AN ALTERNATIVE HOUSING STANDARD FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
GHANA AS A CASE STUDY
by
Kwaku Addae Appau
B.Sc., M.Sc., University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Dipl. (Housing, Planning and Building), B.I.E., Holland
Specialist (Bricks and Brickworks), B.I.E., Holland
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF CITY PLANNING
at the
MASSASCHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
February 1984
)
Kwaku Addae Appau
The author hereby grants
to M.I.T.
permission
to
reproduce and to distribute copies of
this thesis
document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author
Certified by
P
f es
yd Rodwi
hesis Supervisor
77
Accepted by
Raj(h /rken
imer
an, Departmental Graduate Committee
MSAHRotch
MA SSACHUjSET-TS
iNSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
AUG1 0 1984
LIBRARES
An Alternative Housing Standard for Developing Countries:
Ghana As a Case Study
by
Kwaku Addae Appau
Submitted to
the Department of Urban Studies and Planning
in January,
1984,
in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master
of City Planning.
ABSTRACT
Ghana's housing problem reveals symptoms similar to those of other
developing
countries
experiencing rapid urbanization.
Ghana
is
experiencing
the same migration towards the cities;
rise of a renter
class;
growing disparity between the cost of urban shelter and what the
worker can afford; rising pressures of housing shortage and overcrowding;
diminishing
ability of the urbanizing population to build housing with
its own hands as in the old rural environment;
increase in squatting and
a newly emerging insecurity of urban tenure; conflicts over titles as new
forms of tenure replace the old.
Finally, there is the same increase in
the
role of government over land and housing operations which manifests
itself
in the imposition of housing codes and standards upon the people.
These
codes, mostly borrowed from the advanced countries have often
disregarded local climatic, cultural, technical and economic conditions.
The haphazard borrowing of other countries' codes and standards has
proven to be one of the most costly aspects of building code practices.
The codes and
the standards become too costly for the urban marginal
masses
to comply with or too impractical
to follow; violations are
inevitable
and the codes and the standards either become meaningless or
they limit housing progress.
Hence, many experts on housing for
developing countries call for No Housing Standards partly because of
the
above-mentioned dilemma.
Whilst the author is also skeptical of
the
wisdom of borrowed regulations, he however, disagrees with the experts,
and
rather calls for a Cultural Housing Standard based upon
the
traditional building practices of the people.
Thesis Advisor:
Title:
Lloyd Rodwin
Ford International Professor in
Studies and Planning
Department of Urban
CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements............................................
Introduction and Summary ...................................
5
..
0
..
Chapter One ................................................
..
0
..
Housing Problems and Relation to Standards ............
..
,
..
Dialogue ..........................................
..
0
..
Reflection ........................................
..
0
Urban and Rural ..................................
..
0
Chapter Two ................................................
..
..
6
.
.
10
.
10
.
16
.
20
26
........
Target Group Identification ...........................
26
..
0
..
.
28
Demographic Characteristics ......................
Occupations and Vocational Skills ................
29
..
0
..
.
31
Home Ownership and Access to Urban Infrastructure
Incomes and Expenditure...........................
..
& ..
-
Formal and Informal ..
Public Sector in Housing .........................
Changes in Building Costs ........................
Chapter Four .... ...........................................
The Present Building Codes and Their Faults ...........
.
38
........
..
36
36
........
Key Materials for Housing ........................
Private Sector in Housing
32
........
Chapter Three ...............................................
Housing Standards and the Building Industry...........
10
39
..
.
0
..
.
42
..
0
..
.
46
..
0
..
.
51
..
0
..
.
51
..
a
Building Materials and Style of Architecture .....
53
Research .........................................
55
Upgrading, Site-and-Services ....................
55
Architects
...............................................
56
Should There be Any At All? ................
58
Quality ..................................................
58
Housing Standards:
International Level ......................................... 58
The Ghanaian Situation
Chapter Five
................................... .62
..................................................-.---
Abolition of the Housing Standard
to a Cultural Housing Standard
Emphasizing Indigenous Materials
Recommendations
Implementation
66
.............................. 66
............................................... 73
................................................
79
Possible Problems with the Proposed
.................................... 83
Cultural Housing Standards
Conclusions
Bibliography ....
................................................... 85
................................................... 90
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I
extend my sincere thanks
to everyone who has had a part
in
this
work, directly or indirectly.
My
particular
thanks
are
Professor Lisa Redfield Peattie,
counsel
their
criticisms
and
in
preparing
and Dr.
the
J.
Lloyd
Professor
expressed to
Rodwin,
Mark Davidson Schuster for
materials
and
their
suggestions which helped to make this
topic
constructive
worth
its
present status.
I
am
also very grateful to all the teaching staff and
workers
of
M.I.T. (especially the School of Architecture and Planning, the Financial
Aid Office,
me
and the International Students' Office) who had to bear with
in a strange circumstance to finish up my studies.
say "Aseda"*
I would like
to
to them.
I am indebted to Carol,
Jackie and Mary for their prompt response to
type this thesis.
While
cooperation,
thanking
I
all
the
contributors for
their
most
acceptable
excuse them entirely for error of any kind which may
be
found in the text.
*
"Aseda" is an Akan word expressing a kind of profound gratitude which
no English word can express properly.
INTRODUCTION AND-SUMMARY
provision of housing and related facilities form
The
the
countries,
central and city governments have
and
that
standards,
were borrowed in
advanced
countries to regulate the cost of houses of good
suitable
environment.
the
quality
official general philosophy of
with
'good
by
increasingly
with suitable environment' is being challenged
quality
from
toto
codes
the
official
established
building
Yet,
developing
In most
any country's socio-economic development.
of
part
essential
an
the people whose interests the standards are supposed to serve.
housing
Many
experts
practices because of scarcity of resources.
too
costly
comply
to
with
or
too
The borrowed high
follow.
to
I also being
the wisdom of some of the official housing standards,
new
of
either
The codes
impractical
majority of the poor or limit housing progress.
the
No
are inevitable and the codes either become meaningless to the
Violations
of
for
call
and standards serve as one of the most costly aspects
codes
building
become
the developing countries
They have some arguments in mind.
Housing Standards.
western
for
school
of thought for No Housing Standard,
Cultural Housing Standard
skeptical
disagree
and I call
with
for
a
practices
based upon the traditional building
of the people as a more appropriate alternative solution.
Related
which,
closely
as I see it,
are
to the housing standards,
have dominated the thnkings,
some
propositions
writings and plans of
many experts and observers in Europe and the U.S.A.
One sole issue has overwhelmed research amongst the foreign
dealing with urban planning issues in the developing countries.
the
issue
of slums and squatter settlements.
Apparently,
a
experts
This is
dominant
has surface from such activities concerning research
picture
The
planning.
and
urban
the
general outline of this picture which can be termed
conventional belief, is summarised as follows:
The
poor.
shanty
towns support the welfare and well-being of
the
urban
These settlements are a form of pioneering and a triumph of self-
help and must be regarded with respect.
The above picture has also been
the basis for proposing that the phenomenon of shanty towns,
will be
to developed according to its own preconditions,
allowed
if and when
self-
resolving in the long run.
I
disagree
with some of the views.
The picture somehow does
not
conform with my own conceptualisation of the situation I have experienced
in practice and research.
I,
therefore,
give my own opinions on
some
aspects of the conventional picture as revealed by some detailed research
studies in some urban areas of West and North Africa.
Chapter
The
cost
One deals with housing problems and relation to
standards.
of the materials imposed by the official housing standards
dramatically
shown
in a dialogue between an urban builder
and
a
is
city
official.
It is then followed by an analysis of housing problems in the
rural
urban areas --
and
result
of
the
country's
materials for housing;
frequent shortages of building materials as
heavy reliance
thus,
on
importation
of
a
building
exerting a great pressure on the country's
already constrained foreign exchange position.
The effect on the rate of
urbanization on urban housing is also highlighted.
Chapter Two identifies the Target Group -and
their
housing
characteristics,
infrastructure,
needs
using
empirical
the marginal urban masses
data
on
demographic
income and expenditure, home ownership, access to urban
etc.
Three
Chapter
industry.
housing
The
is
deals
private
with
housing
and
standards
sector's (formal and informal)
the
performance
detail showing its contribution in
treated in
building
the
in
national
The public sector's performance in housing supply
housing stock supply.
is then discussed in terms of its responses to the ever-increasing demand
for affordable housing by the urban low-income groups.
The result of the
sector's inability to cope with the housing demand as a result of
public
sky-rocketing
and its impact on
in building costs is detailed,
housing
for the urban low-income group is synthesized.
Four
Chapter
documents
faults
the discrepancies and the
the
of
present building codes and standards showing the degree of injustice they
inflict on the urban poor in
research,
architecture,
relation to building materials and style
upgrading
and
of
architects'
site-and-services,
role.
Chapter Five compares abolishing the housing standards to a Cultural
Housing
of
Standard.
presence
resources to meet all the housing needs of the people in
impractical
benefits
increase
the other hand,
follow
main
with
a cultural housing standard would hinge on
practices.
Context
Implementation
formulation,
of
emphasis
of
the
on
research
Cultural Housing
the new regulation is
demonstration
into
houses
showing
work
of such traditional materials as mud being
besides affordability and availability.
identity
experts
illusory.
cultural
Recommendations
traditional
Standard
treated with
is
regard
of
the
borrowed codes and standards are discussed coupled with
of Witold Rybczynsk's views based on a U.N.
work
On
No Housing Standards with its main point of scarcity
then
building
discussed.
to
their
and advocating for retention of
present codes and standards as a national reconciliation for the sake
the
of
those who can afford high western standards.
Possible problems with the
Cultural Housing Stanoard are treated,
proposed
pointing out
instances
where it would not be practicable.
The Conclusion dwells on how building codes should not be fixed, but
must
be
subject
to
especially in the case
review,
of
decent
dwellings
in the developing countries plus the fact that given
resources,
governments can help the urban poor by reducing standards
realistic
level,
nature
plots
legalising
cheap
lack
"squatter settlements" depending upon
and making them more habitable,
providing
small
to a
the
ready-serviced
of land coupled with mobilisation of the people to participate
improving their own environment.
of
in
CHAPTER ONE
Housing Problems and Relation to Standards
There
what
is
often a serious mismatch of what people want or need
is available.
The policy of housing the most needy is not
compatible with that of replacing
of
the worst houses,
national minimum housing standards.
future users of housing who,
for
the
always
nor with the
policy
There are the presumed needs of
the assumption runs,
than current minimum standards.
and
would require
higher
The current planners who claim to speak
needs of future users are an important factor in worsening
the
housing problem in the Third World.
In
fact,
housing
ultimately is often thought of as a
people's financial capacity,
it
other developing countries,
the
transport network.
But in Ghana with
turns out that what is
cost of materials imposed by the official housing
conflict is
of
the location and type of employment open to
and the nature of available
them,
product
more important
standards.
is
This
dramatically revealed in the following dialogue:
Dialogue
I
jumped
next move.
doing
in
over a big open gutter.
I finally made for an alley in an old neighborhood.
research on traditional building practices
an old neighborhood in
alley
mud
down
newly
I looked left and right for
in
relation to
the city of Kumasi-Ghana.
my
I
was
housing
The 100-meter-long
led me to an open space surrounded on all sides by old houses of
1
construction.
The walls had become dark green from rains streaming
them
in
built,
the rainy
they
tropical weather although when
were whitewashed,
parts of the walls protected
the
walls
as I could see from the
were
top-most
from the rains by the eaves of the roofs.
The open space was about 60 x 70 meters square.
trees
which
had
horizontally.
been pruned occassionally for
three
trees
covering
the
forming an equilateral
triangle.
had interwoven into one another,
the greater part of the open space.
the green walls of the old building around.
a rocking chair, made of cane,
in
bald,
skull.
He
gleamed
any
grow
distances
forming a green
umbrella
The green canopy
matched
I saw an old man sitting in
the cool shade.
followed the same pattern of movement.
little
to
The branches of the
The chair was moving forward and backwards while
too
branches
trees were intentionally planted at equal
The
from one another,
It had three shady
the old man's
head
Although the old man was
a
he had intentionally razored off the rest of his hair to the
had
rubbed some ointment on the hairless
time it
caught sunshine rays penetrating
head.
The
the canopy of
head
the
trees.
He was dressed in kente, Ghanaian native clothes, wrapped loosely on
the
Sitting opposite him was a building inspector from the
body.
Council.
brown
He was well dressed in western clothes,
trousers.
coat.
There
He
were
City
a black suit coat and
had a nice brown tie and a white shirt
under
the
and
the
six young boys standing around the old man
building inspector.
The boys were listening attentively to the dialogue going on between
the old man and the building inspector.
looked at me.
I was smiling.
He nodded his head in response.
He had seen the game I was playing.
not to laugh at.
I
One of them raised his head and
The old man's head was too tempting
I took a few steps towards
them.
heard the old man telling the building inspector,
pointing to his own house,
Oh, Yes!
"Look
"This building was put up by my father.
here!",
It is
but well-maintained."
a mud house,
he
the words "well-maintained,"
heard
The
old man continued,
You
see,
these
all
looking at the dark green
buildings in
the neighborhood
not come here for the buildings in
were
"Well,
the neighborhood.
built
I am here for this
The one you are putting up."
old man quickly narrated
the recent
tragedy of his friend
was extorted $600 by a building inspector for overlooking
city
council
a
building specification during the construction of his
from
minor
new
He then fired back aggressively, "To do what?"
The building inspector replied,
is
was
old man, I have
whom
house.
as
Standards for what?"
The building inspector politely responded.
The
walls.
But it has performed very well since I
without what you now call 'Housing Standards.'
one under your nose.
when
"It was built with no written standards such
you have in your hands now.
born.
