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Transgenics: The Scientific Mystery of Today’s Species
Leanna B. Rippey
Radford University: Core 201
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Abstract
Transgenic animals are species that exhibit traits not normally found in an animal. The
organism is genetically engineered by removing certain genes and modifying them to function
differently in another species. There are many pros and cons to transgenic research. The genes
can produce a stronger organism, more capable of producing the goods desired. Transgenics are
not organisms being altered through selective breeding, but through technological methods.
These technological methods of breeding organisms produces new life forms that sometimes
cross species boundaries, and that have long term effects on the environment. Also, the blending
of DNA from different organisms may cause unintended personal, social, and cultural
consequences. The genes are not normally found in the organism and can produce mass
changes. This paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic
research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Transgenic
research does not typically give the necessary information to develop an opinion of the safety
features that the animals are guaranteed in the experiments.
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Transgenic research was first recognized as a possibility when DNA was discovered and
scientists realized that you could use DNA to construct bacteria and other genes through genetic
engineering practices. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA in 1953, which
developed transgenic research in the 1950s with Joshua Lederberg. Lederberg pioneered the
earliest transgenic techniques by beginning genetic engineering with the shuffling of genetic
materials with bacteria (Whitesides, 2003, pp. 529-530). Legerberg was the first to use
transgenic research to produce a different gene that could modify another organism in a desired
way. Transgenics is the ability to introduce foreign or genetically modified genes into the gene
line of an organism and let the genes encounter genetic manipulation (Jaenisch, 1988, p. 1468).
Transgenic cells have the ability to pass on the new characteristics to new cells when they
reproduce because the organism will reproduce the foreign transgenes during cell division
(World of Micrbiology and Immunology, 2003, p. 551). The gene that was genetically modified
will be produced for future generations when the organism reproduces because cell division uses
the modified gene, even though it is foreign to the organism. Transgenic research has been
completed on many different organisms and the focus of this text will be genetic modification of
animals.
There are many pros and cons to transgenic or genetic engineering in species of animals.
Jaenish (1988) states to the American Association for the Advancement of Science that, “The
information gained from the use of the transgenic technology is relevant to almost any aspect of
modern biology including developmental gene regulation, the action of oncogenes, the immune
system, and mammalian development” (p, 1468). There are also many cons with the production
of transgenic organism. Cons involved in transgenic research can include: mutations on
organisms, the creation of new species potentially may blur the species boundaries, the long term
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effects on the organism and the environment, and unintentional personal, social, and cultural
consequences (Glenn, 2004, para.1). The organism that the research is tested on could bring
many benefits to society, but the safety of the experiments or the gene mutations of genetic
engineering techniques are not looked upon when the testing begins. The organism may be
enduring intense pain or other changes that cannot be prevented because the safety features are
not understood or agreed on by scientists and the public as a whole. They will also not have any
valuable input on the effects that the transgenic research has nor can the research be completely
reversed if a problem occurs because safety is not a main focus in the genetic engineering of an
animal. This paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic
research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Without the
proper safety precautions, animals could be harmed without the general public knowing the risks
that the animals are undergoing. The pros and cons will be reviewed in this research paper and
the value of safety will ethically dismantle the argument supporting the genetic engineering of an
organism for the benefit of humans.
One of the many pros of genetic engineering or transgenic research on animals is the fact
that many human and other diseases found in organisms can be studied in more detail in search
of a cure. Many studies are completed by scientists to discover cures for diseases like renal
disease. Medicine is ever changing and the use of animals to research the genes and how a slight
modification in the gene pool could prevent or aid in the symptoms of a disease. Scientists
perform genetic engineering techniques on organisms to find the solutions to medical issues that
humans face around the world, and find the most effective solutions for the creation of medicine
and cures. Other medical aspects that transgenic organisms are included in are: transplant organs
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by aiding in the production of an exact match, nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals
through modified animal milk, and aiding in the production of red blood cells.
