relationships. Three categories of impacts were identified: (a)
114
communication between parent and child, (b) parent/child bonding, and (c) parent’s and child’s
perceptions of one another.
Parent/child communication. Both, parents and youth expressed the perception that participation
in the program provided them a common topic of conversation. At an age when common ground may
be hard to find between early adolescents and their parents, this program helped youth and parents
to experience positive changes in their ability to communicate with each other. One male participant
expressed this sentiment as follows: “I really think that me and my dad have gotten, like, a lot closer
just like because we have this common experience that we can talk about, and just, like, it gives us
more of an excuse, I guess, to talk to each other.” A father made a similar comment: “I gained a
common topic to talk about when we go back [home]—for many months we will be able to recall our
travels. It opens communication channels.”
Parent/child bonding. These shared experiences and open communication channels appeared to
lead, in part, to some youth and parents experiencing the development of stronger relational bonds.
One mother stated, “I actually gained a closeness/bond to [my son] that we did not have before and
that was enhanced by this journey.” As evidenced by this youth’s statement, youth/traveling parent
bonds appeared to strengthen even with the separate parent/child rule:
We probably would not have bonded that much, like, we are really close now; like, we
probably would not have been that close if we would not have gone on that trip and shared
those experiences, even though we were not in the same group.
The influence these bonds had on trip dynamics was observed by the PI as the group prepared for its
first night on the Inca Trail. When tents were handed out at the trailhead camp and the group was
instructed to select tent partners, the youth with traveling parents uniformly made the choice to share
tents with their parents. The willingness with which this happened impressed the teachers: “We [the
teachers] thought it was really interesting that last time when we did the tents all the kids wanted to
tent with their parents. . . . I think that speaks [to] the parents’ and the kids’ relationships.”
Parent/child perceptions. Additionally, the experience placed parents and youth into a new
context that fostered, for some participants, the development of new perspectives and
understandings of each other. One male youth made the following comment related to this idea of
new perspectives about his father:
I have learned a lot more about him just like as a person, I guess because I saw him, like, in
a different light; like where he is not the authority, I guess. So he was learning just like I
was, and we were on the same kind of a level for a little bit, and I guess that opened him a
little more. We are a lot closer than we used to be, I really think we are.
Through their joint participation in novel contexts provided by the program, this youth began to view
his father as more than just an authority figure. A new level of equality appeared to enter their
relationship. Similar perspective shifts were also noted by some of the traveling parents. For example,
one adult commented that over the course of the trip, “you can see [the youth participants] starting
to grow up.”
What Role Did Parental Involvement Play in Terms of the Program’s Long-Term Impact
on Youth Participants?
During the follow-up visit, many of the youth voiced frustrations that they could not fully explain the
magnitude and importance of what they had experienced. One youth said, “There is so much you
115
want to tell them [peers], and they don’t understand.” Although some youth noted that having lots
of pictures helped them tell people about their experience, it was still hard to get across what the
experience meant to them:
When people ask you, like, “How was your trip?” it’s hard to say, “Oh, this day we went
fishing, and this day we did that.” It’s hard to tell them, to make them understand what it
really was. Because it was so much greater than just a trip we went on.
Adults also mentioned inherent shortcomings associated with telling people who were not there about
the experience: “We can show them the pictures and give a brief explanation, but they don’t know
the depths of how we have changed by explaining to them what we saw. They only see only visual,
they don’t know the internal.” There was also mention of disconnect within families between travelers
and non-travelers. For example, one father who traveled noted, “I think for us the toughest part was
my son that did not go. So for a little while [my son who traveled] and I would just be going on and
on about this trip, and [the son who did not attend] would be mad, sitting there and be like ‘You guys
about done?’” In response to this comment another father stated, “My wife has made comments like
that. She wishes she had gone on the trip just to feel part of those conversations . . . but clearly . . .
you are left out when you have not experienced [the program].”
These difficulties communicating the experience to others were alleviated, in part, for those students
who had parents travel with the group. Some students noted that they appreciated having someone
right in their family who they had shared the experience with and with whom they could reminisce. In
talking about his father, a youth commented:
I really talked to him [his father] more than like a lot of other people like about my trip . . .
because, like, he gets it, I guess. It’s really hard to explain like the actual feelings and stuff
and actual experience that you have to people who just don’t have a clue really.
Thus it appears that having a parent who traveled with the group allowed these youth easy access to
someone who could validate and understand experiences associated with the program in ways nontravelers could not.
Discussion
The findings suggest that parental involvement is associated with a number of outcomes and
processes. Although some negative experiences occurred between youth and parents involved in the
program, the majority of interactions appeared to be either neutral or positive. This may be partly
attributed to the fact that parents were not placed in positions of authority over their own children.
Although the youth often commented on their frustrations with the teachers and other adults in the
program, they rarely if ever directed these feelings towards their own parents. While some youth at
times felt having a parent travel with the group constrained their independence, the intentional
separation of parents and youth during portions of the program allowed both groups to have
autonomous experiences.