The building inspector laughed
"To see to it
that the construction
carried out according to the City Council's specifications!"
"Ha,
Ha, Ha, Ha!"
the old man burst out with laughter.
stopped laughing and put on a serious face.
inspector.
He questioned
He suddenly
the
building
"Have you bought any cement or iron bars for me to build this
house to please your City Council?"
The
building inspector could not contain himself.
burst out at the top of his voice,
"Look,
old man,
He
impatiently
you must build this
house according to the standards set by the City Council!
Understand?"
2
"Hey, Krakyi
Why
Bluffing and teasing,
are
the old man spoke softly,
3
you people nowadays too much booklong?
This house,
How can you tell whether
concreting the floor,
were you here?
reinforcement or not?
What about when you leave here?"
The building inspector admitted,
when they were
"I
don' t understand."
there was
The
man continued,
old
these materials.
are too expensive --
they
beyond our means.
with
When you do find them,
When the white man
Look!
he did not stop us from building with our local materials
was here,
and
Why are you people so troublesome?"
skills.
building inspector then patiently explained to the old man that
The
the
They are scarce in the market.
enough
houses
you tell us to build our
and steel in the country,
cement
have
"At this time when we do not
comfortable
to
standards set up by the City Council were
housing
a
guarantee
life for the future residents.
"Hmm!
Hmm!",
the
head,
old man murmured while nodding his
the
0
midday temperature was about 90
F.
looked intensely into the eyes of the building inspector.
then
fell for a minute.
"Comfortable life,
camel's back:
Do
yourself.
you
scorching sunshine?
at me,
in
Is
eh?",
COMFORTABLE in
feel
the old man asked.
"Look
a black coat with tie
in
that what you call environmental comfort?
The boys standing by could not control
You win!
into thunderous laughter.
mouth
themselves.
at
such
Look
They yelled,
They burst
out
"Old man, you win!
No challenger!"
His seat became too hot for him.
Yes,
He stood up.
to defend himself but no words came out.
he had been
He opened his
One of the boys pointed
at the half-opened mouth and the rest burst into laughter again.
not
the
How fine I feel!"
The building inspector's eyes suddenly shot red.
cornered.
broke
the straw that
a native dress to match the harsh weather.
triumphantly
Silence
Suddenly and aggressively he
He twisted his mouth.
question at the building inspector --
a
shot
He
He put on a smile and stopped.
restrain
myself.
inspector looked at me.
I
joined
I stopped
the
laughing
spree.
laughing immediately,
The
I could
building
fearing he might
pounce on me to settle his score,
he were not contented,
As if
building inspector.
a
mud house --
"Hey, Scholar!
I know where you live.
the walls well-rendered with
before and was therefore,
country
the old man piled more questions on the
indoor
N'est-ce
When you leave
that government
temperatures at midday are unbearable,
building
where
how do you feel?"
building inspector quickly answered,
The
plaster.
more knowledgeable).
cool mud house each day to work in
your
cement
You live in
old man wanted to prove that he had lived in a Fench-speaking
(The
pas?
since I was the only stranger around.
"We have air conditioners
and fans!"
more
The old man recoiled for a few minutes and then came back with
He addressed the building inspector,
questions.
Professor
Housing Standards,
of
conditioners?
By the way,
"Hey, my dear scholar,
air-
without
what about those places
how many houses and offices in the city have
such amenities?"
looked
I
mixed
Anger
at the building inspector.
with
humiliation.
He was boiling
The lips were
trembling.
with
anger.
The
hands
holding the file containing the city council's housing standards were wet
with sweat and not only that,
his whole body was drenched in
sweat.
Cold
sweat!
"Well,"
the building inspector answered the old man,
have had enough lessons on housing standards.
The
boys again roared into laughter and
"I
am going.
I
I beg to leave, Sir!"
shouted,
"You
lose,
you
lose, you lose!"
I
stared at the building inspector with sympathy as he walked away,
shrugging his shoulders.
I said to myself, "Oh, what a poor missionary.
Trying to spread and defend the gospel he doesnt understand!"
I
foreign,
knew that the City Council's official housing standards were
too
an
old
inappropriate
traditional neighborhood.
and
irrelevant to be enforced in
such
Reflection
Research
housing
Yet,
the author showed that the latest edition of
by
for the city of Kumasi-Ghana were
standards
these
standards,
to
supposed
which
are
irrelevant
and
be enforced by building inspectors.
official
written
in
1932.
inappropriate,
No wonder
are
that
some
building inspectors end up with their hands tainted wtih corruption while
others face unnecessary ridicule.
Official
allied
its
the building inspector
agencies to regulate the quality and
housing
development.
housing
standards
norms
standards
are written rules and material specifications
enforce
and
housing
standing
On
the
other hand,
for
government
quantity
building
to
trying
by the
the old man
to be unwritten traditional
is
sees
of
any
cultural
standards
the cumulative experience of the people
over
and
many
decades, and are preserved in the consciousness of the people.
Official Housing Standards have been developed in
all countries.
They have a long history behind them,
different ways
in
especially in the
western countries.
In the west,
the 19th century saw the birth of housing standards to
protect the weaker members of the community from naked exploitation.
weaker
members were basically the workers.
particularly
instituted
to
hold
landlords
The housing standards
and
responsible for minimum requirements for hygiene,
On
the other hand,
for instance,
to
suit
Ghana,
building
safety,
the
and privacy.
World,
were first hatched out by the colonial authorities
the tastes of the European officials and the settlers
colonial
were
speculators
official housing standards in the Third
native elites who worked for the colonial authorities.
that
The
authorities
left the natives
to
and
the
It must be noted
house
themselves
according to their traditional practices.
Surprisingly after independence,
native governments such as
Ghana,
adopted the former colonial standards in toto, which in most cases had no
to
relation
they
the needs of the greater part of the population or to
could afford,
housing
of
This shows
and material specifications were instituted to
rules
tastes
as the old man aptly pointed out.
the
rich,
what
the educated minority who had a
kind
that
meet
of
the
mental
paralysis about foreign environments.
The
old
man was particular about the imported
arbitrarily imposed on the community.
being
building
Maybe,
materials
the most
critical
area where the enforcement of official housing standards on the community
a devastating blow to the poor is
gives
permitted.
industry.
as
the
These
materials
are
building
the type of
alien
to
the
materials
traditional
building
The people do not have the accompanying skills to work on them
other traditional building materials.
attention to the fact that all the buildings in
built without any alien housing standards,
When the
old
man
drew
the neighborhood had been
he was definitely referring to
Cultural standards.
Cultural standards,
practices
people
well
that are an integral part of the society.
embrace
as
cultural
reasons
A large number
cultural standards because of their personal
the fact that they are cheaper to work with.
standards
to
be more realistic
being affordability),
while
imperfections
values
The old man
to their needs
than the official standards
(one
of
which
of
as
saw
many
often
Cultural standards lay emphasis on local resources and
smell of luxury.
skills,
as said earlier, have been born out of building
the
official standards unfairly expose
of the market mechanism.
the poor
to
the
The old man proved that cultural
offer the best environmental solutions to local constraints of
standards
The mud walls and the thatched roofs give perfect
resources.
temperatures
zone"
for indoor living throughout the day.
"comfort-
Even if
the
residents of the neighborhood were given free air conditioners to provide
comfort-zone
temperatures in
their rooms,
they would not be able to
pay
for the electricity bills.
The old man made the building inspector look stupid when talking
of
air-conditioners and fans since very few houses and offices in Ghana have
such
The
amenities.
between
focuses on the point
and that of the building inspector,
clothing
many
way the old man made the comparison
kinds of cultural standards are stored in
the consciousness of
his
that
the
people.
As
see from the old man/building inspector
we
dialogue,
housing standards in Ghana are hardly based on local
are
either
a
colonial
countries.
Little
Hence,
regulations
the
materials
roofs,
like cement,
or
no attention is
always
steel,
specifications
borrowed
paid to
encourage
experiences.
from
the
developed
traditional
imports of
They
materials.
foreign
building
corrugated metal or asbestos sheets
for
--
very
paving tiles for floors,
unrealistic
capacity
or
inheritance
official
which
of low-income classes.
aluminum window
are invariably
In fact,
frames,
etc.
beyond
the material
the
economic
specifications
disregard the limited capacity of the people to pay for housing.
The
the
specifications reinforce social stratification.
educated
official
The rich
and
within
the
minority can meet housing conditions provided
material specifications.
The rich and the educated
minority,
therefore, move from housing for shelter to housing of extravagance.
the
But
poor cannot meet the costs of the official housing standards because
they are too expensive for their incomes.
from
since
housing
for shelter to homelessness --
the plight of
they are no longer allowed to build their homes
Furthermore,
practices.
inclination
these
The urban poor therefore, move
gives
regulations
the
official
housing
them a strong urban bias -in
urban
with
traditional
standards'
officials try
the urban areas which have similar
poor,
foreign
to
impose
characteristics
from where they were borrowed.
to the imposition of borrowed regulations is
Related
demolition
standards.
investing
of
dwelling units not built in
This
partly
sufficiently in
immediate surroundings.
the threat
compliance with the
discourages the urban marginal
of
official
resident
the improvement of his dwelling unit with
from
its
Urban and Rural
The
problem may be broken into urban and
housing
urban
areas,
means
that
rural.
In
This
official planners often talk of a "housing deficit."
a
lot of people are homeless.
But this can
be
a
tricky
concept since even the poorest people find some kind of housing,
precarious the situation may be.
means a deficit in
the
some
arbitrary
A housing deficit,
technical
For example,
that houses built by the poor
codes.
a 1973
There
is
however
therefore,
the number of houses built to a middle-class
planners often feel
since
overcrowding.
the
also
the
really
standard,
are
below
problem
of
National Housing Survey indicates that
there were 3.0 persons per room in the city of Accra and 3.6 persons
in
room
the
city
of
Kumsasi --
generally,
all representing
overcrowding
since
the
authorities
overcrowding
when occupancy rates are greater
a
high
agree
than two
per
degree
of
there
is
that
related
persons
per room.
The
planners
is
there
deplorable
no
have almost totally neglected
overcrowding
condition.
but the existing housing
rural
housing.
are
stocks
So in
a
foreign
absence of these materials,
pitifully
watch their dwelling units dilapidating since partly
not
of
any
in
Unfortunately,
feature.
dwellers have also been exposed to the usage of only
materials to improve their home.
know
Here
Buildings with cracks and collapsing walls which
constitute danger to the dwellers are a common
the
rural
better traditional techniques
than
what
they
they
is
do
locally
available.
The basic factors contributing to the housing problem are the
growth
of
the population and the rates of migration
which have led to population congestion in
and
few urban towns.
rapid
urbanization,
The greatest
concentration
cities --
of
Accra
population
is in the triangle formed by
to the east and Sekondi-Takoradi
coast) and Kumasi in the hinterland.
of
over three million in 1977,
urbanization in Africa,
has
Ghana has one of the most rapid rates of
steadily increased (Table 1).
percent of the population is
Table
1,
the
the
With an estimated urban population
south of the Sahara.
population was urban.
Ghana's
largest
to the west (all on
Since 1921 when only
percent of Ghana's population lived in urban areas,
ratio
the
By 1970,
Ghana's urbanization
almost a
urban population is
third
of
more than 50
By the end of the century,
expected
7.5
to be in urban areas.
As shown in
increasing at a rate that
is
almost
double the national population increase.
Table I
Growth of Ghanaian Population,
1921-1970
1921
1931
1948
1960
1970
Total Population
(millions)
2.30
3.16
4.12
6.73
8.56
Rate of Increase
(percent)
----
3.20
1.60
4.20
2.40
Urban Population
(millions)
0.18
0.30
0.54
1.56
2.47
Annual Rate of Urban
Population Increase
----
5.20
3.50
9.30
4.80
Urbanization Ratio
7.50
9.50
13.00
23.10
28.90
Notes:
Urban
5,000.
SOURCE:
Ewusi,
Kodwo,
"Urbanization and Migration in
and Social Affairs, Vol. 1, No. 1.
areas
are defined as having
populations
greater
Ghana,"
than
Economic
On
cent
the population growth has
the national level,
per annum since 1921 (Table 1).
population
increase.
Between 1960 and 1970,
of Ghana increased from 6.73 million to 8.56
And
percentage
averaged 2.8
1980
population
was
estimated
at
the total
million
million
12
per
--
27%
--
a
increase of 28% since 1970.
An outstanding characteristic of the population as compared to those
of
the advanced countries is
country's
population
is
its youthfulness.
less
About 50 percent of the
than 16 years of
age
(Table
2).
The
Table 2
Age Structure, 1921-1968
(Percentage Distribution in Broad Age Gro ups)
implication
Age Group
1921
1948
1960
1968
Under 16
44.1
43.0
46.3
50.9
16-45
42.3
43.2
42.1
37.3
46 +
13.6
13.8
11.8
11.8
of this to the housing situaiton is
to house more people in
is
the
increase
that Ghana should expect
the future than at pre sent.
of households.
The total
percentage
containing two to four persons dropped from 42 .0
percent in 1970 (Table 3).
Even more important
percent in
of
households
1960 to
36.0
The change in urban households has been more
Table 3
Distribution of Households According to Size
Size of
Household
Total
1960
Urban
Rural
Total
4.3
20.4
42.0
38.0
3.6
28.5
43.2
28.3
4.6
17.1
41.0
41.9
4.7
21.2
36.0
51.9
Average
1
2-4
5 +
5.0
18.1
35.3
55.9
more
particular
households
3).
increased by 15.70 percentage points since 1960 (Table
has
interest
is
the increase
in
the
nuclear families in the urban areas since 1960.
accounted
size of 4.6 (Table 4).
