© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
What is sociology?
Sociology: the scientific study of
social life, social change, and the
social causes and consequences
of human behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
2
The Sociological
Perspective
• Stresses the social contexts in which people live
• Looks at how people are influenced by their society
and how social forces affect human behavior
• “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by
C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond
common sense for explanations of why people act the
way they do
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
3
The Sociological
Perspective
• “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by
C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond
common sense for explanations of why people act the
way they do
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
4
The Sociological
Perspective
• Stresses the social contexts in which people live
• Looks at how people are influenced by their society
and how social forces affect human behavior
• “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by
C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond
common sense for explanations of why people act the
way they do
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
5
The Sociological
Perspective
• “The Sociological Imagination” a term coined by
C. Wright Mills refers to being able to look beyond
common sense for explanations of why people act the
way they do
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
6
Group Dynamics
• Dyads – Two people
• Triads – Three People
• As a group increases in size it becomes more formal and
more stable
• Coalitions may begin to form
• Greater Diffusion of Responsibility may occur in larger
groups – “Someone else will take care of it”
• As a group gets larger, smaller groups may form
• Groupthink may occur- collective tunnelvision
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
7
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
What is sociology?
Comparing the social sciences
• All study aspects of human behavior and social
life, but each has a different focus:
• Cultural anthropology: the culture or way of life of a
society
• Psychology: individual behavior and mental processes
• Political Science: government systems and power
• Economics: economic conditions and how people
organize, produce, and distribute goods
• Sociology: human interaction, groups, and social
structure
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
What Do Sociologists Do—and Why?
Some practical rewards of sociological study:
• Self-awareness and self-improvement
• Better understanding of social situations
• Objective, systematic understanding of problems
• Understanding of diverse cultural perspectives
• Ability to assess the impact of social policies
• Appreciation of the complexities of social life
• Useful skills
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
What Do Sociologists Do—and Why?
What sociologists do
• Work in colleges and universities
• Teach, conduct research
• Work in social service organizations
• Address interpersonal relations or deviant behavior
• Work in business
• Address organizational needs or human resources
• Work in government
• Provide data for policy and planning
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
What Do Sociologists Do—and Why?
Useful skills honed in sociological training
• Communication & interpersonal
• Analysis and research
• Computer/technical
• Flexibility
• Leadership
• Sensitivity to diversity
• Organizing and planning
• Conceptual, problem-solving
• Personal values
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Social World Model
• Levels of analysis: size of the social groups being
considered, from the smallest to the largest
• Understanding sociology requires understanding
multiple levels of analysis
• The social world model allows us to picture levels
of analysis in our social environment as an
interconnected series of small groups,
organizations, institutions, and societies
• Important question: How do the levels connect or
conflict with one another?
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Social World Model
Social Structures
• Social units: interconnected parts of the social
world
• Social structure: a particular combination of
social units that orders our lives
• Social institutions: provide the rules, roles, and
relationships to meet human needs and guide
human behavior
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Social World Model
Social Processes
• Social processes: actions taken by people in
social units. For example,
• Process of socialization: how we learn to be productive
members of society
• Process of stratification: process of layering people on
the basis of birth, income, or other factors
• Process of change: every social unit is continually
changing, and change in each unit affects others
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Social World Model
Studying the Social World: Levels of Analysis
• The social world can be studied at many levels:
• Micro-level (individuals and small groups)
• Importance: micro interactions form the basis of all social organizations
• Macro-level (nations, global & international trends)
• Importance: helps explain how larger social forces shape everyday life
• Each level adds depth to a topic
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16
Social Location
•
•
Sociologists study ones social location to understand human behavior
Social Location refers to the corners in life that people occupy
• Jobs, Social Class, Race, Occupation, Sex, Religion and other demographics
• Social Location can shape our ideas of who we are and what we should attain in
life
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
The Birth of