A study completed in 2005 about the end stages of renal diseases stated, “Although the
use of these animals (mainly knockouts) has highlighted some pitfalls of this approach
(compensation by closely related gene products, absence of temporal knockouts) it has brought
important information about the role of specific gene-products…” (Bascands & Schanstra, 2005,
p. 925). Even though the study proved that the animals may have suffered some knock-outs and
other pitfalls, researchers found many benefits on how to aid those who suffer from renal
disease. Further use of these animals, especially in combination with pharmacologic tools,
produces molecules and process that gave scientists the necessary knowledge needed to find a
medicine for the diseases that humans and other organisms suffer from. The research helped
scientists find many factors that cause the symptoms of renal disease and they can better find a
solution with the signs that the animals produced (Bascands & Schanstra, 2005, p. 925).
Patients die every day because of the lack of transplant organs available. Transgenic pigs
may become the solution to the shortage of hearts, livers, and other transplant organs that are
desperately needed. Endang Tri Margawati (2003) says, “Currently, xenotransplantation is
hampered by a pig protein that can cause donor rejection but research is underway to remove the
pig protein and replace it with a human protein” (para. 21). The pig’s genes will be engineered
to suit the human, and the organs will be modified by removing aspects of the pig that would not
be sustained in the body of a human or other organism. The organism will then be given the
organ and since the pig aspects will be removed, it will be able to function as the organ needed
by the transplant patient.
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Another aspect of medicine that benefits from the use of transgenic animals is that animal
milk can be changed by the use of transgenics to aid in the creation of supplements and
pharmaceuticals that can benefit humans and other organisms. Products such as insulin, growth
hormone, and blood anti-clotting factors may soon be or have already been obtained by the milk
of transgenic animals. It is “underway to manufacture milk through transgenesis for treatment of
debilitating diseases such as phenylketonuria (PKU), hereditary emphysema, and cystic fibrosis”
(Margawati, 2003, para. 22). These diseases can have solutions with the use of a product that
animals naturally produce, just by altering their genes to sustain the supplements that are needed
in suffering patients. The milk of the transgenic animal will have the nutrients that a patient
needs and will create the modifications needed for a patient to live a better life through the
consumption of the supplements in the genetically modified organism.
Finally, the research of transgenics for the use of medicine is concluded by the
reproduction of red blood cells in the human body. With the use of milk of a transgenic
organism, scientists have reason to believe that they can discover a way to reproduce red blood
cells. It will add a normal copy of a gene that produces non-working red blood cells with a copy
of the same gene that is proper working order (Margawati, 2003, para. 24). This will aid in
finding cures for over 5,000 named genetic diseases and many other issues that can affect an
organism; also allowing scientists to find a solution to help patients suffering from red blood cell
malfunctions.
Agricultural applications are also greatly affected by the use of transgenic animals.
Herds with desired traits can be manufactured by genetic engineering. Traditional selective
breeding is difficult and risky, but with transgenic research, scientists have discovered ways to
modify genes in organisms to show a desired trait without the time consuming task of selective
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breeding. Scientists can also use the genetic engineering techniques to make livestock larger and
less resistant to disease. Just like the medical research completed by Bascands and Schanstra
(2005), other animals can have genes added to their gene pool to produce lower chances of
contracting a disease (p. 927). Scientists will target the genes within the animal and find another
gene to replace with the mutated gene to solve any disease issues that an organism may face
(Margawati, 2003, para. 19). Not only will scientists be more likely to reduce the deaths of some
organisms with genetic modification, they will also have the ability to produce a larger or
stronger organism. They will use the hormones already in the organism and modify them with
genetic engineering techniques to make the animal larger. Scientists will target the genes that
make the animal and modify it enough to increase the size of the animal in the aspect that the
farmer desires (Paarlberg, 2008, p. 6-7).
Another major pro to transgenic research is the industrial applications that the animal can
produce. The production of silk when a goat is infused with the silk gene of a spider aiding the
production of a strong material used by the military and police departments for safety gear.
Another industrial aspect discovered by scientists is toxicity sensitive testing that can produce
chemical reactions quicker, not harming the animal in any way, but still receiving the chemical
tests that an industry needs to prove the success of a product (Margawati, 2003, para. 28).