Many of the parents and youth reported that their experiences in the program improved parent/child
communication, parent/child bonding, and parents’ and children’s perceptions of one another. It
appears the program provided traveling parents and youth a shared experience that allowed them
common ground to build their relationships. This finding aligns with previous research related to
shared experiences between youth and parents that suggests these experiences increased parents’
empathy for and understanding of their children’s experiences (Green, & Chalip, 1997; Holt,
116
Tamminen, Black, Sehn, & Wall, 2008). This possibility presents an interesting avenue for future
research about the potential benefits of parent/adolescent shared experiences. At a time in life when
many parents may struggle to find common ground with their adolescent children, structured
recreation experiences may provide them the opportunity to find common ground. Future research
should investigate what programs can do to most effectively facilitate positive shared experiences
between youth and parents.
As previously noted, follow-up interviews indicated that having a parent travel with the group
provided some youth with an individual who they could talk to after returning home. One frequent
critique of short-term programs for youth is that their impact quickly dissipates after participation
ends. This may be due, in part, to difficulties participants face when attempting to convey their
program experience to non-participating peers and family members. As was noted, a number of youth
expressed frustrations about difficulties conveying their experiences to friends and family members
who did not travel with them.
The possible post-participation impact of parental involvement during the program may be partially
explained with insights from Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1979; 1998).
Bronfenbrenner suggests that each individual inhabits a series of nested contexts starting at the
intrapersonal level and proceeding towards larger community and social levels. He also suggests that
learning transfers more successfully between contexts when individuals have connections with others
who inhabit both contexts. Accordingly, it may be that the impact of a program has a better chance
of transferring to a participant’s home context if someone from that context also participates in the
program. This individual can then serve as a transition agent who helps facilitate the transfer of the
experience outcomes back to the home context. This assumption appears to be partially born out in
this study’s findings and deserves additional attention in future research.
Limitations
This study represents an exploratory effort to understand the processes and impact associated with
parental involvement in a structured youth program. While the program provided a unique
opportunity to observe processes associated with parental involvement in a youth program setting,
the data were drawn from a self-selected sample of youth and parents. The youth in the study had
chosen to take part in the program, and the parents had chosen to engage in various forms of
involvement from participating in the preparatory program to actually traveling with the group. The
nature of the sample makes it unwise to generalize these findings beyond the scope of this program.
While the study attempts to identify processes and impacts of parental involvement, the findings may
be quite different with a more diverse and random sample. Additional qualitative and quantitative
research is needed to further address the impact of parental involvement in structured programs with
a potentially less biased sample.
It can also be argued that sample members may have felt pressure to provide desirable responses in
order to protect the program. To address this potential concern, the role of the PI and the evaluation
as a whole was openly explained to all participants, and the importance of providing truthful and open
feedback was highlighted on multiple occasions. Additionally, since data collection occurred for almost
a year, the PI had the opportunity to develop relationships with the sample members, which hopefully
encouraged sincere responses during interviews and focus groups.
Implications for Practice
Although from a practitioner’s perspective not including parents in youth programs and just focusing
on the youth participants may seem easier or preferable, findings from this study suggest programs
that engage in such an approach may miss out on potential benefits associated with parental
117
involvement. It may be that parents can play the role of transition agent and help their child more
effectively transfer positive outcomes from a program back into the home environment. That being
said, the involvement of parents needs to be intentional. For example, in the observed program the
decision was made to put traveling parents in separate teams from their own children in order to
allow the youth to still experience a degree of independence while traveling. This decision appears to
have addressed practitioners’ concerns about over-involved parents while still allowing parents to
share in the same experiences as their children. Additional research looking at the ability of structured
recreation programs to provide positive shared experiences between youth and adults suggests it is
important for practitioners to provide adults involved in the program (in this case parents) with clear
roles and expectations in order to best facilitate their involvement and avoid having parents simply
fall into the role of extra adult disciplinarians (Duerden, & Witt, 2010).
Given the suggested potential benefits associated with youth and parents conversing about the
experience after their participation in the program ends, programs should also consider ways to
facilitate these interactions. This could be accomplished by providing participants with postparticipation debriefing sheets that provide parents and youth with talking points to help them discuss
the experience with each other. Participants could also be contacted through mail or e-mail after the
program ends with similar reflection prompts designed to stimulate discussion between youth and
their parents.
Conclusion
While parental involvement has been promoted as a youth program best practice (Eccles, & Harold,
1993; Trotman, 2001), details regarding its effective implementation and potential impacts have not
been as well explored. The findings from this study provide insights into the processes and outcomes
that may occur when parents become involved in a youth leisure enrichment program context. In the
observed program, leaders noted the primarily beneficial involvement of parents as evidenced by
extra support leaders received from parents who actively participating in the program. Parental
involvement also seems to have provided parents and children a common ground experience that
promoted increased parent/child communication and bonding, and altered parents’ and children’s
perceptions of one another. Most interesting is the finding that parental involvement may actually
increase the post-participation impact of a program. Future research should consider employing an
ecological systems theory approach to further investigate the relationship between parental
involvement and the long-term impacts of a program.
It is well established that parents can have both negative and positive impacts their children’s
development. Structured leisure enrichment youth programs may be a prime context for parents and
children to build positive and supportive relationships. The findings from this study suggest that
parental involvement can provide a number of benefits to program participants. The enhancement of
program impacts post-participation but future research is needed to more fully understand how best
to involve parents in program settings.
