Section B: Acquiring, developing
and performing movement skills
6. Theories related to motor and
executive programmes
Syllabus
• Definition as a generalised series of
movements: creation of programmes in the
long term memory
• Open loop control
• Closed loop control
• Schema theory
Motor programmes and control of
movement
• A generalised series or pattern of movements stored in the long
term memory
• Every skill performed in sport is the result of a motor programme.
• Motor programmes are hierarchical – there is an order of
importance with the executive motor programme being of the
highest status.
• Motor programmes are also sequential – they are performed in a
particular order.
• Motor programmes are made up of sub-routines performed in a
particular order
• As the performer becomes more skilled, the existing executive
motor programme is relegated and superseded by a new
programme
• Traditional view of a motor programme was that it was a
centrally organised, pre-planned set of very specific muscle
commands which, when initiated, allowed the entire
sequence of movement to be carried out, without
reference to additional feedback
• Executive motor programme
– A sequence of linked movements which are stored in the long
term memory and retrieved when required
– Helps to explain how performers sometimes appear to be able
to carry out very fast actions that have been well learned
(closed skills) without really thinking about the action
– This has obvious links to Fitts and Posner’s autonomous stages
of learning
• Each executive motor programme has a series of subroutines which have to be performed in the correct order if
the skill is to be completed effective
Tennis
serve
Ball toss
Back
swing
Forward
swing
Contact
Follow
through
Javelin
Grip
Run-up
Cross-over
steps
Throwing
action
Recovery
• In relating this notion of automatic movement to
information processing, you can appreciate that
the limited capacities of the memory process
would easily be overloaded, and would take
considerable time if every part of every action
had to pass via the short-term memory
• The notion of a motor programme being decided
on and initiated from the short-term memory
appears to solve the overload problem, where, in
relatively stable situations, movement can be
carried out without the need for modification
• This type of control of movement is called openloop control, without feedback
Open-loop control
• Pre-learned mastered movements initiated on
command, are thought to be developed
through practice
• These complete movements or motor
programmes can be stored in the long-term
memory and retrieved at will
A simplified model of open-loop
control
INPUT
EXECUTIVE MOVEMENT CONTROL CENTRE
MOVEMENT (COMMANDS AND INSTRUCTIONS)
EFFECTOR SYSTEM
MOVEMENT OUTPUT
• This process usually occurs during the completion in a
closed skill (for example, skipping or running), but can
also take place in an open skill such as catching a ball
• Transfer of information is done through a ‘memory
trace’
• Skills produced via open loop are performed without
conscious thought and are often ballistic e.g. A throw
or kick
• There is no feedback as there is no time to act upon
any information about performance
• Movement cannot be changed once it has started e.g.
Once a golf swing has been initiated the action cannot
be modified
Expanded model of open-loop
INPUT
(Information processing stages where motor programme is determined)
STIMULUS IDENTIFICATION
RESPONSE SELECTION
RESPONSE PROGRAMMING
MOTOR PROGRAMME (effector systems stage)
STM RECEIVES MOTOR PROGRAMME FROM LTM & STM INITIATES VIA THE EFFECTOR SYSTEMS
SPINAL CORD
MUSCLES
MOVEMENT
ENVIROMENT
Closed-loop control
• Closed loop involves feedback
• Level two operates through a short feedback loop
which passes through the muscle spindles
• This is termed the ‘perceptual trace’
• The feedback loop is short
• Internal feedback is gained through kinaesthesis and
proprioception during the performance of the skill
• This allows fast, sub-conscious corrections to be made
• Adjustments are then stored in the long term memory
for future reference e.g. A skier will constantly adjust
position to retain balance
Closed-loop control
• The brain controls and modifies movement by passing corrective
messages back to the muscles
• The loop involves conscious thought and attention to external feedback
• Often used at the associative stage of learning- reliance on external
feedback is needed because the learner has not yet acquired the correct
feel of the skill
• Performance is jerky and ill-timed
• The perceptual trace compares performance as it is taking place with the
plan released by the memory trace
• If the performance matches the plan the skill is reinforced and allowed to
continue
• If the performance does not match the plan the skill is adjusted and this
change is stored as a new motor programme e.g. Changing direction to
avoid an opponent when dribbling in hockey – requires conscious thought
Expanded model of closed-loop
Practical performance often involves
both open and closed loop
• Most sporting activities involve a variety of coordinated movements
• Performers continually move between open and closed loop control
• Memory trace is used for selecting and initiating movement – it
does not control movement
• Perceptual trace is used to compare movements with previous
experiences, making adjustments when needed
• E.g. A trampolinist will initiate a series of movements using the
memory trace. During the sequence the feedback gained through
kinaesthesis and proprioception allows them to adjust the
movements based on previous experience. If they are losing height
during the routine this will affect the timing of subsequent
movements, they can try to correct this by gaining additional height
on the next bounce
Criticisms of the motor programmes
theory
• It assumes that a separate motor programme or plan is
needed for each skill or movement – it would not be
possible to store an infinite number of programmes.
• Even if it were possible to store an infinite number of motor
programmes it would be difficult for the memory trace to
retrieve the plan in time to execute the skill.
• It also suggests that practice should be accurate and that
variance would hinder learning
• In sport responses are often creative and apparently
spontaneous, called ‘novel responses’. If the relevant motor
programme does not exist in the memory the novel
response cannot be explained.
Schema theory
• States that motor programmes are not stored as separate items but as
relationships
• These relationships are termed ‘generalised movements’
• Schema is a build up of experiences which can be adapted to meet the
demands of the new situation
• We learn and control movements by developing generalised patterns of
movement around certain types of movement experience (e.g. catching
and throwing)
• E.g. An experienced badminton player will have developed a motor
programme for the smash shot, but will not have a programme for
performing this from all areas of the court. However, the player will have
many different experiences to draw on. These are schemas which are
stored in the long term memory which can be transferred to a new
situation. Schemas are used to modify the programme of the smash shot
so that it can be played from a variety of positions.
• Schema theory states that information is gathered from
recall schema and recognition schema
A schema for throwing can be adapted
• Returning a cricket ball to the keeper
• A long pass in basketball
• Throwing a javelin
By collating as much movement information as possible
with regard to throwing, we can adapt to new situations
because we know the general rules associated with
throwing long, short, high, low and so on.
• Variety of practice is essential
Recall schema
• Knowledge of initial conditions – whether a
performer has previously experienced a
similar situation
• E.g. In rugby an attacker in possession of the
ball approaches a defender
• Knowledge of response specifications –
knowing what to do in this situation
• E.g. What are the options? Pass, dummy,
dodge or kick
Recognition schema
• Knowledge of sensory consequences – knowing
how the skill should feel, involves kinaesthesis
• E.g. Attacker needs to know how hard to pass the
ball in order to reach the target
• Knowledge of movement outcome – involves
knowing what the outcome of the movement is
likely to be
• E.g. A dummy would send the defender in the
wrong direction