Animals are used in the industrial setting to produce goods in a cleaner and safer way for the
environment and can produce the goods in a more efficient manner that can save money and
require less labor.
There are also many cons found in transgenic research. One of the many cons is the
creation of new life forms that may cross or blur the species boundaries. Crossing the
boundaries of a species is characterized by the combining of DNA genes from two or more
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organisms into one, technologically creating a modified version of an organism and allowing it
to reproduce (Baylis & Robert, 2006, para. 8). It is difficult enough to understand the genes that
make up organisms because there are so many different organisms in the world. By genetically
modifying the animals to have desired traits, we are making it even more difficult for scientists
to determine the common ancestors that produced the creatures we study today by evolution. We
cannot comparatively research the genetically modified organisms because we discover the
unique individuals by the differences in their genomes (Baylis & Robert, 2006, para. 9). By
genetically modifying animals, we continue to confuse ourselves by making it even more
difficult to produce common ancestors and gene sequences common in animals of the same
species.
When an animal is transgenically modified, it can suffer many long term effects. It is still
unknown how much pain or suffering the animals that are being tested endure. James T.
MacGregor (1998) stated that an, “established a link between the DNA reactivity of chemicals
and the induction of cancer and mutation and led to a concern that chemical exposures could
pose previously unappreciated health hazards: induction of germinal mutations that could modify
the gene pool and increase the incidence of heritable biochemical abnormalities, and somatic
mutations that could cause cancer and other somatic cell diseases” (p. 107). Although scientists
are working to solve many diseases, the transgenic animal may develop the disease through the
research due to the tests that insert the genes into its system. This can ultimately damage the
organism’s immune system or lead to death. Some research is very successful and leads to drugs
that are successful, but many of the transgenes are not useful to the research that scientists are
doing. This alludes to the fact that they are being used for unnecessary research and are dying in
vain (MacGregor, 1998, p. 107). Kristen Shrader-Frechette’s (2009) De Minimis Dilemma also
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comes in effect based on the safety standards of genetic research. How safe is safe enough? It is
not ethical to put an organism in danger for a benefit without first setting safety standards that
can be agreed on (61). This introduces a risk assessment that cannot be solved because the
human race as a whole holds different views of transgenic research and will not ever agree on a
specific set of safety standards.
Another concern of many individuals is the blending of human DNA with nonhuman
DNA. To Bernard Rollin (2003) of Colorado State University, genetic engineering
“illegitimately mixes human and animal traits” (p. 15). Genetic engineering has some forms of
genetically engineering traits of one human to clone another version of itself or also the removal
of specific traits that are not desired by a parent. Although the possibility of therapeutic
advances and cutting out diseases can be a result of genetic engineering, many find it ethically
wrong because it allows human interference in the production of a child. It is just not natural, or
the way of life. This is the formation of the “designer baby.” Transgenic research on humans is
a possibility for the future to ensure that the traits desired by the parents will be found in a child.
This will allow them to have certain advantages and place them ahead in life. Many consider
transgenic research the race to become the “superhuman,” and changing the ever-widening gap
between the haves and have nots in society (Glenn, 2004, para. 19).
Finally, the personal, social, and cultural differences that could be introduced to the world
if transgenic research becomes more popular are the last aspect of the argument. The social
aspect of transgenics is the fact that farmers or scientists that are maintaining the transgenic
organism could be funded a large amount of monetary gain and will be placed at a higher socioeconomic standing than anyone else in a country (Taskin & Ozdemir, 2005, p. 7). Transgenic
and genetic engineering on farms and labs would put many farmers and scientists in control of
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agricultural aspects, potentially damaging the agricultural developments of the natural breeding
of plants and animals. Cultural differences would be that the animals or humans that are altered
may stand out compared to similar organisms. This is another aspect of the blurring of species
boundaries, creating the possibility of the organism not being accepted for its differences. It may
face difficulties when finding a mate to reproduce, if it can even reproduce at all. Many
transgenic organisms will not survive out of a stable environment, making its survival in the wild
very rare.