Acknowledgements: This study was supported in part from funding through the Elda K. Bradberry Recreation
and Youth Development Chair at Texas A&M University.
118
References
Auerbach, C.F., & Silverstein, L.B. (2003). Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis.
New York: New York University Press.
Baumrind, D. (1991). Effective parenting during the early adolescent transition. In P.A. Cowan & M.
Hetherington (Eds.). Family transitions (pp. 111-163). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Benard, B. (1991). Fostering resiliency in kids: Protective factors in the family, school, and
community. Portland, OR: Western Regional Center for Drug-Free Schools and Communities.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon
(Ed.). Handbook of child psychology (pp. 993-1028). New York, NY: Wiley.
Brown, B.B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S.D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group
affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64(2), 467-482. doi: 10.1111/j.14678624.1993.tb02922.x
Caldwell, L.L., & Darling, N. (1999). Leisure context, parental control, and resistance to peer pressure
as predictors of adolescent partying and substance use: An ecological perspective. Journal of Leisure
Research, 31(1), 57-77.
Catalano, R.F., Berglund, M.L., Ryan, J.A.M., Lonczak, H.S., & Hawkins, J.D. (2004). Positive youth
development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development
programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98-124. doi:
10.1177/0002716203260102
Coie, J.D., Watt, N.F., West, S.G., Hawkins, J.D., Asarnow, J.R., Markman, H.J., Long, B. (1993). The
science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program.
American Psychologist, 48(10), 1013-1022. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.48.10.1013
Cotton, K., & Wikelund, K.R. (2001). Parental involvement in education. Retrieved from Northwest
Regional Educational Laboratory website: http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/3/cu6.html
Coulton, C., & Irwin, M. (2009). Parental and community level correlates of participation in out-ofschool activities among children living in low income neighborhoods. Children and Youth Services
Review, 31(3), 300-308. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.08.003
Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
DuBois, D.L., Holloway, B.E., Valentine, J.C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring
programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(2), 157197. doi: 10.1023/A:1014628810714
Duerden, M.D., & Witt, P.A. (2010). The impact of socialization on youth program outcomes: A social
development model perspective. Leisure Sciences, 32(4), 299-317.
119
Eccles, J.S., & Harold, R.D. (1993). Parent-school involvement during the early adolescent years.
Teachers College Record, 94(3), 568-587.
Fletcher, A.C., Elder, J.G.H., & Mekos, D. (2000). Parental influences on adolescent involvement in
community activities. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10(1), 29-48. doi: 10.1207/SJRA1001_2
Green, B.C., & Chalip, L. (1997). Enduring involvement in youth soccer: The socialization of parent
and child. Journal of Leisure Research, 29(1).
Green, B.C., & Chalip, L. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of parental purchase decision
involvement in youth sport. Leisure Sciences, 20(2), 95-110.
Grossman, J.B., & Johnson, A. (1999). Assessing the effectiveness of mentoring programs.
Philadelphia, PA: Public/Private Ventures.
Hill, N.E., Castellino, D.R., Lansford, J.E., Nowlin, P., Dodge, K.A., Bates, J.E., & Pettit, G.S. (2004).
Parent academic involvement as related to school behavior, achievement, and aspirations:
Demographic variations across adolescence. Child Development, 75(5), 1491-1509. doi:
10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00753.x
Holt, N.L., Tamminen, K.A., Black, D.E., Sehn, Z.L., & Wall, M.P. (2008). Parental involvement in
competitive youth sport settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 663-685. doi:
10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.08.001
Hoyle, R.H., & Leff, S.S. (1997). The role of parental involvement in youth sport participation and
performance. Adolescence, 32(125).
Huff, C., Widmer, M.A., McCoy, J.K., & Hill, B. (2003). The Influence of challenging outdoor recreation
on parent-adolescent communication. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 37(1), 18-37.
Hughes, J.N., & Kwok, O.M. (2007). Influence of student-teacher and parent-teacher relationships on
lower achieving readers' engagement and achievement in the primary grades. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 99(1), 39-51. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.39
Hunter, J.P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2003). The positive psychology of interested adolescents.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(1), 27-35. doi: 10.1023/A:1021028306392
Jeynes, W.H. (2007). The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school
student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban Education, 42(1), 82-110. doi:
10.1177/0042085906293818
Ladd, G.W., & Le Sieur, K.D. (1995). Parent's and children's peer relationships. In M.H. Bornstein
(Ed.). Handbook of Parenting (Vol. 4, pp. 377-409). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Larson, R.W. (2000). Toward a psychology of positive youth development. American Psychologist,
55(1), 170. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X,55.1.170
Mahoney, J.L., & Stattin, H. (2000). Leisure activities and adolescent antisocial behavior: The role of
structure and social context. Journal of Adolescence, 23(2), 113-127. doi: 10.1006/jado.2000.0302
120
Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology
(pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
McCurdy, K., & Daro, D. (2001). Parent involvement in family support programs: An integrated
theory. Family Relations, 50(2), 113-121. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00113.x
Outley, C.W., & Floyd, M.F. (2002). The home they live in: Inner city children's views on the influence
of parenting strategies on their leisure behavior. Leisure Sciences, 24(2), 161-179.
Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., & Briere, N.M. (2001). Associations among perceived
autonomy support, forms of self-regulation, and persistence: A prospective study. Motivation &
Emotion, 25(4), 279-306. doi: 10.1023/A:1014805132406
Rogers, M., Wiener, J., Marton, I., & Tannock, R. (2009). Supportive and controlling parental
involvement as predictors of children’s academic achievement: Relations to children’s ADHD
symptoms and parenting stress. School Mental Health, 1(2), 89-102. doi: 10.1007/s12310-009-9010-0
Roth, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1998). Promoting healthy adolescents: Synthesis of youth development
program evaluations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 8(4), 423-459.
Scales, P.C., Benson, P.L., Leffert, N., & Blyth, D.A. (2000). Contribution of developmental assets to
the prediction of thriving among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 4(1), 27-46. doi:
10.1207/S1532480XADS0401_3
Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Vondracek, F.W. (1999). Breadth of interests, exploration, and identity
development in adolescence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55(3), 298-317. doi:
10.1006/jvbe.1999.1683
Shaw, S.M., & Dawson, D. (2001). Purposive leisure: Examining parental discourses on family
activities. Leisure Sciences, 23, 217-231. doi: 10.1080/01490400152809098
Smoll, F.L., Smith, R.E., Barnett, N.P., & Everett, J.J. (1993). Enhancement of children's self-esteem
through social support training for youth sport coaches. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 602610. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.602
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998a). Basics of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998b). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S.
Lincoln (Eds.). Strategies of qualitative inquiry (Vol. II, pp. 158-183). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Trotman, M.F. (2001). Involving the African American parent: Recommendations to increase the level
of parent involvement within African American families. Journal of Negro Education, 70(4), 275-285.
U.S. Department of Education. (1994). Strong families, strong schools: Building community
partnerships for learning. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
121
Wells, S.M., Widmer, M.A., & McCoy, J.K. (2004). Grubs and grasshoppers: Challenge-based
recreation and the collective efficacy of families with at-risk youth. Family Relations, 53(3), 326-333.
doi: 10.1111/j.0197-6664.2003.0009.x
Witt, P.A., & Caldwell, L.L. (2005). 10 principles of youth development. In P.A. Witt & L.L. Caldwell
(Eds.). Recreation and Youth Development (pp. 3-23). State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
Woolley, M.E., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2006). Protective family factors in the context of neighborhood:
Promoting positive school outcomes. Family Relations, 55(1), 93-104. doi: doi:10.1111/j.17413729.2006.00359.x
Wylleman, P., DeKnop, P., Ewing, M.E., & Cummings, S.P. (2000). Transitions in youth sport: A
developmental perspective on parental involvement. In D. Lavallee & P. Wylleman (Eds.), Career
transitions in sport: International perspectives (pp. 143-160). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information
Technology, Inc.
Zabriskie, R.B., & McCormick, B.P. (2001). The Influences of Family Leisure Patterns on Perceptions
of Family Functioning. Family Relations, 50(3), 281-289. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00281.x
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
122
Lack of Parental Rules for Cell Phone Use among
Low Income Mexican Descendent Adolescents
Christine Bracamonte Wiggs
College of Agriculture & Life Sciences
The University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
cbmonte@email.arizona.edu
Andrea J. Romero
College of Agriculture & Life Sciences
The University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ
Michele Orduña
Family Studies & Human Development
University of Arizona
123
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803RS002
Lack of Parental Rules for Cell Phone Use among
Low Income Mexican Descendent Adolescents
Christine Bracamonte Wiggs and Andrea J. Romero
The University of Arizona
Michele Orduña
University of Arizona
Abstract: Youth have access to and utilize various types of
technology at a growing rate. Cell phones are a portable way for
adolescents to remain in constant contact with friends, parents, and
others. While White youth are more likely to have a cell phone
compared to Latino youth, the trends for cell phone use are similar
among all teens with text messaging serving as the most popular
means of communication. Despite their high volume of
communication with others via cell phones, adolescents are likely to
have little or no adult supervision while using technology. With a
lack of parental supervision or awareness regarding youth
technology use, adolescents may be especially vulnerable to
cyberbullying and other negative health impacts. The current study
investigates cell phone and texting use among a community sample
of Latino adolescents and examines how parental rules regarding
cell phone use influences adolescents’ cell phone and texting
behaviors.
Introduction
Youth have access to and utilize various types of technology including computers, the internet, and
cell phones at a growing rate. According to the Pew Research Center (2011), cell phone ownership
among adolescents rose from 45% in 2004 to 77% in 2011 (Lenhart, 2012). While White youth are
more likely to have a cell phone compared to Latino youth (81% versus 63%), the trends for cell
phone use are similar among all teens with text messaging serving as the most popular means of
communication followed by cell calling (Lenhart, Ling, Campbell, & Purcell, 2010). Cell phones are a
portable way for adolescents to remain in constant contact with friends, parents, and others. Recent
research conducted by the Pew Research Center (2011), found a majority of adolescents (63%)
reported exchanging daily text messages with people in their lives. Moreover, some youth proved to
124
be prolific communicators, with 44% reporting sending 50 or more text messages a day (Lenhart, et
al., 2010). Despite their high volume of communication with others via cell phone and text messages,
adolescents are likely to have little or no adult supervision while using technology (Donahue, Haskins,
& Nightingale, 2008; Weisskirch, 2011; Weisskirch, 2009). With a lack of parental supervision or
awareness regarding youth technology use, adolescents may be especially vulnerable to cyberbullying
and other technology-related negative health impacts. In the current study we investigate cell phone
and texting use among a community sample of Latino adolescents. Specifically, we investigate
parental rules regarding cell phone use and how these rules relate to adolescents’ cell phone and
texting behaviors.