41.6
4.1
27.7
37.7
44.0
The total number of urban households containing five or
dramatic.
Of
Rural
The Population of Ghana
Source:
persons
1970
Urban
percent
of
percentage
points
of
In 1968, nuclear family
for 44.4 percent of households and had an
This was an increase from the 1960
households were nuclear with an average
average
level,
size
when
4.3
of
persons.
Table 4
Household Composition and Household Size, 1960 and 1968
Family Household
Type
All households
One person only
Nuclear families
Husband-wife and
children
Husband-wives and
children
One-spouse families
Other families
Source:
Urban and Rural
Percentages
Average Number of
Persons per Household
1960
1968
1960
100.0%
17.9
41.6
32.6
100.0%
18.0
44.4
28.3
4.3
1.0
4.3
4.3
11.5
37.6
The Population of Ghana, p. 53.
4.9
1.1
4.6
4.6
8.1
4.6
9.0
40.5
1968
3.3
6.1
3.6
7.0
in
Increases
household
in
overcrowding
in
addition
to
the
the urban areas and that more houses are
ease the overcrowding.
western
sizes
average
rates of 3 related persons per room have led to a high
occupancy
of
the
standards,
Yet,
degree
needed
to
most governments build to excessively high
using expensive materials and construction
methods.
The high cost of this choice means that only limited amounts can be built
and
that
only the urban privileged,
government employees and
salaried
workers, can afford to buy or rent it.
But
unable
is
there
to
satisfy
distribution
policy.
of
this
demand arising
resources
and
from
the
the non-existence
country
imbalances
of
a
mobilisation
of
indigenous resources
have
in
is
the
well-outlined
factors including the rising cost of imported
Such
inadequate
now very high demand for housing and the
materials,
aggravated
the
housing problem.
One
of
the physical responses to the housing problem of
migrating into the cities is
the development of slums.
Closely
the
poor
related
to the slum problem is the number of people living in substandard housing
--
housing
codes.
common
In
which
does
addition,
not conform to the official
building
living in non-dwelling units such as garages is a
feature in the urban centres.
expected future demand is
the housing problem is
technical
If an account of these
taken into consideration,
readily appreciated.
with
the
then the magnitude of
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER ONE
1.
The walls of houses of mud construction here are made with simple
and the wall
lumps of ill-formed clay placed one on top of another,
is then plastered with a coat of mud mixed with cement or some
organic material such as cow dung.
2.
A Ghanaian word meaning scholar.
3.
A pidgin English word usually used in Ghana to mean theoretical.
CHAPTER TWO
Target Group Identification
The
target
However,
b)
group
is
broadly
the
urban
low-income
the group may be broken into two parts:
residents.
a) the self-builders;
those who desperately require subsidies.
self-builders
The
house
built
themselves
people
are those who do not earn enough to
pay
by the government or the private market but who
or
with the help of their friends.
can
a
build
This group consists
who cannot and will not employ professional builders,
know to build with their own hands,
for
those
those who rely on the help of
of
who
their
relatives and friends or who at most employ only occasionally a part-time
or
mason
carpenter
undertaking.
to
help
with
the
more
complex
parts
of
the
They generally need capital only or mainly for the purchase
of materials.
Those who require subsidies
enough
skill
to
or
pay
lack
are the urban workers who do
economic rentals for their homes and who have
the time to build with
their
includes many unskilled labourers employed in
own
hands.
docks,
their
earn
the
group
mines and factories
are without
leisure which their rural counterparts often use for the building of
This group is
houses.
families
of
the lowest "real" income earners
this group need subsidies,
irrespective of
houses are built by the government or private
Six
low-income settlements
in
low-income
settlements are:
and
whether
the
their
investors.
five urban centres,
regions of Ghana form the case study on the low-income
six
lost
This
where they have to work eight-hour shifts regularly and thus,
the
not
located in
four
target group.
The
1) Tamale Central in
Tamale-Northern
C~rr
er
Ot'
LLEND
0 0uD
Map of Ghana showing study areas
A1 E3!
Region;
2) Anloga and Moshie Zongo in Kumasi-Ashanti Region;
Accra-Greater Accra Region;
3) Nima in
4) Ashaiman in Tema-Greater Accra Region; 5)
Kwesimintim in Sekondi-Takoradi-Western Region.
The general characteris-
tics of the low-income target group identified are the following:
a)
Unemployment is higher than in surrounding urban areas.
b)
The
proportion
of
unskilled labour was as much as twice
that
of
surrounding areas.
c)
The proportion of professional skills is
surrounding
urban areas,
usually similar to that
indicating that professionals
in
frequently
live in low-income areas.
d)
A higher percentage of the residents in
lower-income areas are self-
employed.
e)
Both population per room and house densities are higher.
f)
The
level
of infrastructure
is
much lower than
surrounding
urban
areas.
g)
There
tend
to be a larger number of immigrants
are tenants.
villages
culture,
their
support.
settlements
who
Usually, rural migrants will settle near relatives or
people from their home area,
urban
in
where
people can preserve at
ceremonies,
This
can
so that settlement becomes a string of
cushion
least
some
of
the
help
and
isolation
and
all available land has been used
for
their
networks
people
against
of
mutual
the
alienation of fragmented city life.
h)
In
some settlement patterns,
building purposes.
i)
Land
tenure
is usually traditional and has not been formalized
the Lands Department.
by
The settlements may be subject to land tenure
disputes between various traditional owners.
Demographic Characteristics
Households in lower-income areas are larger than the average for the
larger
metropolitan areas (Table 5).
greater
than what is
related
persons per room.
country's
considered
In all cases room
densities
are
a minimum room occupany standard --
two
to
the
The implication is that.in addition
general overcrowding housing situation,
the low-income
areas have super-overcrowding housing conditions.
Table 5
Average Household Size, Metropolitan and Low-Income Areas
Average Household
Size
(Metropolitan)
Sekondi-Takoradi
Kwesimintim
3.7
Accra
Nima
3.7
Tema
Ashaiman
3.5
Kumasi
Anloga
4.0
Tamale
Tamale Central
5.6
SOURCE:
Owasu, "A Housing Survey of Ghana."
Average Number
(Low Income Areas)
Person per
Persons
Household
Per Room
5.6
2.6
5.12
3.4
3.47
2.5
5.21
3.5
8.16
2.2
urban
Occupations and Vocational Skills
There
is
a larger percentage of unskilled workers in
Nima
than
in
probably explaining higher unemployed rates (Table 6).
Accra as a whole,
In Ashaiman there are twice as many unskilled workers (7% greater than in
Tema as a whole).
In
most
low-income
areas,
self-employment is
average
for
urban
areas.
persons
are
found
in Kumasi (53%).
Anloga's
for
The greatest
An
greater
percentage
even
of
greater
workers are employed in small-scale business.
found
proportion
Anloga is noted
percent
than
Nima,
compared
of
This trend is particularly true in
Nima and Ashaiman which provides housing for Accra and Tema's
respectively.
of
In other areas employment is more often
in the surrounding community.
workers
the
self-employed
its small-scale timber industry which provides up to 64
the employment in the community.
than
low-income
Kwesimintim is a much more traditional community
Anloga or Ashaiman and has about 50
percent
self-employed,
to surrounding Sekondi-Takoradi where only about 40 percent are
self-employed.
Educational
level3
tend to be lower in
the cities of which they are part.
the five slum areas
a
school.
of
the
whole,
in
In Nima between 7.0 and 48.0 percent
of primary school aged children attend formal schooling,
as
than
almost 70 percent of primary school aged
In other areas the difference is much smaller.
primary school children in Kwesimintim attend
with 60 percent in Sekondi-Takoradi as a whole.
while in
children
Accra
attend
About 50 percent
school,
compared
TABLE 6
TARGET GROUP
Nima
Accra
Education Skills
(%in Primary School)
Vocational Skills
(% Unskilled)
(% Professional)
Home
Owmership
(% Tenants)
48%
(7% 1968)
4%
8%
16%
11%
(1976)
95%
77%
68% +
IDENTIFICATION:
Sckondi-Takaradi
59% +
6%
5%
95% (1973)
A COMPARISION OF URBAN AREAS AND LOW-lNCOME AREAS
Kwesi-Mintim
48%
Kumasi
Moshie Zongo
59% +
48%
Anloga
5%
7%
75%
98% (1973)
Ashaimen
Tamale
48%
10%
7%
6%
14%
6%
85%
na
875
(16%)
11% (36%)
5%
Tema
Tamale CT.
48%
5%
6%
25;.
5%
58%
42%
(1973)
Pipe Bourne
43%
Standpipes
40%
-
6%
94%
11%
61%
19,.
38%
50%
Well
Electricity
(% of Households)
52%
SOURCES:
1970 Population Census of Ghana. Vol
A Housing Survey in Ghana, 47
8%
II.
29%
25%
Home Ownership and Access to Urban Infrastructure
Home ownership in the urban areas of Ghana is rare.
than
10 percent of the repsondents to the 1973 Housing Survey own
own houses.
is,
In Accra, less
their
Only in Tamale were more than 40 percent homeowners.
a larger proportion of homeowners in
however,
There
the low-income
urban
neighbourhoods.
In Accra,
in
94 percent of the persons interviewed were tenants, while
Nima only 77 percent rented (Table 6).
been found in
The
Sekondi-Takoradi and Kumasi.
provision
settlement.
Similar comparisons have also
of
piped water varies greatly
from
settlement
In Tamale Central, probably due to its advantageous location,
61 percent of the households
have access to public standpipes,
1 percent rely on other households for water and higher rates.
Zongo
and Anloga (Kumasi),
piped
dump
and public latrine.
water in
Nima (Accra)
and only
In Moshie
large portion of the houses rely on
In Moshie Zongo the major well is
garbage
to
probably polluted because it
Details about houses
are not available,
is
wells.
below a
provided
with
although there are large
numbers of illegal connections in Nima.
The
for
dams
majority of urban low-income households rely on kerosene
lighting,
although Ghana has one of the
largest
lamps
hydro-electricity
in Africa which supplies electricity to the neighbouring countries.
However,
in
Kwesimintim (Sekondi-Takoradi)
have electricity.
52 percent of the
households
Incomes and Expenditure
According to the 1970 Population Census of Ghana volume
levels are lower in
income
as
a
whole.
Accra.
the slum areas than in
II,
median
the larger urban areas
Personal incomes in Nima are 7.2 percent
lower
than
in
In some areas such as Kwesimintim (Sekondi-Takoradi), this income
difference
median
is as much as 46.3 percent.
incomes
In the Kumasi suburb of Anloga,
are more than 27 percent lower than
median
incomes
in
Kumasi as a whole.
It
problem
is
glaringly obvious that the problem is
related
inequality
to
standards
syndrome.
The
but
a
dimension
problems arises from a willing acceptance
in
distribution of personal incomes,
similar inequalities in
provide
unless
decent
the
of great
coupled with a
the distribution of housing.
At the 50th percentile,
and 19.0 percent of their incomes in
and
of
the
inequalities
rejection
of
A determination to
fruit
heads in
rent in
Nima
by
each
household heads pay between
rent.
pays about 10.0 percent of its income in
The largest group,
rent.
6.0
however,
The incomes of household
the 30th percentile are spending between 8.0 and 24.0 percent in
Most pay about 12.0 percent.
At the 10th percentile, rent takes
between 11.0 and 34.0 percent of household head incomes.
Poorer
poverty
hosuing for people now deprived of it cannot bear
shows the percent of income paid in
7
income group.
rent
housing
they are enabled to pay for what they need.
Table
rent.
of
a
fundamental dilemma underlying most
housing
the
not simply
accounts
for about 17 percent of expenditure by the lowest
households pay higher percentages for rent.
Given
increases in
food costs and the large household sizes in
Nima,
is
it
On the average,
unlikely
that
household
heads
can
the
group.
largest
settlements
maintain
like
monthly
TABLE 7
Nima Rent Distribution and Rent as
a Proportion of Household Head Income
usehold Head
6.0 -
3.0 - 5.9
Income
9.0 -
8.9
12.0 -
11.9
17.9
istribution
No.
% of Income
No.
% of Income
No.
% of Income
No.
th (C 1,124)
10
6
52
10
23
13
10
19
th (C
879)
22
8
51
12
24
16
11
24
0th (C
639)
10
11
58
17
17
22
5
34
TE:
The variation in percentile group is due to variations in the sample.
URCE:
Derived from Government of Ghana Interim Report Table 12.
% of Imcome
expenditures for rent much in excess of 10 percent of their income.
Although
Ministry
rents are controlled by the Rent Control Division
of Works and Housing,
apply to only public housing;
the system is
ineffective.
of
the
It seems to
and public housing is only about less than
10 percent of the country's housing stock.
CHAPTER-THREE
Housing Standards and the Building Industry
Standards
may be expected to rise broadly as Gross National Product
and social expectations rise;
consequently standards can never be finite
but must be determined in accordance with prevailing needs and resources.
In
the pre-independence era in Ghana,
built in
timber (an example is
bungalows
were
also
built
several public buildings were
the Ridge Hospital,
in
timber
and
Accra).
landcrete
A number of
blocks
(local
terminology for stabilized soil blocks).
In
herself
the
contrast,
with
structures)
post-independence era has seen Ghana
high content of imported
in
her
materials
national construction works.
increasing cost of construction in the country,
obligating
(especially
concrete
This has led
to
an
because of the following
factors:
a)
The country has been over-dependent on imported materials,
result
that
building
resources;
the
proportions of
foreign
exchange
earmarked
materials have overgrown their fair share of the
consequently,
with the
for
nation's
leading to frequent shortages of building
materials;
b)
High
internal
freight cost due to the concentration
of
materials
industries along the coast;
c)
Inefficiencies
in
materials construction management
resulting
in
a result of the magnified effect the imported materials have
on
uneconomic use of imported items.