Concluding, my argument is that transgenic research on animals is not ethical based on
Kristin Shrader-Frechette’s theories on dilemmas. She creates an illusion that to be ethical; the
technological advancement must meet the standards set up in her dilemmas. Transgenic research
exemplifies some of the serious dilemmas she discusses. Genetic engineering or transgenics
interfere with The Fact-Value Dilemma because it “cannot be both wholly factual/scientific and
wholly sanctioned via democratic processes because lay persons want ethical/moral
considerations to be taken into account” (Shrader-Frechette, 1992, p. 60). Some individuals have
argued that crossing species boundaries is unnatural, immoral, and in violation of God’s laws.
The argument matches The Fact-Value Dilemma because it thinks that an animal’s boundaries
are fixed and should not be tampered with for scientific research because they were created that
way for a reason. If the organism was created that way, their genes should not be tampered with.
The De Minimis Dilemma and The Consent Dilemma also arises because the safety of the
experiments in transgenics are not widely mentioned or even known and the animals or species
are not given the choice to deny the experiment (Shrader-Frechette, 1992, p. 61). The risks of
the experiment includes: inflicting pain, health risks, and tampering with environmental
adaptations; but these issues are not highly recognized by the scientists wanting this technology
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passed. The De Minimis Dilemma is the main argument because safety regulations are not put
into place when organisms are genetically engineered. It is not possible to create a set of
regulations that protect the animal because it is impossible to create a set of rules that everyone
can agree on in genetic engineering. Transgenics is such a slippery topic without the safety
issues being introduced. Many individuals disagree with transgenics anyway, so it would be
impossible for the world as a whole to agree on a set of regulations to be followed when
organisms are being genetically modified. Animals are not given the opportunity to give consent
to genetic engineering techniques before the research is completed, meaning they did not give
consent to be changed. The Consent Dilemma is a sub-unit to my argument because every
organism deserves the opportunity to give consent. The animals used in transgenic research are
not given a chance to stop the things that scientists are doing, but animals do not have the ability
to give proper consent. Given the choice, the organisms that scientists use for transgenic
research would not want to participate in the gene modification. Organisms do not want to face
the hardships of blurring the boundaries, the differences that they will have compared to nontrangenic organisms, and the health factors that they may suffer for scientific studies.
Hence, this paper argues that present genetic engineering of species through transgenic
research is ethically wrong due to the lack of information given to the general public, causing the
De Minimis Dilemma, which states that individuals hold different views of safety. Although I
mention that consent is a factor that all organisms deserve, I am not against transgenic research.
Organisms are studies and genetically engineered to aid in the bettering of the world as a whole.
There are many benefits to genetic engineering, such as: medical advances and increases in
agriculture and industry. The main issue with transgenic research is the lack of a set of safety
regulations for the treatment of the organisms. This is a dilemma that cannot be reversed
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because it is difficult to declare a threshold level at which to define negligible risk because all
individuals hold different expectations of safety features (Shrader-Frechette, 2009, 61).
Everyone is granted an opinion and until a consensus can be reached about transgenic research
about the safety issues, it will remain an unethical argument. The De Minimis Dilemma will hold
its value because safety is the main factor in the argument of transgenic research, and without
similar expectation of safety, it will not hold any ethical value. Without understanding the
dangers of genetic engineering, the value of ethics remains an issue due to the safety features that
are unknown and will not be agreed upon now or in the future.
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Bibliography
Baylis, F. & Robert, J. S. (2006). Primer on ethics and crossing species boundaries. Retrieved
November 4, 2010 from Actionbioscience.org:
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/baylis_robert.html
Bascands, J., & Schanstra, J. (2005). Obstructive nephropathy: Insights from genetically
engineered animals. Kidney International, 68(3), 925-937. doi:10.1111/j.15231755.2005.00486.x.
Glenn, L. M. (2004). Ethical issues in genetic engineering and transgenes. Retrieved November
8, 2010 from Actionbioscience.org: http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/glenn.html
Jaenisch, R. (1988). Transgenic animals. Science, 240(4858), 1468-1474, doi:
10.1126/science.3287623.