Parental Monitoring and Cell Phones
Parental monitoring has been defined as parent’s monitoring of teen behavior, knowledge of their
whereabouts, and knowledge of their friends (Patterson, Dearyshe, & Ramsey, 1989). Parental
monitoring specifically includes the setting of boundaries and enforcing of disciplinary consequences
when necessary based on guidelines for acceptable behavior (Dishion, & McMahon, 1998). However,
recent work has also included aspects of parental-child positive communication as a source of
knowledge and monitoring in a manner that is less “policing” and more rooted in positive familial
relationships and trust (LeDoux, Miller, Choquet, & Plant, 2002; Romero, & Ruiz, 2007; Stattin, &
Kerr, 2000; Van Campen, & Romero, 2012). In general, higher levels of parental monitoring are
associated with increased self-esteem among youth as well as decreased levels of teen sexual
activity, drug and alcohol use, rates of depression, and school dropout (Dishion, & McMahon, 1998;
Jacobson, & Crockett, 2000; Pettit, & Laird, 2002). Specifically, it is the parental involvement,
communication and attachment that is associated with less risky behavior, particularly among ethnic
minority adolescents (Bird, Canino, Davies, Zhang, Ramirez, & Lahey, 2001; Dinh, Roosa, Tein, &
Lopez, 2002; Romero, & Ruiz, 2007; Van Campen, & Romero, 2012). Parental monitoring of cell
phone use and texting behavior may help limit risky behaviors, such as inappropriate sexting, or
texting while driving. It may also help create positive communication between parents and teens
when parents use cell phones and texting as a means to communicate with children.
Communication with Parents via Cell Phone
There is evidence that parental use of texting can serve as an effective method to communicate with
youth and maintain parental monitoring practices. For instance, in a study of immigrant Filipino
mothers working abroad, the women relied on text messaging to interact with their children in real
time and to maintain parenting practices (Uy-Tioco, 2007). Research with ethnic minority adolescents
finds that the proximity of the value of familism (close family unity) can help protect adolescents from
risky behaviors; it is unclear whether regular media communication can serve this function as well
(Romero, & Ruiz 2007). Adolescents with supportive communication from their family members are
typically better able to refuse or avoid risky situations that may lead to substance use, risky sexual
behavior, or violence (Capara, et al., 1998). However, there may be limitations on how effective cell
phones can be for supporting parental monitoring. Weisskirch (2009) found that among White middle
class youth, a high rate of parental monitoring via cell phone was associated with less truthfulness
among adolescents. Thus, it is clear that research is needed to understand how parents and children
are using media to stay in communication, particularly within the context of parental monitoring,
which may serve to enforce rules, but also to help nurture positive communication in a means that is
teenager-centric.
There is limited evidence related to cell phone and texting use among low income and immigrant
communities, especially with regard to parental monitoring practices about adolescent cell phone use.
125
In the current study, we investigate the cell phone and texting practices of Mexican and American
Indian adolescents from a low income community and examine their perceptions of parental
monitoring of their cell phone use behaviors.
Methods
Sample
Seventy four (N=74) adolescents were recruited from afterschool programs run by local non-profit
organizations and charter schools. Of the initial 74 youth, five were older than 18 years and were
therefore dropped from the current analyses, resulting in a total sample size of 69 youth for the
current study. The youth ranged in age from 13-18 years with a mean age of 16.04 (SD=1.50). The
majority of participants were female (54%) and self-identified as being of Mexican descent (74%). In
addition, 12% of participants self-identified as American Indian, reporting tribal affiliations including
Yaqui, Tohono Oodham, Atalling, and Pima, and 12% self-identified as being of mixed ethnic
heritage.
Procedure
As part of the University of Arizona Institutional Review Board approved informed consent procedure,
youth read and signed a consent form before completing the study survey. Bilingual and bicultural
survey administrators administered a 23-item survey, in English, to youth participants during
afterschool program time. The survey asked youth to self-report their texting and internet use
behaviors. Completion of the survey was completely voluntary and the identity of youth respondents
was kept anonymous. Youth who chose not to participate in the study were given other activities to
engage in while youth respondents completed the survey.
Measures
Demographics. Youth were asked to provide their age, gender, and ethnicity. Youth were able to
choose from more than one ethnic category based on the following list of options: Mexican American,
Mexican National, American Indian, Asian American, African American, White (Caucasian/nonHispanic), and Other. Youth were also asked to indicate whether they qualify for or receive a free or
reduced lunch at school, with response options including “yes,” “no,” “don’t know,” or “no longer in
school.”
Cell phone access. The survey contained two items (i.e., “Do you have your own cell phone?” and
“Do you ever borrow someone else’s cell phone?”) related to cell phone access. Response options for
both items were either “yes” or “no.” If youth indicated that they borrowed a cell phone, they were
asked an additional item about from whom they borrowed the cell phone. Responses for this item
included “family member,” “friend,” “boyfriend/girlfriend,” or “other – please specify.”