Sociology
17
• Sociology emerged in the middle of the 1800’s during a
period of social upheaval
• The Industrial Revolution challenged traditional ideas about
social life
• The scientific method, which was used in the physical
sciences, led to the birth of Sociology
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Auguste Comte:
18
Founder of Sociology
• Lived in France
• Comte was the 1st Sociologist to advocate
using positivism to studying social life
• Coined the term “Sociology” (the study of
society)
• Advocate of social reform
1798-1857
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Herbert Spencer:
19
Social Darwinism
• Lived in England
• Societies evolve from lower to higher
forms
• Coined the term “Survival of the
Fittest”
1820-1903
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Karl Marx:
Class Conflict
• Class conflict is the engine of
human history
• Proletariat vs. the Bourgeoisie
• Marxism is not the same as
Communism
• “I am not a Communist”
1818-1883
20
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Emile Durkheim:
21
Social Integration
• 1st Professor of Sociology
• Studied suicide rates in several
European countries in which he concluded
social forces underlie suicidal behavior
• We must examine how social forces,
such as social integration, affect human
behavior
1858-1917
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Max Weber:
23
Religion
• Lived in Germany
• Disagreed with Marx
• Religion is the central force in
social change
• The Protestant Ethic is tied to the
1864-1920
rise of capitalism (the self denying
approach to life)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
W.E.B. Du Bois and
Race Relations
24
• 1st African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard
• Every year between 1896 and 1914 he published a
book on race relations between African Americans and
White
• Founded the N.A.A.C.P (National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
26
Three Theoretical
Perspectives
• Theory-a general statement about how some parts of the world
fit together and how they work
• Sociologists use theories to conduct sociological research
• Allows Sociologists to view a social problem from many
different perspectives
• Symbolic Interactionist
• Functional Analysis
• Conflict Theory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Symbolic
Interactionism
• Symbolic Interactionists believe that individuals
evaluate their own conduct by comparing themselves
with others
• Symbolic Interactionists study:
• How people interpret symbols
• How people interact one on one
• How people behave according to how they
define themselves and others
27
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Rational choice theory
(or exchange theory)
• Main ideas:
• People act by making rational, self-interested decisions that will
maximize their rewards and minimize costs
• Main criticisms:
• Neglects macro-level processes and micro-level, internal
mental processes
• Cannot easily explain altruistic behavior
• People do not always act rationally or accurately assess their
self-interest
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Functional Analysis
• The Functional Analysis perspective views society
as a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that
work together.
• Functional Analysists study:
• The structure of society
• How each part of society has certain functions
that must be fulfilled
• What happens to society when dysfunctions
occur
29
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
30
Conflict Theory
•
•
•
•
Founded by Karl Marx
Groups competing for scarce resources
Groups competing for power and authority
Conflict can be positive as it can bring about positive
change
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Macro- Level Theories
Feminist sociological theory
• Main ideas:
• Rooted in conflict theory, symbolic interactionism
• Social hierarchies disadvantage women and advantage men
• Sociology has traditionally been male dominated, resulting in
an incomplete view of the world
• Main criticisms:
• Theory should address the intersection of gender, race, class,
and other inequalities
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
32
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Ideas Underlying Science
• How do we know?
• Sociology uses scientific methods to expand knowledge of the
social world
• The Systematic use of theories and research methods makes
sociology much more than guesswork or opinion
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Empirical Research & Social Theory
Theory & research are interdependent
 Theories are statements regarding how facts are
related to each other
 Sociological theories attempt to explain and make
predictions about the social world
 The researcher’s choice of theory and research
method is guided by the research question and level
of social analysis
 Theories tell researchers what kinds of facts to look
for
 Researchers use facts to test theories
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
How Sociologists Study the Social World
The research process
• Planning a research study
• Designing the research plan and method for collecting
data
• Making sense of the data
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Planning a Study
Steps in planning a study:
1. Define the problem clearly

The question must be specific and precise
2. Find out what is already known about topic

Review existing theory and research
3. Formulate hypotheses and define variables
Hypothesis: educated guess about the relationship between
two variables, which can be tested
 Variable: concept that can vary in frequency of occurrence
across persons, places, or time
 Operationalizing a variable: linking the variable concept to a
specific measurement

© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Planning a Study (cont.)