KNOWLEDGE OF
ENVIRONMENT


POSITION OF BODY
POSITION OF LIMBS

SPECIFIC DEMANDS OF THE
SITUTATION



DIRECTION
SPEED
FORCE
1) SENSORY CONSEQUENCES
(WHAT MOVEMENT FEELS
LIKE)

INFORMATION BASED ON
SENSORY FEEDBACK


DURING AND AFTER MOVEMENT
INVOLVES ALL SENSORY SYSTEMS
1) RESPONSE OUTCOMES

COMPARISONS ARE MADE
BETWEEN ACTUAL
OUTCOME AND INTENDED
OUTCOME

KR IS IMPORTANT
1) INITIAL CONDITIONS (WHERE
RECALL SCHEMAS
(INFORMATION IS
WE ARE)
STORED ABOUT DETERMINING AND
PRODUCING THE DESIRED MOVEMENT)
1) RESPONSE SPECIFICATION
(WHAT WE HAVE TO DO)
RECOGNITION SCHEMAS
(INFORMATION IS STROED ENABLING
EVALUATION OF MOVEMENT)
(WHAT HAS HAPPENED)
Strategies/methods to enable schema
to develop
• Varied practice conditions
– practice relevant to the game (e.g. opposition)
• Include plenty of feedback
– tasks should be challenging