Cell phone use. Two items asked about participant cell phone use (“How many times have you
changed your cell phone number?”, “How often do you use your cell phone?”) and response options
ranged from “several times a day” to “emergencies only.”
Text messaging. There were a total of eight items related to text messaging. Two items asked
about the sending and receiving of text messages and response options included “yes”, “no” or “my
cell can’t send/receive text messages.” Two items asked about how often youth send and receive
text messages with responses ranging from “never” to “five or more times a day.” Two items asked
about from whom text messages were received and to whom text messages were sent. Response
options included (a) parents/guardians, (b) brother/sister, (c) other relatives, (d) friends, (e)
126
boyfriend/girlfriend, (f) advertisements, and (g) other. Two items asked about unlimited texting and
monthly limits on texting.
Parental rules about cell phone and texting. Two items inquired about parental rules related to
cell phone and texting use (e.g., “Do your parents have any rules about cell phone use/texting?”).
Response options included “yes” or “no” with a space provided for respondents to elaborate if they
answered affirmatively to the item.
Results
Cell Phone Access and Use
The majority of participants (71%; n=49) reported that they have their own cell phone. Of the 20
youth who reported not owning a cell phone, 55% (n=11) reported that they borrow others’ cell
phones. Based on t-test analyses, there were no significant age or gender differences among
participants who did or did not own their own cell phones. Of the youth who reported qualifying for
free lunch (n=47), 68% reported having their own cell phone. Among participants who had cell
phones, 46% had never changed their cell phone number, 13% had changed it once, and 41% had
changed it two or more times. Seventy six percent (n=47) of the entire sample reported that they use
their cell phone several times a day, while only 3% (n=7) reported that they use it only for
emergencies.
Texting Behaviors
The majority (80%) of respondents reported that they have unlimited text messaging plans. Eighty
eight percent (n=53) of participants receive text messages and 88% send text messages. Eighty two
percent (n=48) reported that they receive text messages four or more times a day, whereas only 9%
reported never receiving text messages. Of the youth who receive text messages, 75% reported
receiving texts from their friends, 47% from a boyfriend/ girlfriend, 28% from siblings, 24% from
parents, 20% from other relatives, and 2% from advertisers. Based on t-test analyses, no significant
gender differences were found for any of the texting variables.
What Predicts Receiving/Sending More Text Messages?
T-test analyses were conducted to assess differences in the amount of texts sent from and received
by participants based on the persons from whom they were receiving texts. Youth who received texts
from boyfriends/girlfriends (n=28) were significantly more likely to report receiving more texts (t=3.70, p<.001) and sending (t=-4.31, p<.001) than youth who did not receive texts from
boyfriends/girlfriends. Youth who received texts from boyfriends/girlfriends report receiving (M=6.89,
SD=.32) and sending (M=4.89, SD=.42) more texts compared to youth who did not receive texts
(M=4.97, SD=2.88) or send texts (M=3.26, SD=2.07) from boyfriends/girlfriends.
The majority of youth (65%; n=45) reported receiving texts from friends, and compared to youth
who did not receive texts from friends, there were significant differences in receiving (t=-3.06,
p<.01) and sending texts (t=-3.17, p<.01). Youth who received texts from friends were significantly
more likely to receive texts (M=6.53, SD=1.4) and send texts (M=4.51, SD=1.18) compared to youth
(n=14) who did not receive texts from their friends (M= 3.79, SD=3.26; M=2.50, SD=2.28,
respectively).
No significant differences were found regarding the amount of texts received and sent for youth who
received texts from family members (e.g., parents, siblings, and other relatives). Only 14 youth
reported receiving texts from their parents. There were no differences in the amount of texts received
or sent by adolescents who received texts from their parents compared to those who did not receive
127
texts from their parents (frequency of cell use: t (60) = -.99, p= .32; texts received t (60) = -1.24, p
= .22; texts sent t (60) = -1.10, p=.28).
Parental Rules for Cell Phone or Texting Use
Seventeen percent of respondents reported that their parents had rules regarding their cell phone
use. Even fewer respondents (12%; n=7,) reported having any parental rules about texting. Among
youth who reported that their parents had rules regarding their cell phone use, the majority (70%)
were female and ranged in age from 13-18 years.
Results from an open-ended survey item allowed youth to describe their parents’ rules about cell
phone use. Youth reported that these rules included “nothing bad,” and typically included issues of
time limitations (e.g., “off by nine”, “not to stay on my phone too late at night”, “not after 11”, “not
after 9 p.m. on weekdays”), etiquette (“no cuss words”), and cell phone usage and expenses (“don’t
go over the minutes”). Among youth who reported having parental rules regarding texting, these
rules primarily related to etiquette (“no cuss words” and “no bad language”).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the existence of parental rules about cell phone and text
messaging among a low income sample of ethnic minority adolescents. Our results indicate that the
majority of youth owned cell phones (71%) or borrowed cell phones and used them multiple times a
day (76%) while only 3% use them only in the event of an emergency. Eighty two percent of
participants report receiving text messages more than four times a day; high rates of daily text
messaging was associated with texting friends or romantic others. Twenty four percent of texts
received were sent from parents. Only 17% of the sample reported having any parental rules related
to cell phone use and only 12% identified having parental rules related to texting. The majority of the
teens who did report parental rules were typically females. Of those who reported having parental
rules regarding cell phone use, the rules were primarily based on how late in the day teens could use
the phone and on using proper language in text messages.