Research aims to find causal relationships
Ways that two variables can be related:
 Correlation: variables change together
 Causation: one variable causes another to change
 Independent variable (IV): the cause of change
 Dependent variable (DV): the variable that changes
 Timing: change in IV must precede change in DV
 Spurious relationship: IV and DV change together due to effects
of a third variable; not a causal relationship
 Control variables help eliminate effects not related to the hypothesis,
especially spurious relationships
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
 Research design is important: the value of a study
depends upon the quality of its data
 Research methods depend upon the level of
analysis of the research question
 Primary sociological research methods:
 Surveys
 Field studies
 Controlled experiments
 Existing sources
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
39
Secondary Analysis
When the researcher gathers information from secondary sources
it is referred to as secondary analysis.
• newspapers, historical documents, police reports, and other data collected
by various societal agencies.
 Advantage: It can be a valuable way to collect information in a
timely manner
 Disadvantage: Some information may be missing or
inaccurate
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Designing Research & Collecting Data
Sampling (all methods)
• Sample: a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the larger
population being studied
• Types of samples:
• Representative: accurately reflects the population being
studied, so findings can be generalized to the population
• Random: every person in the population has an equal chance
of being selected for the sample; the most common type of
representative sample
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Analysis: Making Sense of the Data
Analyzing data
• The goal is to determine relationships between the
variables
• Variables must be clear
• Researcher must choose most effective tools for analyzing
relationships among variables
• Discussion with and criticism from other researchers aids
accuracy of analysis
• Study should be replicable, or capable of being repeated so
results can be compared
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Analysis: Making Sense of the Data
Reporting conclusions
• The researcher develops a report, including
• Outline of project
• Data analysis, which may include tables or figures that
summarize the data
• Conclusions: Are hypotheses supported by data?
• Interpretations and recommendations
• In social science no one study can definitively prove a
hypothesis; instead, findings may tend to support or
reject a hypothesis
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Ethical Issues in Social Research
Sociological research is bound by ethical codes which
generally require that:
• Research subjects give informed consent to
participate in studies
• Subjects are not harmed or put at risk
• Subjects’ privacy is not invaded unnecessarily
• Subjects’ private information is protected
• Study findings do not cause harm
Human Subjects Review Boards at universities and
other research institutions help protect subjects
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
44
What is Culture?
• Culture is:
• The language, beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors
passed on from one generation to the next
• How is this accomplished?
• Material vs. Nonmaterial Cultures
• Cultural Lag: When nonmaterial culture lags behind
material culture
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Ethnocentrism and
Culture Shock
45
• What is Normal, Natural, or Usual?
• We believe our ways are “Normal”
• Ethnocentrism-the belief that our culture is the “best”
page 271 and vagina monologues
• Culture Shock- coming into contact with a culture that is
different from what we know
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Components of
Symbolic Culture
• Symbols
• Gestures
• Language
• Norms (Folkways, Mores, Taboos)
• Values
46
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Five Purposes
of Language
•
•
•
•
•
47
Allows Human Experience to Be Cumulative
Provides a Social or Shared Past
Provides a Social or Shared Future
Allows Shared Perspectives
Allows Complex, Shared, Goal-Directed Behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Norms and
Sanctions
•
48
Norms - Expectations or rules for behavior
 Informal and Formal Norms
 Norms will change as cultures change
• Sanctions - Reaction to following or breaking norms
•
•
Positive Sanctions
Negative Sanctions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Folkways, Mores,
and Taboos
• Folkways - Norms that are not strictly
enforced
• Mores - Norms, when broken, go
against a society’s basic core values
• Taboos - Norms, when broken, are
considered repulsive
• Stiff Book
• Double Standard book
• German men
• Ramstein
49
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Subcultures and
Countercultures
50
Subculture:
 A world within the dominant culture
 The norms and values do not clash with those of the
dominant culture
Countercultures:
 A world within the dominant culture
 The norms and values clash with those of the dominant
culture
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
51
Values in U.S. Society
Achievement
and Success
Progress
Equality
Individualism
Material
Comfort
Racism and
Group
Superiority
Activity and
Work
Humanitarianis
m
Education
Efficiency and
Practicality
Freedom
Religiosity
Science and
Technology
Democracy
Romantic Love
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Value Clusters and
Contradictions
 Value
Clusters: Values
that are similar to each
other
 Value
Contradictions:
Values that contradict one
another
52
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Emerging Values
• Leisure
• Self-fulfillment
• Physical Fitness
• Youthfulness
• Concern for the Environment
53
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
54
Cultural Diffusion and
Cultural Leveling
• Cultural Diffusion: The spreading of cultural characteristics
from one culture to another
• Why is this happening so rapidly?
