Chapter 12
The Stages of Learning
Concept: Distinct performance and performer
characteristics change during skill learning
Introduction
People progress through distinct stages
(phases) as they learn a motor skill
– i.e, as they progress from being a beginner to
being highly skilled
Two models proposed to identify and describe
the stages:
– Fitts and Posner three-stage model
– Gentile two-stage model
The Fitts and Posner
Three Stage Model
Fitts and Posner (1967) proposed motor skill
learning involved three stages
[see Fig. 12-1]
– Cognitive stage: Beginner focuses on solving
cognitively-oriented problems
– Associative stage: Person has learned to
associate cues from the environment with required
movements; works to refine performance to be
more consistent
– Autonomous stage: Final stage where
performance of the skill is “automatic” (in terms of
attention demanded)
Gentile’s
Two Stage Model
1.
Gentile (1972, 1987, 2000) proposed motor
skill learning progress through two stages:
Initial stage
– Learner works to achieve two goals:
1) Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of
success achieving action goal
2) Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory
conditions in environmental context
Gentile’s
Two Stage Model, cont’d
2. Later stages
– Involves learner acquiring three
characteristics:
1) Adapting movement pattern acquired in Initial
stage to demands of any performance situation
2) Increase consistency of action goal achievement
3) Perform with an economy of effort
Gentile’s
Two Stage Model, cont’d
Unique feature of Gentile’s “Later stages”
– Learner’s specific goals depend on the type of
skill being learned
– Closed skills require fixation of movement
pattern
Refine Initial stage movement pattern to consistently
repeat optimal movement pattern to achieve action goal
– Open skills require diversification of movement
pattern
Refine Initial stage movement pattern to enable
adaptation to changing environmental conditions
Performer and Performance Changes
Across the Stages of Learning
Stages of learning models describe distinct
characteristics at each learning stage that
change across the stages
– Observable changes are noted for both the person
and the skill performance
We will overview a few characteristics
Benefits of considering these characteristics:
– Provides a closer look at the skill learning process
– Establishes why we need to develop different
instruction strategies for people in different learning
stages
Performer and Performance Changes
Across the Stages of Learning, cont’d
Changes in rate of improvement
Changes in movement coordination
Changes in altering an old or
preferred coordination pattern
Changes in muscles used to perform
the skill
Changes in energy cost
Performer and Performance Changes
Across the Stages of Learning, cont’d
Changes in achieving the kinematic
goals of the skill
Changes in visual selective attention
Changes in conscious attention with
performing a skill
Changes in error detection and
correction capability
Changes in brain activity
A Performer Characteristics that
Does Not Change Across the
Stages
of
Learning
Practice specificity hypothesis
– Learning is specific to the sources of sensory information
available during practice
When we use visual feedback during practice in the first
stage of learning,
– We continue to need this feedback, even after we become more
skillful with additional practice
Proteau (1998) hypothesized and provided evidence
that a dependency on the sensory feedback develops
because it becomes a part of the memory
representation of the skill
Expertise
An “expert” – A person who is located at
the extreme right end of the learning
stages continuum
Experts in all skill performance areas
have in common some distinct
characteristics, e.g. –
– Amount and type of practice that resulted in
expertise
– Knowledge structure
– Use of vision
Predicting Future Achievement
Two of several approaches researchers
have used to determine if performance
in the initial learning stage predicts
performance in later stages:
1. Correlating initial and later performance
2. Intertrial correlations