Margawati, E. T. (2003, January). Transgenic animals: Their benefits to human welfare.
Retrieved November 2, 2010 from Actionbioscience.org:
http://www.actionbioscience.org/biotech/margawati.html
MacGregor, J.T. (1998). Transgenic animal models for mutagenesis studies: Role
in mutagenesis research and regulatory testing. Environmental and
MolecularMutagenesis 32(1), 106-109. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete
database.
Paarlberg, R. (2008). The ethics of modern agriculture. Society, 46(1), 4-8,
doi:10.1007/s12115-008-9168-3.
Rollin, B. E. (2003). Ethics and Species Integrity. American Journal of Bioethics, 3(3), 15-17.
Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
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Shrader-Frechette, K. (1992). Techonlogy and ethics. In C. Hawks (Ed.), Technology and
Value (pp. 60-64). New York: Blackwell.
I located this article from a class handout and in the Technology and Value print book, by editor
C. Hawks. This is a scholarly article because it is used in a well noted source, published
in Technology and Value, a book that is used for the fields of science, technology, and
philosophy to debunk an argument by dilemmas introduced by Shrader-Frechette. The
article first explains the different types of dilemmas that are involved in an argument and
gives a detailed definition of why the argument may not be valid based on the rules that
she explains. I find this source useful to my paper topic because it is the base of my
argument; it explains that consent and other dilemmas give value to an argument and if
any of the dilemmas are placed into question, the argument will have consequences for
some viewers of the research.
Taşkın, B., & Özdemir, O. (2006). A life with transgenics in 21^st century. Journal
of Cell & Molecular Biology, 5(1), 1-11. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete
database.
Transgenics. (2003). In B. Lerner & K. Lerner (Eds.). World of Microbiology and Immunology,
2. Detroit: Gale Group. Retrieved October 21, 2010 from Gale Virtual Reference Center
via Gale:
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&in
PS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=viva_radford&tabID=T003&searchId=R5&r
esultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&
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currentPosition=1&contentSet=GALE|CX3409800558&&docId=GALE|CX3409800558
&docType=GALE&role=
I located this article using Gale Virtual Reference Library using the search of the title of the
article “Transgenics.” This is a scholarly article based on publication of the article in the second
volume of the World of Microbiology and Immunology and was published for the use of
scientists and other researchers when looking for transgenic research and information. The
article first explains what transgenics are and the process that scientists conduct when beginning
the transgenic research on an organism, the genetic code rules and how the organism will use the
modified genes in sync with other genes they exhibit, and the processes that the modified genes
will have in the body of the transgenic organism, all while not taking a definite side on the
controversy of transgenic research on organisms. I find this source useful to my paper topic
because it explains the process that is commonly used in the gene modification and explains the
scientific process that takes place in the organism when the gene is placed in the bodies, which
are essential to the focus of my paper on transgenic research on organisms.
Whitesides, J. G. (2006). Genetic engineering. In S. Kutler (Ed.). Dictionary of American
History 3rd, 3, 529-532. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. Retrieved October 22,
2010 from Gale Virtual Reference Library via Gale:
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&in
PS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=viva_radford&tabID=T003&searchId=R2&r
esultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&
currentPosition=1&contentSet=GALE|CX3401801675&&docId=GALE|CX3401801675
&docType=GALE&role=
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I located this article using Gale Virtual Reference Library with the search words “transgenics,”
“genes,” and “modification.” This is clearly an article from a scholarly article, having being
written by a History professor with a strong background in genetic engineering and research
primarily for the use of research and information for all readers, and published in an academic
dictionary for the field of history and genetic research. The article first explains the history of
genetic engineering, contemporary applications of genetic engineering, without taking a specific
stand on which side of genetic engineering he stands. This source will be valuable to my paper
because it gives a detailed history of genetic engineering, but also gives information on the
applications of genetic engineering in the past and possible applications for the future use of
genetic engineering, which is part of the focus on my paper dealing with the genetic engineering
of transgenic organisms.