National studies (D’Antona, Kevorkian, & Russom, 2010; Lenhart, 2012; Lenhart, 2010) have begun
to investigate cell phone and texting use among adolescents; however, very little is known about cell
phone use among ethnic minority adolescents and monitoring of adolescents’ cell phone use by
parents. Our study clearly indicates that cell phone and texting behaviors are common even among
low income Latino adolescents. The rates of use increase when adolescents have romantic partners.
However, the use of media by parents is relatively low and teens report little to no parental
monitoring of cell phone use. Even the monitoring that is reported is minimal and is related to how
late in the evening teens can use media. No participants mentioned that parents have rules for
internet use, sexting, or texting while driving.
It is critical to better understand cell phone and texting usage among low income ethnic minority
adolescent given the prevalence of use in the general population and potential vulnerabilities youth
face related to cyberbullying and sexting (D’Antona, et al., 2010; Rivers, & Noret, 2010). Recently
much attention has been paid to the negative influence that sexting and cyber bullying can have on
adolescent health (D’Antonia, Kevorkian, & Russom, 2010; Li, 2006), which may reflect a greater
need for parents to be more engaged and to monitor more closely adolescent cell phone use,
particularly given the higher rate of communication with romantic partners.
The measures in the current study are limited as there are very few standardized measures of media
use. The measures used in the current study offer a starting point to begin to quantify and identify
patterns of cell phone and texting use. Moreover, future studies should consider including
128
standardized measures of parental monitoring and risky behaviors. Furthermore, sampling both
adolescents and their parents will more clearly demonstrate parental monitoring and the impact on
teen media use and risky behaviors.
While generalizations based on the current study are limited given the sample size and the specificity
of the demographics, it does begin to shed light on the reality that low income ethnic minority
adolescents are highly engaged in cell phone use. Moreover, parents may be providing few, if any,
rules for use and may not be engaging in sufficient parental monitoring of their children’s cell phone
and texting use. Given the recent attention regarding the use of text messages for cyberbullying and
sexting (D’Antona, et al., 2010; Rivers, & Noret, 2010) the current study provides preliminary
evidence for the need to raise awareness among parents about potential risks regarding adolescent
cell phone use and to target parental monitoring practices.
References
Bird, H.R., Canino, G.J., Davies, M., Zhang, H., Ramirez, R. & Lahey, B. (2001). Prevalence and
correlates of antisocial behaviors among three ethnic groups. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
29, 465-478.
Caprara, G.V., Scabini, E., Barbaranelli, C. Pastorelli, C., Regalia, C., & Bandura, A. (1998). Impact of
adolescents’ perceived self-regulatory efficacy on familial communication and antisocial conduct.
European Psychologist, 3, 125-132.
Dinh K., Roosa M., Tein J., & Lopez V. (2002). “The Relationship Between Acculturation and Problem
Behavior Proneness in a Hispanic Youth Sample: A longitudinal mediation model,” Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 295-309.
Dishion, T.J., & McMahon, R.J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and
adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical and Family Psychology
Review, 1, 61–75.doi:10.1023/A:1021800432380.
Donahue, E.H., Haskins, R., & Nightingale, M. (2008). Using media to promote adolescent well-being.
The Future of Children, Spring, 1-7.
D’Antona, R., Kevorkian, M., & Russom, A. (2010). Sexting, texting, cyberbullying and keeping youth
safe online. Journal of Social Sciences, 6(4), 523-528.
Jacobson, K.C., & Crockett, L.J. (2000). Parental monitoring and adolescent adjustment: An ecological
perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 65–97. doi:10.1207/SJRA1001_4.
LeDoux, S., Miller, P., Choquet, M., & Plant, M. (2002). Family structure, parent-child relationships,
and alcohol and other drug use among teenagers in France and the United Kingdom. Alcohol &
Alcoholism, 37, 52-60.
Lenhart, A. (2012). Teens, Smartphones, and Texting. Pew Research Center: Pew Internet and
American Life Project. 1-34.
Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell, S., & Purcell, K. (2010). Teens and mobile phones. Pew Research
Center: Pew Internet and American Life Project. 1-20.
Li, Q. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: A research of gender differences. School Psychology
International, 27, 157-170.
129
Patterson, G.R., Dearyshe, B.D., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial
behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 329-335.
Pettit, G.S., & Laird, R.D. (2002). Psychological control and monitoring in early adolescence: The role
of parental involvement and earlier child adjustment. In B.K. Barber (Ed.), Intrusive parenting: How
psychological control affects children and adolescents (pp. 97–123). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Pew Research Center: Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2012). Teens, smartphones & texting.
Washington, DC: Lenhart, A.
Pew Research Center: Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2010). Teens and mobile phones.
Washington, DC: Lenhart, A., Ling, R., Campbell, S., & Purcell, K.