As
the pace of national construction activity, a number of projects have had
to be shelved.
Even when they are started,
they proceed at a rather slow
pace or are abandoned at certain stage for a time,
whilst the costs given
at the drawing board stage continue to go up with time.
Major
building materials have a very high reliance on imported
or semi-finished materials (Table 8).
80
These materials account for about
percent of total building materials costs.
component of the building industry is
raw
Thus,
the total
import
about 53 percent of total costs.
Table 8
Major Building Materials and Their Degrees of
Reliance on Imported Raw Materials
Items
Percentage of Foreign
Material Component
Asbestos-Cement Roofing
Cement
Galvanised Iron Roofing Sheets
Aluminium Roofing Sheets
Steel Rods
Industrial Statistics,
SOURCE:
of
imports
increased,
the
of
constant.
cement
production.
30
construction.
and
raw
actual
roughly
between
Ministry of Industries,
spite of the heavy reliance on imports,
In
value
91%
71
67
64
37
or
semi-finished
and although the annual
materials
quantities of imported materials
Construction
60
1976.
Building
percent
steadily
have
remained
capacity is closely linked
products
of
has
the
containing cement
total
expenditure
annual
account
on
To maintain this level of cement consumption,
gypsum and cement clinker quadrupled from 1970 to 1976.
to
for
building
imports of
Key Materials for Housing
As Table 9 shows,
were
built
accounted
with
about 54 percent of the houses in the urban areas
swish-mud,
while in
the rural
areas,
for about 95 percent of the housing stock in
mud
buildings
1960.
In
1970
Table 9
Key Materials of Walls in the National Housing Stock -1960 and 1970 Percentages
Materials of Walls
Urban
1960
Rural
Total
Urban
1970
Rural
Total
37.8
2.9
8.9
58.2
4.9
15.0
Landcrete
3.5
0.6
1.1
15.9
2.4
5.0
Swish-Mud
53.6
94.6
87.5
23.3
90.8
78.0
5.1
1.9
2.5
2.6
1.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Concrete (Sandcrete)
Others
Total
SOURCE:
From 1960 and 1970 populaton census.
(sandcrete)
concrete
the
urban
period,
mud houses still
On the whole,
percent
in
particularly
VI (P.E.S.).
areas as compared to about 38 percent in 1960.
stock.
Therefore,
100.0 100.0
houses took over the lead with about 58 percent
mud houses dwindled to about 23 percent.
rural areas,
mud
Vol.
1960
for
in
At the
Nevertheless,
same
in the
mud houses accounted for about 88 percent and
time
in
made up more than 90 percent of the housing
and 1970 respectively in the national
some
2.0
to come a large proportion
housing
of
the rural areas will continue to be built in
the
stock.
houses,
mud
is the most free building material of foreign component in the
of high costs and scarcity of imported building materials.
78
since
face
Private Sector in Housing -There
is not much detailed statistical data on housing provided
the private sector.
sector
private
stock;
formal
However,
accounts
(in
standards)
takes
indigenous
systems)
usually
in
materials.
timber
national
housing
terms of dwellings built with the
official
housing
about
10
percent
whilst
informal
accounts for 80 percent.
(building
The informal
framed
with
use used materials.
is
sector
Many of these low-income housing
the urban centres)
Wood
the
for about 90 percent of the
units
Ashaiman in
industrial city of Tema shows the most extensive use
and
by
according to 1970 Population Census,
of low-income housing.
(especially
port
Formal and Informal
the
of
used
packing crates from the port are used for sheathing of
structures.
These
houses are fairly
durable
but
are
subject to damage from termites and exposure of the untreated elements
to
rain.
In
the
case
of individual rural housing and
most
squatter
settlements,
applied,
and most of the houses are of mud construction.
of
the
urban
local techniques of construction are specifically
This is due to
the fact that the skills for the traditional building materials procurred
from the natural resources of the immediate vicinity of construction
available and cheap.
weather-proofing
technology
are
are
A mud house can last 25 years or longer with proper
plasters.
The
main
problems
associated
with
erosion resulting from poor construction and a
this
lack
of
skilled builders.
The
methods
formal-sector
of
private
urban
builders
use
the
conventional
construction by complying with the official building
Sandcrete construction --
codes.
lower grade concrete blocks made with sand
about 25 percent cement by volume,
is
and
the major building material used in
most
new construction.
building material.
of
It is the most expensive and the most permanent
Blocks vary widely in quality, because the proportion
cement used is often reduced.
therefore, usually plastered.
small
building
Interior and exterior
surfaces
are,
These private urban builders are, in fact,
contractors
who build houses for individuals
and
some
private agencies.
The
ownership
major
sources available at present for
financing are:
private
i) The First Ghana Building Society;
Bank for Housing and Construction;
ii) The
was
incorporated
in
the society financed only 130 houses.
1956
attracting
substantial
financial institutions.
higher-income
groups
sums
of
money from
the
banks
and
It did not
succeed in mobilising capital from individual savings nor did it
in
house
iii) and Informal Saving.
The First Ghana Building Society
between 1965 and 1970,
formal
succeed
and
other
As a result, the society was only able to serve
and
has
had limited
impacts
on
total
housing
requirements.
In
promote
will
1972,
the Bank for Housing and Construction was established
efficiency
in the operation of various housing
depend on the bank for financing.
agencies
to
which
It was part of the policy
that
loans from the bank to finance individuals to purchase low-income
houses
would attract an interest rate of no more than 6 percent.
Spiral
inflation
gripped
percent.
It
its
the country and interest rates moved up to 16 and
therefore became very difficult for the bank to
low-income groups.
of
Alas!
help
18
the
Its mortgage loans have totaled only about 8 percent
total loan portfolio,
and have all been to
middle- and
upper-
income earners.
The
most common means of housing finance is through Informal Saving
of building materials accepted by the building codes.
typically
acquires
either
traditional owners.
a fixed period,
structures,
leasehold
or
usually five years.
walled
owners
to
is
tenure
from
the
The holders are required to develop the plot within
enclosures,
To maintain their leases, temporary
or
simple
materials are erected over several years.
materials
freehold
A potential owner
collections
houses
building
The gradual saving of building
common among all income groups.
construct
of
It is
over a long period
also
especially
common
for
where
the
construction complies with the official standards.
Occupancy
of
unfinished houses by low-income groups
practice because of the lack of alternative housing.
is
a
common
Public Sector in Housing
In
Ghana,
competitive
like
many
developing
countries,
there
tremendous
difficulties
investment
into housing.
are faced when attempts are
Admittedly,
made
size of the nation's total involvement into housing in
her
G.N.P.,
therefore,
adequate this is.
to
a
that
increase
there is no exact information on
the
public
such
for investment capital from productive sectors
demand
and
is
relation
to
it is not known exactly how inadequate
or
However, according to the 1970 Population Census, the
sector contributes less than 10 percent annually of the
national
housing stock.
A State Housing Corporation (SHC) was established in 1956,
original
obtain
mandate
privately
construct
only
to
constructed
to
housing.
able
operations
Its
primary
goals
were
for rent or sale on a subsidized basis and
and hire purchase facilities.
been
its
was to build low-cost housing for Ghanaians unable
housing
mortgage
and
to
serve higher
income
However,
to
the SHC has
groups.
The
offer
actually
costs
of
its
and its development standards prevent it from reaching lower-
income groups.
SHC
annual production has varied from 1.0 to 8.0 percent of
housing
produciton.
percent
of
Plans have called for SHC to construct
the total annual national housing construction,
only once achieved that goal.
annual
and
enter
about
7.0
but it
has
SHC's current output is about 4 percent of
increase in the national housing stock.
Shortages of
poor management have limited production increases.
lower-income markets,
annual
If it
SHC would have to consider lower
and a revised organisational structure.
materials
were
to
standards
Direct Investment by the Government
impact
due
to
the
into housing has not made
fact that the high overhead costs
of
executive agencies tend to eat very much into the capital.
large investment went into few bungalows.
of
maintenance
$1,106,000.
of
these
In addition,
For instance, the total number
bungalows
and
What a kind subsidy!
no doubt,
flats
came
to
the rent payments within the same period
This shows that the rents
not cover even half of the money spent on recurrent
similar situation,
Civil
In 1969/70 financial year, the cost
government
At the same time,
came to only $463,000.
do
housing
bungalows and flats occupied by senior and junior staff of the
Service alone is estimated at 7,707.
of
the
much
maintenance.
may exist in all the other public
A
service
organisations.
The State Insurance Corporation started housing finance in 1964, for
those who had life insurance policies with the corporation.
the
low-income group was eliminated!
Right away,
The corporation insists that
the
applicant should contribute one-fourth of the building costs before being
granted the loan.
Nevertheless, up to now about only 600 houses for the
high-income group have been financed by the corporation.
In
with
in
the late 1970's,
the Social Security Bank was also
established
the possibility of investing a portion of the Social Security
housing for the low-income group.
Kumasi
1970's.
The first project in the city
came off with luxury apartments of very high standards
the reach of the poor.
Fund
--
of
beyond
A second project was located in Accra in the late
When the project was finally constructed, it comprised expensive
blocks of flats like the condominiums of the U.S.
In
1972,
second priority
the
government made low-income housing
after
agriculture.
development
It allocated money for
its
low-income
housing from "budgeting savings"
5,532
under the low-income housing programme,
units were built by 1976 but surprisingly there was a
removal
of
housing subsidies and rents were allowed to rise to market levels.
From the various housing policies mentioned so far,
see
that the authorities (the rulers) have tended to use the
of housing construction as a yardstick of success.
improvement
But, to me, it is the
A blind concentration of efforts
new house construction is not necessary the best policy of
this end,
and is,
that
stock of housing cheap enough for their pockets
the
decrease
to
the
achieving
indeed one which victimizes the low-income groups, in
may
markedly
in course of time as a result of escalating housing costs
country's heavy reliance on imported building materials
local inflation.
it
statistics
of the quality of the total stock of housing in the country,
or in any one city, which matters most.
on
one can clearly
represents
This has very substantial implications.
and
to
In most cases
a direct swing in housing stock from private
thus placing more and more people in the hands,
dues
to
public,
for better for worse, of
the public housing authority.
Rehabilitating existing housing offers greater scope for providing a
variety at acceptable quality levels than new housing,
and
villages
resides,
is
of
the countryside where the majority of
for in the
the
population
the problem is the poor physical environmental quality of
available.
Besides,
it
is
singularly unwise to aim to
towns
what
build
say
10,000 homes a year while so much per year is allowed to dilapidate.
To
me,
a
sensible housing policy will therefore be heavily concerned
with
existing housing.
A broader conception of policy is important particularly in relation
to
the distribution of income and wealth.
For governments may not only
decide
that
pattern
the
the
income
and
its
associated
of housing expenditures is sub-optimal but they should also view
housing
system
redistribution.
analysis
existing distribution of
is
So
often
as
it
is
being
an
important
essential to
channel
stress
that
more concerned with getting the
of
housing
issues
right
becoming overly involved in the arithematic of housing production.
Table 10
Index of Prime Building Costs:
1967 = 100.0 Annual
Average of Monthly Index, Groupwise:
1970-1976
Weight
Unskilled labor
Skilled labor
Sand
Stone
Timber
Cement
Steel Materials
Roofing Materials
Miscellaneous
Total
SOURCE:
17.9
26.2
2.2
9.2
5.2
8.9
5.4
5.4
19.6
100.0
Central Bureau of Statistics,
Accra (1977).
Average Annual
% Change
20.6
14.8
39.4
43.6
28.8
23.0
34.8
48.5
10.8
21.0
income
policy
than
Changes in Building Costs
The annual changes in the index of building costs are shown in Table
10
the
for
increase
For that
building costs averaged 1 percent.
the
period
These
annual
increases
were
primarily because of increases in the key building materials, i.e.,
sand,
stone,
in
1970 through 1976.
years in
cement, timber, steel products, and roofing materials.
Increases
in labour costs showed relatively lower rates of average annual increase,
although skilled labour made up 26.2 percent of total cost.
of the apparent increase in construction from 1970 to 1974
Much
because of increases in the value of imports and domestic prices.
1974,
the
when
is
During
the gross output due to construction increased 68.6 percent,
price
index
increased 34.7 percent,
and
the
imported
1
materials for construction increased 98.3 percent over 1973 values.
income
room
earners to afford housing,
house
have been calculated.
components
since
materials
Masonry,
1967
for
a
(sandcrete blocks,
asbestos-cement
roofing
carpentry,
and
the cost increases for a simple
Table 11 illustrates
house
plaster,
built
that
construction
houses were constructed in
Since
1967,
costs
increased 170.3 percent.
time,
labour
one-
cost
increase
conventional
building
sheets on hardwood purlins with
no
ceilings).
plastering skills supplemented with
unskilled
These estimates
was by a small contractor
and
that
further
several
the same project.
for
this simple type of
one-room
house
have
The percentage of material costs to total costs
has increased from 64.1 percent in
same
of
low-
smoothe concrete floor slabs and
labour were the only building skills required.
assume
of
the impact of costs increase on the ability of
illustrate
To
value
1967 to 70.8 percent in
1977.
costs as a percentage of total building
At
costs
the
have
TABLE 11
COST COMPARISONS:
Item
Year
1977
Material:
Sandcrete
Asbestos
Cement
A.
Labor
Materials
SIMPLE ONE-ROOMED HOUSE;
1977, 1974,
1967
Total Costs
Profits (5%)
Overheads
S%%Component
% of Total
import
%
Substructure
Cone Slab
B. Superstructure
Sabderete Blocks/
Plaster
C. Roofing
Hardwood/AsbestisCement Riifubg Sheets
D. Doors & Windows
TOTALS
1974
(same as
above)
(D
583.12
(70.8%)
69.02
(8.4%)
121.19
(68.2%)
50.45
(11%)
147.48
(64.11)
35.15
(15.8 .)