• Cultural Leveling: When cultures start to become similar to
each other
55
What is human nature?
• Nature vs. Nurture
• Over the years studies have concluded that language and intimate
interaction are essential to the development of human
characteristics
56
What is human nature?
• Feral Children
• Over the centuries people have occasionally found children living in
the woods.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bit
Drank by lapping water
Hunted and ate raw meet, grass
Growled
Walked on all fours
Showed an insensitivity pain and cold
57
What is human nature?
• Isolated children- show what humans might be like if
secluded from society at an early age
• Low IQ
• No language skills
Austrian daughter -
58
What is human nature?
• Institutionalized children- show that traits such as
intelligence, cooperative behavior, and friendliness are the
result of early close relationships with other humans.
59
What is human nature?
•
Deprived animals- studies of monkeys raised in
isolation have reached similar conclusions to those
involving human youth.
1.
The longer and more severe the isolation the more
difficult the adjustment becomes
Babies “do not” naturally develop into human adults
Although their bodies grow, human interaction is
required for them to acquire the traits we consider
normal human beings
2.
3.
60
socialization
• The process by which we learn the ways of society
• Does society make us human?
61
Socialization through life
• Childhood (birth to 12)
• Formative years
62
Socialization through life
• Adolescence (13-17)
• Inner turmoil and rebellion
63
Socialization through life
• Young adulthood (19-29)
• Continuing education, stability, general optimism
64
Socialization through life
• The middle years (30-65)
• (30-49) family and careers
• (50-65) contemplate mortality
65
Socialization through life
• The older years ( 66+)
• The early older years with medical technology and public
awareness, this can be an extension of the middle years
• The later older years, this is marked by frailty and illness and
eventually death
66
Life course and social factors
1.
2.
3.
The time period in which the person is born and lives
His or her life as well as social location
The individual’s social class, gender and race
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Agents of Socialization
• Agents of socialization: people, organizations,
and institutions that enable us to learn the
beliefs, values, and behaviors of our cultures
• Micro-level: family, peer group, local organizations
• Meso-level: educational, religious institutions; media
• Formal: socialization is stated goal (e.g., the family)
• Informal: socialization isn’t a stated goal but occurs
anyway (e.g., the media)
• Agents of socialization shift over the life course
• Different agents’ messages may concur or
conflict
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Development of the Self: Micro-Level Analysis
• Self: the perceptions we have of who we are,
derived from our perceptions of the way
others respond to us
• The development of the self allows us to interact
with others and function in the social world
• We are not born with a self; its development
begins in infancy
• Biology and society both contribute to the
development of the self
• The self, our ability to be aware of ourselves as
individuals, may be distinctive to humans
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Looking Glass Self
• A symbolic interactionist theory of the self
developed by Charles H. Cooley
• The looking glass: “Each to each a looking-glass
Reflects the other that doth pass.”
Microanalytical
Perspective
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
• Stereotypes –
Assumptions about the
characteristics of certain
individuals which leads to
generalization
70
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71
Microanalytical Perspective
(Dramaturgy)
• Erving Goffman
• Dramaturgy – Life is like a play
• Impression Management – Face Saving
Behavior
• Front and Back Stages
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72
Dramatury (Role Conflict and
Role Strain)
• Role Conflict – a conflict between two separate roles
The more roles you play, the more conflict you may experience
• Role Strain – a strain within the same role
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73
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
74
Microanalytical Perspective
(Ethnomethodology)
• Ethnomethodology - The study of how
people use background assumptions to get
through everyday life
• Harold Garfinkle’s Experiments
• What happens when you break the basic rules of
social life?