Romero, A.J., & Ruíz, M.G. (2007). Does familism lead to increased parental monitoring?: Protective
factors for coping with risky behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 143-154.
Rivers, I., & Noret, N. (2010). ‘I h8 u’: Findings from a five-year study of text and email bullying.
British Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 643-671.
Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental Monitoring: A Reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 10721085.
Uy-Tioco, C. (2007). Overseas Filipino workers and text messaging: Reinventing transnational
mothering. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 21, 253-265.
Van Campen, K.S., & Romero, A.J. (2012). How are self-efficacy and family involvement associated
with less sexual risk-taking among ethnic minority adolescents? Family Relation, 61(4), 548-558.
Weisskirch, R. (2011). No crossed wires: Cell phone communication in parent-adolescent
relationships. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 447-451.
Weisskirch, R. (2009). Parenting by cell phone: Parental monitoring of adolescents and family
relations. Youth Adolescence, 38, 1123-1139.
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
130
Appendix A:
Survey Items Regarding Cell Phone Use
Item
Do you have your own cell phone?
Response Options
Yes
No
Do you ever borrow someone else’s cell phone?
Yes
No
If you answered YES, that you do borrow a cell phone
from others, please check all those that you borrow
cell phones from:
I do not borrow other people’s cell phone
Family member (specify) __________
Friend
Boyfriend/Girlfriend
Other (specify) __________
How many times have you changed your cell phone
number?
Never
Once
Two times
Three times
Four times
Five or more times
How often do you use your cell phone?
Several times a day
Once a day
Once a week
On the weekends
Emergencies only
Other (specify) __________
Do you receive text messages?
Yes
No
My phone can’t receive text messages
Do you send text messages?
Yes
No
My phone can’t receive text messages
131
How often do you receive text messages in one day?
Never
Once a month
Once a week
Once a day
Two times a day
Three times a day
Four times a day
Five or more times a day
From whom do you usually receive text messages
(check all that apply)
Parents or Guardians
Brother/Sister
Other relatives (specify) __________
Friends
Boyfriend/Girlfriend
Advertisements
Other (specify) __________
How often do you send text messages?
Never
Once a day
Two times a day
Three times a day
Four times a day
Five or more times a day
Do you have unlimited texting per month?
Yes
No
If no, what is your monthly limit?
I don’t receive text messages
50
100-200
300-400
500-600
700-1000
Do your parents have any rules regarding your cell
phone usage?
No
Yes (specify) __________
Do your parents have any rules regarding texting?
No
Yes (specify) __________
132
The First Eight Years ~
Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success
Resource Review
Patricia Dawson
Oregon State University
133
Volume 8, Number 3, 2013
Article 130803RR001
The First Eight Years ~
Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success
Resource Review
Patricia Dawson
Oregon State University
Abstract: “The First Eight Years: Giving Kids a Foundation for a
Lifetime Success” is a recent KIDS COUNT policy report from the
Annie E. Casey Foundation. The report discusses how a child’s early
development from birth through age 8 is critical in one’s transition
into elementary school as well as long-term academic success. The
report also provides broad policy recommendations to help
America’s children succeed and data on early childhood development
for every state.
Review
The latest KIDS COUNT policy report from the Annie E. Casey Foundation “The First Eight Years ~
Giving Kids a Foundation for a Lifetime Success” focuses on the importance of investing in the early
years of a child’s life. The 20 page report details how a child’s early development in critical areas of
well-being leads to a successful transition into elementary school and ultimately long-term success in
the school system. The report addresses the importance of classroom learning integration with other
aspects of child development including social, emotional and physical development for youth to
develop the full cadre of competencies they will need to succeed in life.
The report highlights three broad policy recommendations to prepare America’s children for success:
•
•
•
Support parents so they can effectively care and provide for their children.
Increase access to high-quality birth-through 8 programs.
Develop comprehensive, integrated programs and data systems to address all aspects
of children’s development and support youth transition to elementary school as well as
related programs for school-aged youth.
134
Readers will find the data on early childhood development to be helpful in program development. This
policy report highlights indictors of child well-being on a state and national basis. The report also
includes numerous helpful pieces such as a trend analysis of third graders in the four categories of
Cognitive Knowledge Skills, Social and Emotional Development, Engagement in School and Physical
Well-Being with breakdowns by income, race and Hispanic origin. The report also has a state-by-state
breakdown of children birth to 8 living in low-income households. The figure illustrating the
educational attainment of head of household with children further emphasizes the struggles lowincome families have in supporting their child’s educational success.
Overall, this policy report is well structured with helpful data to emphasize key points. While only 20
pages in length, the document is filled with important considerations for all youth development
professionals to consider as we work to help establish a foundation for youth success. The report is
available at no charge on the Annie E. Casey Foundation website at www.aecf.org.
References
The Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2013). The First Eight Years~ Giving Kids a Foundation for Lifetime
Success. Policy Report-Kids Count. Baltimore, MD: Author. Retrieved from www.aeacf.org
© Copyright of Journal of Youth Development ~ Bridging Research and Practice. Content may not be copied or
emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without copyright holder’s express written permission. Contact
Editor at: patricia.dawson@oregonstate.edu for details. However, users may print, download or email articles
for individual use.
ISSN 2325-4009 (Print);
ISSN 2325-4017 (Online)
135