(16.4%)
40.45
(4.9%)
823.18
100%
40.3%
75.49
(l .0.)
22.42
(4.8%)
470.94
100%
41.2
16.48
(15.8
10.05
(4.82)
230.08
135.10
A. Substructure
B. Superstructure
C. Roofing
D. Doors & Windows
TOTALS
A. Substructure
1967
(Same
above)
as
B.
Superstructure
C. Roofing
D. Doors & Windows
TOTALS
J
1)
43.1
decreased (15.3
For
the
percent in
1967 to 8.4 percent in
1977).
the two years for which import components could be
calculated,
import component remained about 40 percent of total
total
building
costs and was accounted for mainly by cement and asbestos-cement
sheets.
Total
profits
roofing
and overhead remained about 20 prcent of
total
building costs.
To illustrate the potential impact of import substitution,
represents the costs of the same,
stabilized) soil bricks.
15
one-room house (built by a small-scale
using fired clay brick and landcrete
contractor)
percent
Table 12
(local
terminology
Both the brick and landcrete houses are
lower in costs than sandcrete,
because they
for
about
require
lower
levels of imports involving expensive materials.
The
cost
the
increase in the import content of building causes rises in
of housing.
central
control
government
laws,
pressure
of
reducing
high
standards
has
been forced into
exacting
sweeping
which regrettably have not been effective because of
demand relative to supply.
housing costs is
One of the effective
to revise the present
ways
that
rent
the
of
official
housing
to incorporate the use of local building materials in
housing
construction.
therefore,
This has risen so much in recent years in Ghana
the
Besides
hopefully
reducing the cost of housing
reducing
rent,
construction
use of locally produced
and,
building
materials would save substantial foreign exchange for the country.
TABLE 12
COST COMPARISONS:
Year
Item
1977
Brick Fired
CLay Tiles
SIMPLE ONE-ROOMED HOUSING USING INDIGENOUS
Materials
Labor
%/
BUILDING
Overheads
MATERIALS
Profits (5%)
(1977 COSTS)
%
Total
%
of Total
import
Component
A.
Substructure
Concrete Slab
B.
Superstructure
4-Y Brick Walls
5.5
C.
Roofing
Fired Clay Tiles
6.6
D.
Jointry
Wood Doors & Windows
9.7
E.'
TOTAL
A.
Substructure
as above
22.9
B.
Superstructure
Stabalized Soil
Blocks
22.7
C.
Roofing
Asbestos-Cement
54.3
D.
Jointry
as above
E.
TOTAL
22.9
494.64
(69.2;)
74.74
(10.5%)
11.27
(15.6%)
33.81
(4.7%)
714.44
100%
8.1
(Di
Stabilized Soil
(Sandcrete)
SOURCE:
9.7
421.43
(59.5%)
120.05
Building Cost Statistics, Building and Road Research Institute
(16.7%)
140.60
(19.6%)
27.08
(1.9%)
718.03
100%
32.3
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER THREE
1.
Economic Survey,
Central Bureau of Statistics,
Accra,
1977,
p.
37.
CHAPTER FOUR
The Present Building Codes and Their Faults
The present building codes were enacted during the colonial period,
being directly
on imported materials and mostly urban biased.
reliant
Research by the author showed that the latest edition of official housing
standards for the city of Kumagi-Ghana were written in
time of writing,
it has not been possible
regulations of housing standards of Ghana.
1932.
At this
to obtain a copy of
However,
the
here are some of the
areas of concern the housing codes cover:
a)
Town planning
laws currently do not allow the use of landcrete, mud
blocks or any indigenous materials for house construction in
the
urban areas.
b)
Housing plans/designs for approval by the municipal authorities
should have
legal
titles
landholding
practices
particularly
Ghana
individual needs in
to the
common
permit
the
lands involved.
throughout
possession
respect of farming,
not give absolute rights of ownership in
c)
Rigid
layouts;
definite
But
traditional
sub-Saharan Africa
of
land
to
satisfy
trading or housing but do
the western legal sense.
sizes of windows, rooms and number of
toilets and bathrooms per persons.
For instance, a minimum size of
a room should not be less than 100 square feet.
d)
All
dwelling units should be designed by practising architects
their structural
e)
and
elements certified by practising engineers.
Lot sizes and percentage of built-up
area/circulation.
The
cities'
bylaws forbid using more than 40 to 60 percent of the lot only for
buildings.
And efficiency circulation
should be around
25 percent
of built-up area--straight copy from Architects' Data by Neuffert.
space standards of American or European cities in
Using external
design of developments
in
this part of the world is
the
completely
unfeasible.
f)
Specific drainage and sanitary materials,
g)
Population densities--people
per acre or hectare,
families per acres or.hectares,
or number of dwelling units per acre
In high-income areas,
the population densities quite often
hectare.
are too
low,
mostly foreign.
or number of
resulting in a fragmented society while in
income areas,
the low-
the population densities are too high providing a
situation of overcrowding.
h)
Zoning
leading
to unfair
location of low-income housing schemes and
communal open spaces.
Few codes in
a danger
the world are perfect and in all
of both excessive
over-rigidity
of design,
detail
hampering innovation,
methods.
structural
The aim of a codes,
or good
Building regulations
safety,
flexibility.
there is
Evasion,
curtailment of construction or excessive
are some of the by-products.
avoid
and excessive
codifications
local
therefore,
or other
costs
should be to
sound materials
and
should lay down simple rules guaranteeing
sanitation and some essential aesthtic considerations,
encouraging a continuing programme of improvements and the regulations
in
the main should aim to define performance criteria.
Since housing programmes have been part of government policy,
necessary
to
particular
subject of each proposal or regulation.
in
determine
the world now have
appropriate
performance
standards
for
it
is
the
Very many countries
their own defined minimum standards for room sizes
and ventilation in dwellings,
as well
as for water
supply and drainage.
standards does not mean that all
required
level
developments will
developments
immediately
should
for road building,
for school construction,
take place in
be
The acceptance of these
that fail to come up to the
replaced,
nor
that
all
accordance with those standards,
new
but it
does indicate that new construction would have to follow these standards.
Standards may be expected to rise broadly as Gross National Product
and social
expectations
rise;
consequently standards can never be finite
but must be determined in accordance
It
is
essential
with prevailing needs and resources.
to have some sort of performance
scale by which one can
and determine the quantity,
assess existing provision of facilities,
quality and priority for future provision.
Changes
of experience
be
regarded
standards must be expected from time
in
and changing circumstances.
as
too
unchangeable,
to time as a result
Although no standards should
would
changes
frequent
be
self-
defeating.
A.
Building Materials and Style of Architecture
As pointed out earlier,
housing standards give
building materials
unflinching injustice
permitted
area where the offical
the most critical
in
the
urban
to the poor is the kind of
area.
The
housing
standards
have not room for traditional building practices using materials such as
mud,
thatch or even
landcrete.
far beyond the means of the poor.
But the imported building materials are
The poor are,
therefore,
partly forced
to put up any shanty structures for fear of future demolition.
situation discourages the poor to invest substantially in
of
their houses.
This
the improvement
An obvious answer is
to cut the cloth to suit the purse, and adopt
building standards according to the rents people can affort,
fixing rents
according
bewildering array of
to desired standards.
low-cost building
For public housing, a
techniques has
developed by the Building and Road Research Institute,
(where
the author
western ones,
housing.
is
an employee)
rather than
to provide houses
been fairly
Kumagi-Ghana
that cost
yet provide better and healthier shelter
less
than traditional
These techniques have taken much of their inspiration from
traditional
methods,
which were often ingenious and cheap ways of using
locally
available materials to produce shelter suited to the
climate
and
Nevertheless,
architecture
with
local
social
North African hill
villages,
family's
for
terrace
cooking,
working
design also reflects
For example,
the walled
enclose dozens of tiny circular huts.
daily
or
drying
grain
the
indivdual
and
living patterns
and
fruits.
family
Dagomba compounds of Northern Ghana
Each adult man has one hut, while
shares with her children.
between rival wives in polygamous marriages.
locates
for
make one family's roof another
This provides privacy within a context of communality,
the compound
the drawers,
The inter-locking cubes of
each of his wives has a separate hut which she
arguments
structure.
the requirements of good
and functional.
for instance,
local
looking to the west.
housing often fulfills
being both-beautiful
structure.
harmony
think of "modernization" by
Yet, traditional
Traditional
in
these initial efforts are shelved in
all
the authorities
design,
than
securely
in
and helps to avoid
The structure of
a supporting
context of
collective living.
Unfortunately,
none of the new low-cost or low-income approaches to
housing has tried to preserve the essence of traditional
settlements
patterns.
The indigenous social and cultural
validity
lost in
is
the
transition of form from the family cluster to the rigid layout.
Again,
local
the use of massive imported building materials hold back any
housing
decreases
materials
increases
industry
based on indigenous
the climatic
its costs beyond
the
The change of
new house
and
The poor's mind is
what the rich regard as "comfort" use
But concrete structures (without air-conditioning)
for their houses.
thermal
during the rainfall.
even beyond
of
performance
the range of most people.
focused on concrete because that is
have an immense
labour.
problem in
addition
to
leakages
in
the tropics
In the northern sector of Ghana, the heat gain is
the capacity of air-conditioning,
which is,
in
any case,
an
extra expense for the rich.
B.
Research
Of equal importance,
the official
housing standard's emphasis on
imported materials makes research on traditional
virtually useless,
building materials
for any result has limited or not effect on the status
quo of existing by-laws and on the housing policy of the country--if
there is
C.
any consistent and comprehensive one at all!
Upgrading, Site-and-Services
The
present
the failures
official
housing standards
or site-and-services
basic
contributed
of upgrading and site-and-services
standards force the poor to create or live in
materials.
have
programme
Furthermore,
degrading,
programmes.
to
These
slums because any upgrading
involves almost entirely costly imported
upgrading of a bare minority will not change the
inequities of the
involves clearance
partly
of some of
system.
the houses
Upgrading quite
and relocation
often,
too,
of some of the
people.
houses.
New houses imply substitution of expensive houses for cheap
No wonder
that the poor see upgrading as an attempt to curb the
social unrest without the government making any effort to restructure the
economic pattern of the society which is
and
the essential cause of poverty
homelessness.
The official
segregation
to
location of site-and-services
the
detriment
of
the
poor.
also
The
leads
to dwelling
site-and-service
programmes are quite often
located far away from the city centres where
land price is sufficiently
low so that the user can succeed in covering
its payments.
But the officials forget that nothing is more important to
a slum-dweller
site
than the
location of his house.
His first
from which gainful employment can be obtained.
It
priority is
is,
a
therefore,
not surprising that many rehoused slum-dwellers leave their new sites and
return to their original place of squatting solely to be nearer to the
work place.
And those who stay behind,
too,
continue
to putting up
shanty structures.
Yes, they cannot afford the materials specified by
the building codes.
Those who build according
bankrupt after completion of their houses,
to specifications
finding it
also go
impossible to pay
back their loans.
D.
Architects
The most questionable
part
of Ghana
its compulsory requirement of all
designed
by registered architects.
a conspiracy
official
dwelling units in
To me,
housing
standards
the urban areas to be
this part of the standards
to rob the poor of decent housing,
is
since
is
professional
consulting fees for even a two-bedroom house may be more than the annual
income of most of the poor.
At the same time,
statistics
show that on
only 4% of
the world-scale,
professionally
stock were
the housing
designed!l
(like myself)
Architects
have unfortunately been arrogant when it
It
is
they,
what
who decide how much space people need,
standards
of services
and
the advanced countries this assumption is
In
and tower blocks.
layout is
what
required,
located.
Even
dangerous and wrong,
stuck in
in misery,
and
estates
the Third World the architect is
a member of the
conception of the
living patterns
and can have
westernized elite
of the masses.
are
utilities
there are millions of people paying for it
little
People's participation in
planning of settlements is
the design of houses and the
to their
these are to correspond
essential if
for I sincerely believe that houses that truly enrich the lives of
needs,
people who live in
for
them know best.
what room
are needed and where they should be
community facilities
in
who employ
authorities
assumed that
not the people who will live with the results for the rest of
their lives,
best,
the municipal
and
is
it
But with the masses,
his every whim will be humoured.
the architects
footing the bill,
If a wealthy client is
comes to dealing with the poor.
them according
them must be designed with these people and not simply
to pre-determined,
the opposite which has been happening
universal
in
Ghana
in
principles.
all
But it is
site-and-services
programmes.
In
Richard
his recent
study of a squatter settlement
Martin showed how indigenous rural
clustering,
settlements
and
communal
than
those
organization
officially
bureaucracies applying alien methods. 2
methods of
are adding
laid
in
Lusaka,
building,
up to more
out and
run by
Zambia,
social
successful
government
Housing Standards:
a)
Should there be any at all?
Quality
In
Ghana,
like
persistently call
many
developing countries,
for some official housing
good quality and acceptable
view,
level
of environmental
these
conditions.
In this
class and the
who have particular view about the build environment.
fixed official
standards
make
the actual
for
to some technical codes
the values and preferences of the 'bourgeois'
educated elite
officials
standards as a leverage
houses should be constructed according
reflecting
housing
But
situation progressively
less tolerable for the poor majority as pointed out earlier
on in
the
discussion.