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75
Microanalytical Perspective
(Thomas Theorem)
• Thomas Theorem – W.I. Thomas
• THE DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION
Our behavior depends not on the objective but on the
subjective interpretation of reality.
 We behave according to the way we perceive the world
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
76
Microanalytical Perspective
(Personal Space)
• Personal Space (Edward Hall) – a invisible
bubble by which we surround ourselves
• 4 Levels:
• Intimate 18 inches apart
• Personal 18 inches to four feet
• Social 4 to 12 feet
• Public 12 feet plus
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
77
Mead and Role Taking
(Socialization Process)
• Children go through three stages in the development of
the self
1) Imitation –Children imitate significant others
2) Play – “Dressing Up”
3) Games – Generalized Other – What the groups thinks
about the individual; the individual takes on multiple
roles
78
Freud and the development of personality
•
Personality consists of three elements
1.
The Id
The Ego
The Superego
2.
3.
•
As sociologists we reject this because Freud’s view is
that these elements are inborn and unconscious, it
denies that social factors influence our behavior.
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Parts of the Self
Mead’s parts of the Self:
• The “I”: spontaneous, unpredictable,
impulsive, acts without considering social
consequences
• The “me”: the reflexive part of the self, formed
through role-taking, that knows the rules of
society and attempts to control and direct the
“I” into socially acceptable behavior
• The “me” requires the ability to take the role of
others, anticipating others’ reactions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
The Process of Resocialization
• Resocialization: the process of abandoning one
or more social positions in favor of others that
are more suitable for a newly acquired status
• Resocialization may occur in a total institution, in
which people are isolated from the outside world
and lead bureaucratically regimented lives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Families: Micro-Level Socialization
• Families use positive and negative sanctions to
help teach children right and wrong
• The number and type of sanctions shape the
socialization process and the self
• Family socialization differs by
• Culture
• Sub-culture
• Number of children in the household and birth order
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Social Class: Meso-Level Socialization
• Social class: the wealth, power, and prestige
rankings individuals hold in society
• Social class and socialization: Parents
socialize children to meet expectations of the
social class into which they are born
• Middle class: autonomy, creativity, self-direction
• Working class: rule-following, respect authority
• Class socialization in the family impacts later
socialization in school
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Electronic Media: Meso-Level Socialization
• Electronic media as socialization agents:
television, computers, internet, DVDs, video
games, audio
• Concerns:
• Those who control the mass media can influence
socialization within the home
• What messages do these agents of socialization send
to children?
• What is the impact of children spending more time with
media and less time with caregivers and peers?
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Socialization and Macro-Level Issues
Socialization in a globalized world
• Transnationalism: the situation of individuals or
families who have national loyalty to more than
one country, often a result of migration
• May result in multiple and conflicting messages about
appropriate behaviors
• Global communications and events
• May lead us to interact with diverse others, or solidify feelings of
“we” vs. “they”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.,
2011.
Policy and Practice
• Many policy questions and topics require
understanding of socialization
• Parenting and child-care
• The education system
• Retirement
• Community development
• Patriotism and global citizenship
• Sociologists provide and interpret data for
policymakers and try to solve problems by
working with state agencies, consulting firms,
and foundations
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
86
The Macrosociological
Perspective

Sociological Significance of Social Structure
• Guides Our Behavior
• Behavior Decided by Location in Social
Structure

Culture
• Group’s Language, Beliefs, Values,
Behaviors, Gestures
• Material Objects
• Page 88
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
88
The Macrosociological
Perspective

Social Class Divides People by…
1. Income
2. Education
3. Occupational Prestige
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89
The Macrosociological
Perspective
 Social Status – Position a person occupies
• Ascribed –a status one is born with
• Achieved –a status one earns
• Master Status-cuts across all other statuses one
holds
• Status Set-all of the statuses one holds
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90
The Macrosociological
Perspective
 Roles – Behaviors associated with ones status
• You Occupy a Status
• You Play a Role
• Ones role will change as ones status changes
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Groups and
Social Institutions
91
 Groups – People Who Regularly and Consciously
Interact and think of themselves as belonging together
 Social Institutions – Means Developed by Societies to
Meet Basic Needs
• The more industrialized the society the more formal the
institution
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009