To me,
quality can only be seen from the angle of what the users
recognize as their needs.
characterized
Unfortunately,
acceptance of their situation of "poverty",
by the
their inability to go beyond
and political
socially
which is
their perception of needs is
the narrow
regimes impose.
acceptable
limits
Moreover,
that
there is
and by
the ruling economic
an average level of
satisfaction for every need at any given moment,
defined by the level of development reached by the society.
of quality
but not by any
arbitrary
this must govern
the
borrowed technical
standards which are irrelevant and inappropriate.
b)
analysis
And
International Level
On the international
countries call
level,
some housing experts on the developing
for no housing standards for various reasons;
which have been mentioned earlier on in
the discussion.
these groups are John F. C. Turner and his followers.
this proposition
is
based on the work of Turner.
some of
Radicals amongst
My critique on
He has this to say;
"The house can be seen from its morphological aspect as a mass
relations
object; or it can be considered as a system of reltions:
(the people who
and
inhabitants
artefacts)
between building (the physical
be evaluated
it
will
thing,
physical
seen
as
is
use them). If the house
But if the house is seen in terms of the
by material standards.
relations between people and objects, both of which are changing, then
it will be measured in terms of the correspondence between the habitat
and the inhabitat absolute values based on the characteristic of the
object, lack in themselves, any meaning, and are useless for the
practical that men pursue...."
"The process of inhabiting the house is a system of relations, but
this system is not limited to those relations that are established
It goes much further than this,
between the individual and the object.
for it articulates with itself the entire social process of its product on, and it is this process that not only defines the types of
housing and the form of occupying it, but which also creates the need
for it, and the needs bound up with its exchange. It is also closely
tied to the functioning of society in general,through its consumers." 3
tied to
The underlined phrases point to the fact that housing is
norms.
some cultural
And for Turner and his followers to turn around
proclaim that there should be no standard is
should be allowed
that people
to deprive
It
a contradiction.
themselves
of
their
heritage or should be encouraged to destroy their cultural
Housing standards are not by themselves bad.
and relevance in
the
a particular condition in
of contention.
bone
It
needs
to
implies
cultural
heritage.
It is their appropriateness
a particular period which is
to be
pointed
out
that
the only
standards with relevance in housing programmes are those which have their
basic expression in
meanings
at all
human values,
standards
has
no matter how precarious
the
and that the concept of
levels of housing quality,
situation is.
There
should be some standards;
propagated by the 'bourgeois'
not the blindly-copied official one
and the educated elite
publicity,
butthe
one I call Cultural Housing Standards tieing al the cross-sections of the
people
as a whole
community with one destiny.
quality simply because we deal in quantity.
We need
The traditional
not abandon
building
practices should be well-studied and improved upon to form the body of a
new official housing standards.
It is by doing this that the products of
reflect positively
housing process will
the economic,
social,
cultural
and political interest of the community.
Turner
Again,
and
experience)
his
(drawing
followers
viewed as a "problem",
lessons
mainly from
that
advocate
but as a "solution".
his Latin American
should not be
shanty-towns
Squatter
settlements,
but evolving
are not "rings of misery" or "creeping cancers",
emphasise,
The residents of old inner city areas of
communities.
they
the United States
and Europe have reached the social bottom in what have been called "slums
The new urban migrants of the Third World are,
of despair".
struggling to better their conditions,
They live in "slums of hope".
"housing in
and often moving socially upwards.
Third World shanties argues Turner (in
By People) represent not housing
book Housing
by contrast,
the process of improvement",
in
deterioration,
his
but
and that housing policies should
aim at helping the process.
I differ a bit from Turner and followers who believe
that squatter
settlements are a "solution" to the housing problem of the low-income
groups.
In
fact,
the philosophy is
overly romanticised.
poor move into squatter areas because of the advantage
lost in
of which are
Ghanaian
once
A critical
settlements shows
that most
of
a better housing in
the rural
areas.
squatter
lived in
"legalised" housing.
the
Actually,
the
of doing so...Some
look into the
squatter
dwellers
Where then lies
"housing in the process of improvement"?
My own
lessons from some West African countries as a result of
housing studies do not conform to conventional
process of improvement".
In Ghana,
belief of "housing in
the
those "shanty" towns which are more
than fifty years old,
recent origin while there is no difference in
(Abidjan) and Nigeria (Lagos
is
Cuevas in
the conventional
La Victoria and Nueva Habana
Lima,
settlements
squatter
to selected
defended with reference
the cases of Ivory Coast
Yet,
and Ibadan).
from those of more
standards
do differ in physical
in
Santiago,
picture
such as
George
in
Lusaka or Mathare Valley Colony in Nairobi.
However,
the question is
then, whether these settlements are the
same as those which I have in mind.
Even then in
such instance,
a number
the inhabitants in
their respective
settlements bring about progressive improvements in
their respective
of issues can be raised.
Can all
At
conditions of accommodation?
settlements in
Mexico by Ward (1978),4
considerable differentiation in
take place,
least from
it
is
the
analysis of
three
evident that there remains a
the extent to which such improvements
and some living quarters remain at an elementary
level.
This
suggests that the proposition concerning "progressive improvements"
not sufficiently
is
supported by empirical evidence to substantiate its
general applicability.
Again,
the
shanty
towns,
according
conform to the needs and priorities
Turner,
in
his many writings,
households
living in
Agreed partially!
very different
However,
set of
it
criteria
has with emphasis proposed that only the
are competent
to judge
their
and arrange accommodation accordingly.
must be noted
to evaluate
are comparatively more well-to-do.
that the residents apply a
"good
housing" because
As a matter of fact,
shanty dwellers are like a man in a miserable hovel.
he needs,
belief,
of the households accommodation.
the shanty towns
respective needs and priorities
to the conventional
he will not speak of an inside toilet
61.
some
the very poor
If you ask him what
or.running water.
He may
ask for a new paraffin lamp.
accustomed to very little
Usually, it does not occur to a man who is
that he is
According to my judgement,
worth more or can have more.
the conditions of accommodation under
which I found some households cannot be considered as adequate.
that households were required to adapt to the shortfalls
discomfort,
by deviating
from the cultural
I found
by enduring
norms regulating the use of
and
accommodation and by exposing the household members to ill-health
hazards.
c)
The Ghanaian Situation
In Ghana and in Africa as a whole, people are tied to their native
some squatters have
As a result
towns and villages--places
of birth.
even built decent
their native villages and towns where
to one day.
hope to retire
It
is
houses in
partly because
5
they
Why not places of their sources of income?
of the incumbent official housing standards on the
urban poor coupled with the constant threat of demolition of dwelling
to the building codes and specifications of the city
units not built
councils.
But when two elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers.
clash between
the
official
housing
practices gives birth to unidentified
standards
and
cultural
A
housing
lower grade of housing.
The current housing standards have no room for traditional building
practices using materials such as mud,
thatch or even landcrete.
Any
housing scheme using traditional building practices would not be approved
by the municipal authorities or would be demolished
a major factor
in
the high cost of housing
content of building materials which the cities'
allow.
Yet,
is
if
the
constructed.
But
very high import
building regulations
these imported materials are far beyond the means of the
The poor are, therefore,
poor.
for
fear of future
is,
demolition.
This discourages the poor to invest
the improvement of their houses.
substantially in
It
forced to put up any rickety structures
therefore,
of the present
the application and relevance
housing standards that contribute one way or the other to the
official
homelessness of the urban poor but not any standards per se.
The basic difference between squatter structures and those of the
neighbourhood is
old traditional
of the squatter settlements
those
identity,
with cultural
structures are well-spaced
neighbourhoods'
While the old
physical appearance.
look crowded with no specific identity.
Besides the constant fear of demolition of structures by the city
council
authorities,
the speculative
to the cities.
It
home
builders in
They buy plots of
squatter areas must also be planned.
shanty structures and sell
private
land,
the Ghanaian situation,
does not refer to illegal spontaneous occupation of the land.
to their plots of land,
of the structures have legal titles
administration.
concepts,
of "illegal"
Communal
materials in
one who occupies land without a legal title
African cities
squatter
The owners
only the
the domain of the city
land laws continue to exist alongside new
and often in conflict with them.
traditional
build
them at exorbitant prices to the new migrants
must be noted that in
structures are built
the
like Ibadan in
If
a squatter is
to it,
defined as
then large parts of
Nigeria or Kumagi in Ghana
would have to be called squatter settlements.
Yet some
respected organisations
reality of the various
(1976,
p.
quite
squatter settlements.
28) World Housing Survey,
1974,
often mix up
the problem in
The United Nations report
documents
the following:
"Current statistics show that squatter settlemnts already constitute
61 percent of Accra,
90 percent of Addis Ababa,
50 percent of Monrovia..."
Such general
applicability
prescription
to
33 percent of Nairobi and
Mixing the wolves and the sheep together?
is
like a renowned physician giving the best
a patient whose
laboratory
examination
is
faulty.
prescription does not cure the illness but rather worsens it
or compounds
by the side-effects of the best medication for
the patient's ill-fate
wrong diagnosis.
The
And
until
that
each
particular
situation
is
microscopically viewed on its own merit, any general solutions to them en
mass will be a flop.
FOOTNOTES
CHAPTER FOUR
1.
Benjamin Forgery, "Cityscape:
the World's Housing Problems,"
Ethics, Not Design-Architects Debate
(The Washington Post, April 9, 1983).
2.
R. Martin, "The Art and Architecture
Architectural Design (October, 1974).
3.
John F. C. Turner and R. Fichter:
MacMillan, 1973).
4.
Peter M. Ward, 1978:
"Self-Help Housing in Mexico City:
Social and
Economic Determinants of Success," Town Planning Review, Vol. 49,
No. 1, pp. 38-50.
5.
K. Addae Appau, Squatter Settlement:
Creation? (1979)
of Underdevelopment,"
"Freedom
in
to Build," (New York,
Does Poverty Dominate its
CHAPTER FIVE
Abolition of the Housing Standard to a Cultural Housing Standard
Emphasising Indigenous Materials.
feel
Many housing experts in
the developing countries for various reasons
that housing standards
imposed on the urban poor
countries
are so high and inappropriate
the developing
the economic plight
the various governments
Furthermore,
of the urban low-income groups.
cannot cater for all
considering
in
the housing needs of the people because of scarcity
of resources to meet the ever-increasing housing demands.
The housing experts,
therefore,
call
for No Standards at least,
enable the underprivileged urban groups to put up affordable
within their means.
cases,
It
the cumbersome
advanced
is
really
logical and sensible since,
standards have been borrowed
countries with
different climate,
level
intoto
to
shelters
in most
from
the
of civilization,
economic and cultural backgrounds.
However,
it
on the economic,
must be emphasized that housing,
social,
in
any society reflects
cultural and political- context of the society.
The housing products follow some kind of standards which have their basic
expression
in
meanings at all
simply
with
values,
level
in
and that
the
levels of housing quality.
because we deal
the
society
human
in
quantity.
of development of
Quality
standards
has
We need not abandon quality
bears
direct relationship
traditional building practices of the
question.
Any standard per se is
not bad.
The traditional
ought to be studied very well and documented
practical
concept of
housing
standards,
which
would
building practices
to serve as a base for any
be
a
desirable
form
of
governmental intervention for the following reasons:
1)
construction methods renders
The complexity of conventional
that
unlikely
the prospective
knowledge
technical
to
make
informal
about
decision
the
Cultural building codes will,
structural integrity of the unit.
therefore,
have sufficient
home buyer will
an
it
serve as a substitute for complete knowledge on the part
of the-consumer by ensuring that at least a minimum level of quality
is
into the unit.
built
In
there would be little
lieu of that,
incentive for builders to incorporate more than a minimal degree of
structural integrity in
consumers
their products because as it
to accept
forced by circumstances
are
is
rickety
now,
most
structures
since both the producers and the home buyers want to avoid the
current codes.
2)
The
second
market
imperfection
government intervention relates
home buyers would
only of
the
considering
features
damage
the effect-of
But in
are
all
clearly
codes will,
therefore,
investment
decision by
considered
in
to
in
the need
their
for
For instance,
safety features,
own
thinking
properties
without
fires or collapsing walls on surrounding
the old
traditional
seen
an
environment-well-spaced
3)
to externalities.
tend to underinvest
potential
properties.
which suggests
as
neighbourhoods,
intergral
structures, etc.
part
of
The cultural
the
safety
built
building
have the effect of readjusting this parochial
requiring
that potential
external
costs be
deciding how much safety be built into the units.
Cultural housing standards will offer the self-builder relative
ranges of construction costs in addition to cultural
living environment.
low
identity of his
4)
mud and other
Furthermore,
traditional
building
materials
can make
an important contribution to the pressing housing problems of the
developing countries
in general and Ghana in
particular, giving the
following reason:
a)
easy and wide availability;
b)
low cost;
c)
suitability for labour intensive construction techniques;
d)
construction techniques using traditional building materials are
simple,
so no sophisticated equipment or expertise is
required;
e)
people are alreadyfamiliar with these techniques and materials;
f)
they can be handled by local people and thus are able to selfhelp housing construction;
g)
materials
like mud are climatically
suited
to the needs of
Ghanaians;
h)
they require
less energy in
manufacture than modern building
materials such as cement;
i)
when well used,
they are aesthetically
pleasing, and assert
cultural identity;
j)
they can release
scarce modern building materials for other
important development projects;
k)
their use reduces the demand for foreign exchange.
Although both the traditional and imported materials have their
advantages
to treat
and disadvantages,
them any
soil/cement
Technology,
in
further.
his
book
it
is
beyond the scope of this discussion
However,
"Paper
1980", merit comment.
Wiltold Rybezynski's
Heroes:
He writes:
A Review
of
views on
Appropriate
"It is argued that earth construction is advantageous because it
makes use of a local material and the production process is laborintensive, and hence it is considerably cheaper than other building
However,
materials, even with the addition of a small amount of cement.
a consideration of over-all benefits does not support the view that earth
construction will ALWAYS be cheaper.
Two United Nations experts made a study of earth building in
As expected, soil/cement blocks were about 50 percent cheaper
Trinidad.
than conventional concrete blocks. However, when the cost of a complete
house was calculated, the use of soil/cement became more expensive than
concrete blocks.
Soil/cement blocks are considerably heavier than the
hollow concrete blocks and, being more porous, also requires more mortar.
It took almost twice as long to build a house using soil/cement blocks,
thus offsetting the advantages of lower material cost.
The final house
in soil/cement blocks was about 50 percent more expensive than the
concrete-block house. In addition, in the climate of Trinidad, while
concrete blocks could be expected to have a life
of 50 to one hundred
years, soil/cement blocks showed signs of deterioration after only two.
Clearly, in the context of Trinidad, the benefits of the concrete block
outweighed its
initial
higher cost. My point, once again, is not that
soil/cement is not useful, but only that "usefulness" must be measured by
a consideration of overall benefits, not by some narrow measure of
"oappropriateness". There are many situations where earth is an extremely
beneficial building material, particularly when it is stabilized with a
small quantity of cement and especially in rural areas where conventional
cement blocks are not available and where the use of adobe or earth
bricks is already a well-established building technique."
I
differ
with
many
of
the
interpretations
Trinidad, because of my personal
housing-cost
in
First,
of
the
research
in
experience in similar comparative
Ghana.
all
the previous itemised advantages of the usage of mud
favour soil/cement blocks rather than concrete blocks with the exception
of the overall cost which is
the bone of contention now.
blocks being 50 percent cheaper is
The soil/cement
true because soil/cement blocks can be
made perfectly with a cement-soil ratio of as low as 1:30 as compared
with the conventional
production. 2
In
the
mix used in
This shows that the quantity of cement is
case
of
a
complete
soil/cement blocks is
Given
1:6 (cement-sand)
equal
house,
more expensive
conditions
for
I
question
concrete blocks
relatively small.
whether
the
use
of
than hollow concrete blocks.
the
construction
of
two
one-story
dwellings
soil/cement blocks
of
and
hollow
blocks,
concrete
difference between the costs of the two foundations is
the
almost negligeble,
regardless of the relative heaviness of the soil/cement blocks.
The fact
that soil/cement blocks, being more porous and needing more mortar is
I guess Rybozynski
Here,
questionable.
as a protection against rain or moisture.
achieve the desired results if
for plastering
means more mortar
No amount of cement mortar can
the proper technique
is
not used.
If the
This point is
proper technique is applied, it does not need much mortar.
discussed more fully below.
Secondly,
the double
of soil/cement block is
blocks,
time it
took for the construction of the house
doubtful!
Given equal sizes of hollow concrete
soil/cement blocks and competent masons,
soil/cement blocks are
faster to lay because in laying hollow concrete blocks, much more care is
needed
to avoid drops of mortar falling into the voids of the blocks to
defeat the purpose of insulation--preventing
into enclosed spaces.
Therefore,
concrete hollow blocks take much more
masonry with higher
for much more skilled
time and even call
cost--man per hour.
In addition,
electric wiring particularly,
easily heat transmission
when it
comes to plumbing works and
is
Thirdly,
blocks showed
if
in
harder and needs
concrete hollow block is
much more care and time for chiselling or drilling
upon whether it
labour
cavities
depending
conduit or surface wiring.
the climate of Trinidad (being tropical),
signs of deterioration after
two years,
it
was
soil/cement
due to
the
lack of construction techniques but not the mere material usage per se.
Plastering poses a major problem
treatment.
Conventional
in
mud wall (or
cement/sand plaster
soil/cement wall)
has always failed when
applied to a mud or soil/cement wall as a protection against rain.
This
is
so because
different
under
temperature
variation,
the two materials
move
0.000004.3
at different
While unstabilised mortar makes a very good bond with mud walls,
off.
tends to absorp water easily.
rainfall,
it
is
However,
of
and the cement mortar peels
and the bound between them is broken,
rates,
co-efficient
that of cement eing 0.000012 while that of mud is
expansion,
Hence
mud and cement mortar have
it
The surface swells up and under driving
washed away.
thorough practice and study have proved
that very weak
sand/cement mortar 1:12 mix gives a better adhesion to the mud fabric.
Also,
bitumen stabilised soil rendering of mixes varying between 1:10 for
external walls to 1:16 for internal walls have been found to be adequate.
Moreover,
(20
mm)
eaves
plaster thickness of 1/2 (12
mm)
for external walls with a two-coat
are
adequate
to withstand
hollow block house:
(Concrete
for internal
surface and 3/4"
line wash coupled with ample
weathering
effects
on
the
walls.
1/2" thickness of mortar--cement/sand--l:6
and external walls.
mortar-cement/soil--1:12
for internal
Soil/cement house:
1/2" thickness of
for external walls and 3/4" thickness of mortar,
1:16 for internal walls).
Even though the external walls of a soil
thickness more of mortar,
for soil/cement
houses is
by comparing
cement house take a 1/4"
the cement components,
less than half the cost of the concrete house
unless the same mortar composition for concrete houses is
used for soil/cement houses,
did.
It
must,
however,
imported material
the mortar
which I believe is
incorrectly
what the U.N.
experts
be noted that the size of the cost of the foreign
component is
the critical issue to the poor developing
countries.
So far one can see that the "narrow measure of appropriate" Witold
talks of, applies in
back in
1966
his own case.
How can one project in an area as far
applicable
be generally
circumstances?
to all
Even then,
the techniques used could be faulty, I am convinced.
Furthermore,
be "extremely
conventional
Rybozynski points out that soil/cement blocks can only
in
especially
beneficial",
the
rural
where
areas
cement blocks are not available, and where earth bricks are
The fact
building technique.
already a well-established
is
that
there
are rural poor as well as urban poor who are deprived of adequate housing
partly by official housing regulations which have no room for soil/cement
blocks
as
a decent
availability,
material
If
in
rural
or urban.
is not a matter
of
It is a question of affordability of any
question.
I am correct,
Rybozynski seems to be convinced that earth bricks
are already well-established
countries,
It
building material.
in
the rural areas.
But in
the developing
most of the old original neighbourhoods were built with earth
construction techniques, which proves that the techniques were better
is
only in
the course of time that people have been forced by circumstances
to shift
today earth bricks construction is
a well-
known and better established in the bigger settlements.
to foreign materials.
established
technique in
authorities would find it
borrowed regulations
If
the rural areas,
it
is
It
due to the fact that the
almost practically impossible to enforce their
on the rural communities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The present Ghana official housing standards must be overhauled, but
a research programme should be undertaken
first
including
the
following
steps:
a)
Due consideration must be given to the study of traditional building
practices,
and the following need much attention:
i)
dampness drawn up into earthed walls;
ii)
termites attack on the foot of earth walls
foundations
leading
to wall collapsing;
iii)
beaten laterite
floor treatment to stand wear and tear, and
less frequent treatment;
iv)
foundation erosion from the rains;
v) types of wall plastering materials such as cow dung,
cotton seed
tar, etc.;
vi) termites attack on wooden posts placed in
the ground, and wodden
frames for doors and windowns;
vii) lime as a stabilising agent; and
viii) roofing materials like thatch and mud.
b)
Research on traditional
building practices should be intensified;
and the following should be critically examined:
i)
good cross-ventilation while still
maintaining excellent heat
insulation;
ii) utilisation of space.
More saving in
amenities.
housing costs can be made by economising on space and
Reducing space standards can help considerably
in cities
and water brings public
Sharing toilets
with high land costs.
housing within reach of a much greater proportion
services,
individual
in
and this,
in
any case,
than housing with
has a value of its own
preventing isolation and developing community
contacts.
Further
savings can be made by providing multi-family dwellings with shared
outer walls, foundations, ro fs and staircases, rather than freestanding individuals.
iii)
household patterns;
iv) craftmanship;
v)
techniques.
built with traditional
c)
leading to price range of houses
labour-materials cost ratio,
The various
land
device
common
customarily
tenure
systems should be carefully studies for a
to regularize
the
deal technically
tenure
system
or
make
the
legal without any bureaucratic cost
with the Lands Department to
like the registration of land titles
the disadvantage of the poor.
d)
The research must reflect
(i)
on the two geographical areas of Ghana;
the humid tropical belt
of
belt
the
relationships
north
of the south and (ii)
since
the
two
climates
to the types of traditional
the dry Saharian
have
different
building practices in
the
country.
e)
These research results will then be the cornerstone of a new set of
Housing Standards--The
should
have
following
its
Cultural Standards.
appropriate
regulations
for
local
needs,
the
should be considered as the basic guidelines for the
cultural housing standards:
1.
Although each region
Application and Registration.
land tenure system.
a) Room should be given to the traditional
2.
Design Standards
a)
Any professional
in
industry
the construction
provided the designs presented for approval
its
address of the professional involved in
could
design
include the name and
preparation.
b) The whole design from housing to communal buildings and layout
should be based on traditional concepts (where practicable).
c) Encourage the use of local building materials to the maximum.
d)
should be planned and sited so that they are suitably
Buildings
into
integrated
to
relationship
each
other
in
ensure adequate
will
placement
the surrounding
environment;
terms
bulk and
of
for
daylight
they have
occupants
form;
and
proper
their
provide
adequate privacy for users.
e) Courtyards should be encouraged since they will cast shadow which
will let them become livable spaces for human beings and plants.
f)
Although sunlight is
buildings
areas,
tropical
in
particularly
undesirable
in
improved health.
bedrooms
it
during most of the year inside
is
necessary
in
some
spaces
where the eastern sunlight contributes
Adequate sunlight is
to
also healthy and necessry for
internal courtyards and service backyards.
i)
Internal
areas
if
courtyards
should not be less
they are to provide
than 12
light for rooms.
square meters in
The minimum width of
courtyards in this case should be 3 meters and the maximum height of
the building should not be more than 3 times the minimum width (9
meters).
ii)
To get rid off undesirable
sunlight,
external
protected by roof overhangs or vegetations.
walls
should be
Roofs should be well-
ventilated to drive away trapped pockets of hot air.
g)
h) Privacy:
prevent
mandatory.
The design of buildings should
be carried out
the possibility of overlooking between external windows
other living,
to
to
sleeping or service quarters of the building.
1) The house entrance
expose the internal
i)
is
The requirement for cross-ventilation
itself
should be designed in
the doorway is
part of the space if
a way not to
open.
More than one entrance for each dwelling should be encouraged,
main entrance and back or service entrance.
3
Utilities Services
a) Rainwater drainage:
drainage
facilities.
dwelling units should have adequate
all
No drainage
should be permitted
through
adjacent properties.
b)
Orienting
the
urban
to man
environment
than
rather
the
automobile.
i)
A complete
networks.
separation between pedestrian and vehicular traffic
Where
practicable,
vehicles
should not be
permitted
to
enter neighbourhoods such as in the gridiron system.
c) The quantity,
location, design and management of usable public or
command open space and any related facilities
must be designed with
regard to:
i)
the overall housing density,
ii)
the social character of the
A permanent
locality.
commission to administer the new code should be set up
to hold hearings and revise and review
the recommendations,
areas.
the regulations
in
the
light of
the experience of the country and of other tropical
f)
the presnt
some of
Immediate action be taken to revise
regulations
and by-laws which hold up progress and increases costs, since new
regulations
take a long time to formulate.
regulations will also take some time,
changes,
however,
and replaced by rules ensuring
points:
some of the most important
particular
those
The restrictions could be removed
that housing
the functional and the technical.
also assure good aesthetic.
in
forthwith,
can be introduced
concerning compacted earth walls.
Revision of the present
adequate
is
from these
Note that this would
these characteristics depend
After all,
less on the materials used than on the plans and the care with which
they are carried out.
g)
If
the creation of a permanent commission to deal with the revision
of
the present regulations
and by-laws plus
Housing Standards will bring financial
increase
the
already
over-burden
tasks.
proposed
Cultural
burden to the government or
government
Building and Road Research Institute in
over the task since the institute
the
bureaucracy,
the
Kumagi can be asked to take
was purposely set up for such
CHAPTER FIVE
1.
"Interim Report on Some Aspects of Low Cost Houses Built in Trinidad
and Tobago," unpublished report of the United Nations Technical
Assistance Program to the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, by
Alvaro Ortega and P. Selvanayagam, October, 1966.
2.
K.AddaeAppau,Bricks and Brickworks: The Case of Ghana,
Bouwcentrum International Education, Rotterdam, December 1980.
3.
"The Potentialities of Local Building Materials in
Report No. 754:
Mass-Housing in Ghana," K. Addae Appau, 35th 1CHP. Jan./June 1980,
Rotterdam, Holland, p. 40.
IMPLEMENTATION
Before the Cultural Housing Standard is
Ghana could easily promulgate a decree to effect its
for
however,
impossible,
it,
sanction
legislatively
a
it
must be
The present military government of
instrument.
backed by a legislative
implemented,
democratic
although
it
legality.
government
civilian
could
It is not
take
time
some
to
for
parliamentary procedures.
After the Cultural Housing Standards have been legalised by the
central government,
the new regulations will definitely take a long time
since they must wait for study experience
to formulate,
local methods and materials adequate in performance.
then,
some
regulations.
in
important
changes can be
Some of the most important
before
However,
introduced in
local materials
the
are
present
prohibited
urban areas under existing regulations and often prohibitions
less on the materials used than on the case and skill
is
to prove the
carried out.
Sound construction,
for instance,
depend
with which the work
can take place with
compacted earth or swish and the.restrictions against the use of these
materials
should
be removed.
More emphasis should be placed upon
inspection and approved of the methods by which the material is
Rules and regulations
should vary between one region and another as
would standards for the large city and small,
the city and the rural
area.
Engineers' and Contractors'
applied.
In
the city and the suburb,
revising building codes,
the Civil
Associations should be consulted and heard in
addition to other experts of housing.
There are a number of building materials that can be made locally
and an effort to introduce them with government aid would probably yield
beneficial results.
Small
industries and workshops producing and selling
local building materials and prefabricated building components should be
Materials that lend themselves to such local
encouraged and helped.
manufacturers'
are:
wood components,
matting,
etc.
(a) baked clay products, e.g. bricks and tiles;
e.g., doors, windows,
Baked
products
light framing,
such as
undertaken in
strategic areas by handicraft,
be
to
required
brickmaking
launch
the
a small-scale
is
bricks
In
individualized
surrounding rural and urban areas.
shingles, bamboo
and
tiles
so that little
enterprises.
(b)
Turkey,
enterprise
could
be
capital would
for
example,
serving
the
Small-scale localized operations
should be encouraged experimentally with government aid whenever clay and
scrap timber for fuel are available.
experience
is,
Training
indicates.
therefore,
Operations should be widened as
instructors,
however,
are essential.
It
recommended that a general policy be evolved promoting
such small-scale workshops throughout the country instead of a large
centralized operation in
say Accra, the national
capital.
Some prefabricated wooden components can also be manufactured in
factories
located in
the forest areas or by local artisans.
Road Research Institute
Here too,
should then study these standard components.
less risk would be involved in
than area involved in
larger undertakings.
types can be manufactured--not
seasoned
lumber
in
Building and
setting up smaller factories
Roofing materials of various
only clay tiles
abundance in
the country's
products such as grass and reed-matting
but shingles from better
forests.
for ceilings
Other local
and bamboo-matting
for verandahs and fences and screens can also be undertaken.
During the period of the formulation of the new regulations,
demonstration houses should be built throughout
some
the country especialy
in
the rural areas where the majority of the population live to prove to
them that their cultural heritage if
cherished with proper care,
will be
of a better help to them than what they may imagine.
After the formulation of the new regulations,
housing
(where
projects
practicable)
must
be
governmental
then all
based
them
on
indicator to the public the seriousness of the government's
and further,
to remove
from people's minds
as an
intentions
the present public bad image
for traditional building practices.
might consider prospective home builders
Financial institutions
using the Cultural Housing Standards for home mortgages
could be backed by the central government since in
if
the mortgages
most cases the rural
and the urban poor do not have the necessary collateral.
attract prospective home builders,
the
various
interest
financial
on mortgages,
government.
privileged
Here,
In order to
the central government should require
institutions
to charge
lower
fixed
rates
of
the difference being subsidized by the central
strict
scrutiny is
necessary to avoid the already
taking undue advantage of the system to the detriment of the
under-privileged.
Individual
that the liberty
harmony.
liberty is
to be prized highly but only to the extent
of individuals does not consist of inhibiting social
People may do as they like, but only so long as doing so does
not prevent others also from doing as they like.
national
reconciliation
on
this issue,
So in order to foster
those who think
they can afford
the high standards of the present regulations should be allowed
to build
with them,
housing
for any abrupt abolition of the present official
resentments
standards may create some social and political
from the
privileged class who regard their built-environment as a significant
reflection on their social strata in
With the Cultural
the society.
Housing Standards,
the government then could
provide additional help to the marginal urban masses by going into siteand-services programmes.
It
will cost less if
land deals with the traditional owners,
standards,
some
the government negotiates
and, with reasonable housing
international agencies may be sympathetic to come to the
aid of the government to help tackle the acute housing problem.
with already
it
serviced plots,
Also,
the urban low-income groups will then find
financially bearable to embark upon self-built shelters using the new
standards.
Even with legal
titles
to their pieces of
beneficiaries may win the confidence of the local
for housing mortgages.
land,
financial
some of the
institutions
Possible Problems with the Proposed Cultural Housing Standards
No doubt the Cultural Housing Standard may face stiff
groups.
They may see it as a
concerned.
Greater support may
mainly from the rich and the middle-income
regressive
approach as far as housing is
come from the rural community and especially
not policy makers.
opposition,
but they are
the urban poor,
Even then, some of the urban poor may be easily
corrupted into believing that the Cultural Housing Standard's proposal is
another
"social
optical
upliftment" in
Yet, I believe
priorities
the government is
illusion
housing.
that effort
find
can only
their
using to suppress
to achieve a redirection of national
support
if
it
begins
local
by mobilizing
communities on the basis of their right to self-determination.
They
constitute the only potential pressure groups which can be mobilised
immediately,
immediate and
and
they probably can only be mobilised on the grounds
the position the Cultural
local benefit,
of
Housing Standard
assumes.
However,
there will
implementation and its
standards at the
still
be major problems in
interpretation,
reconciliation with the present official
initial
stages.
as city building inspectors,
Admittedly,
will
practices from the beginning.
find it
building
housing
technicians
very difficult
such
to detect
bad
Huge sums of money may have to be sunk
into workshops for orientation courses for the short-run,
but in
the
long-run the multiplied effects of benefits may be worth the initial
costs.
Last but not
practicable at all
least,
in
the Cultural Housing
Standards
some urban areas where land is
may not be
very scarce, and
terms of tower blocks) are
high densities (in
urban
land-use.
the best way of optimising
Hence, my earlier suggestion that rules and regulations
should vary between one region and another as would standards for the
large city and the small,
area.
the city and the suburb,
This proposal is not an end in itself.
It is a means to minimise
the importation of materials for housing because
exchange in Ghana.
especially
the
It
urban
indigenous resources.
gives greater
poor,
latitude
the city and the rural
of scarcity of foreign
to the
for- decent affordable
low-income groups,
housing by maximising
CONCLUSION
drawn by the cities' promise
the rural areas by poverty,
driven from
the urban poor were first
In most Third World countries,
of wealth where
average incomes were two or three times higher than rural areas.
western
and
cities,
these enclaves of privilege, modelled on
built
colonial powers first
established
high
rates
of pay
government bureaucrats and managers who inhabited them.
sector.
for
the
higher
Independence
who ran the new
The westernized elites
brought no change of approach.
their main ambition the extension of the
governments had as
The
modern
They concentrated on modern capital-intensive industry, which
cost a great deal and therefore could provide few jobs.
In the housing sphere, they built housing to excessive western
standards,
which only a small minority could afford.
there
and
was
materials.
there
is
misplaced
still
fascination
the country's economy can no
a dual city--an island of wealth
Outside the bright,
surrounded by a belt of misery.
of skyscrapers,
flyovers and desirable residences,
disease and neglect,
rusted corrugated
in
iron roofing
health centres,
Nevertheless,
and in most cases,
longer bear the pressure.
Almost every Third World city is
sewers,
with "modern"
But these materials are imported and they exert strenuous
constraint on the country's foreign exchange position;
squalor,
Not only that,
schools,
shining modern city
the poor are camped in
shacks and huts of plywood,
sheets,
cardboard,
and usually without clean water,
paved roads or paying jobs.
housing planners are insensitive to the problems
caused by continuing
is
standards
practices.
to inappropriate
one
the
of
building
most costly
aspects
from
standards
borrowing of other countries'
The haphazard
periods.
the colonial
and
adherence
codes
of building
code
The code becomes too costly to comply with or too impractical
to follow; violations are inevitable and soon the code either becomes
meaningless to majority of the poor or it
limits building progress.
Yet,
that local governments enforce the codes
the housing planners insist
in
send their building inspectors to
turn,
vigorously.
City governments,
the field.
Some of them either face humiliation or accept bribes in
attonement for home builders breaking any minor building code.
The
proof of burden, therefore, falls on the poor who cannot pay bribes.
A vicious circle operates:
building practices
give much attention
because
housing planners dismiss traditional
they are "inferior".
to improving
And researchers do not
them because housing planners are not
interested.
because most
Government house-building programmes are a failure
urban poor cannot afford even the cheapest house.
the urban poor,
therefore,
Housing programmes for
end up supplying houses for middle-income
groups--the open secret of the housing policy of Ghana.
squatter upgrading and site-and-services
prospect for the poor.
Self-help,
schemes seem to offer
But the current housing
the best
standards make such
schemes go beyond the means of the poor.
Building regulations exist in all
a guarantee
to
society
They are essential,
that certain minimum standards
even under unfavourable conditions.
date techniques and routine,
by hampering
countries.
But,
as
will be observed
when they are based on out-of-
they often conflict with the public interest
the efforts of innovators and by stultifying
progress.
They must not be
Their function is to define, not means, but ends.
fixed,
but must be subject to amendment and review,
rapidly developing
case of cheap dwellings in
especially in
tropical
the
possible to do a great deal to improve the quality of life for
is
marginal
urban masses,
even in
their present
many people they can house to uniform high standards,
lack of resources,
be provided for all
a basic
level of housing,
but how,
given the
can
services and utilities
the urban poor or at least
greater part of them
three possible approaches.
There are
within a short space of time.
state of poverty.
The problem is not to see how
Governments have limited -resources yet.
First,
where
badly lacking.
information on economic needs and scientific data is
It
countries,
the
the cost of new housing and services can be cut drastically
reducing standards
afford; hence,
to a realistic
level
that governments and people can
my call for the Cultural Housing Standards.
The second is
to accept and legalise existing "squatter" (depending upon its
settlements and
to make
tenure (where
does not exist) and
it
them more habitable,
schools and health centres
privileged
by
nature)
by giving residents secure
laying out the roads,
water,
light,
to which they have as much right as the
inhabitants of the modern city.
The third approach--necessary
for new migrants and people rehoused from those shanty towns that are
incapable of rehabilitation--is
to provide a small,
ready-serviced
plots
of land and leave new squatters to build their own houses without much
compliance
ensured
to
the rigid
that
builders
structural
that all
integrity in
official
housing standards
incorporate
their products.
more
It
than
must,
a
minimal
however,
the three approaches are complementary,
best when the people are mobilized to participate
although
it
must be
degree
of
be emphasised
and they can succeed
in
improving their own
environment.
and the building regulations must be
Every day brings new knowledge,
to enable
enough
elastic
that knowledge
use.
to be put to practical
the aim of building regulations should be to lay down a certain
Hence,
number of simple rules guaranteeing
regularly reviewed in
the quality of housing.
the light of progress, should be compulsory for
should be given
but performance criteria preference
builders in general,
These rules,
to research organizations,
qualified architects and civil engineers,
who
can produce the same quality by methods different from those specified in
This exception would be applied in
the regulations.
Building and Road Research Institute,
be
to
study
and
try
out new
since their precise function should
methods
covered by the new regulations
of Ghana,
should provide
make
more
methods
test
use.
in
to do so on the advice
should be allowed
the B.R.R.I.
construct prototype houses using Cultural
areas
to
of Building and Road Research
the control
The government
and
engineers desiring to use methods not
Qualified architects and civil
and under
to the
particular
accurate
behavior and life of materials,
Institute (B.R.R.I.).
with money enough to
Housing Standards
costing
studies,
for various
determine
the
the practicality and efficiency of design
and structure against the elements and the guiding of prospective owners
as to the type of houses best suited to their needs.
A permanent
commission responsible for reviewing and bringing the
regulations up-to-date
made
in
Ghana
necessary.
the light of research
other
tropical
countries,
results and of progress
will
be
essentially
An alternative Cultural Housing Standard based on need rather
than ability
standard
and
in
to pay,
of
may offer millions of working people a decent
accommodation
which
they
would
otherwise
have
found
unattainable.
For many of them, it may even break the link between
formal standards and bad housing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Man's Struggle for Shelter in
Abrams, C., 1964:
(MIT Press) Massachusetts.
an Urbanising World.
Agency for International Development--Department of State, Washington,
DC, 1978: Ghana Preliminary Study Shelter Sector.
1981:
Andrae, G.,
Studies) Uppsa la.
Industry
in
Ghana (Scandinavian
1973:
M.,
Martin, R.,
P.,
Christie,
Andrews,
Evolution of a Life Style," Architectural Design,
25.
Institute of African
"Squatters and
January 1973, pp.
the
16-
Appau, K. A., December 1980: Bricks and Brickworks: The Case of Ghana.
(Bouwcentrum International Education), Rotterdam, Holland.
Appau, K. A., June 1980: The Potentialities of Local Building Materials
(35th ICHPB) Rotterdam, Holland.
in Mass-Housing in Ghana.
Appau, K. A., 1978:
"Squatter Settlement:
Creation?"
Ghana Library.
Cox,
H. W.,
1976:
Cities:
Does Poverty Dominate it
The Public Dimension.
(Penguin Books).
Seminar paper
1976:
The Janata Colony Case.
S. G.,
Deshpande,
distributed at the Self-Help Housing Symposium at the Habitat Forum, U.N.
Conference on Human Settlements, Vancouver.
The Basis for a National Housing
Ghana Government, December 1972:
Policy. (B.R.R.I. Press) Kumagi-Ghana.
Ghana Government,
Accra.
(P.E.S.).
1974:
Ghana Government, 1976:
1960 and 1970 Popu-lation
Population of Ghana.
Census.
Vol. VI
(Accra).
United Nations Conference
Report of Habitat:
Habitat, 1976a:
New York.
Settlements, Vancouver, A/Conf. 70/15.
on Human
Urban Slums and Squatter Settlements in the Third World.
Habitat, 1976d:
Note by the Secretary General, U.N. Conference on Human Settlements,
A/Conf. 70/RPC/q.
Habraken, N. J., 1972:
Supports:
Architectural Press), London.
Hall,
E. T.,
1966:
Harmes, H., 1976:
April 1976.
An Alternative
The Hidden Dimension.
to Mass-Housing.
(Garden City),
(The
New York.
"Limitations of Self-Help," Architectural
Design,
Harrison, P.,
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