MEXICAN
AMERICANS
CHAPTER 8
• Latinos
• Persons whose national origins (or
whose ancestors’ national origins) are
in the countries of Latin America
• Caribbean, Central and South America
• Hispanic
• An English word derived from Hispania
• Roman name for Spain
THE CONQUEST PERIOD,
1500-1853
• In 1500s, Spaniards conquered; sought
to Catholicize indigenous population in
Mexico and southwestern U.S. for
economic exploitation
• Offspring of sexual liaisons
• Mestizos
• Mixed people
• Outnumbered colonizers
Depiction of casta system in
Mexico from the Museo
Nacional del Virreinato.
Las castas.
Anonymous, 18th
century, oil on
canvas, Museo
Nacional del
Virreinato,
Tepotzotl, Mexico.
Casta Paintings: Inventing Race Through Art
Mexican Art Genre Reveals 18th-Century Attitudes on
Racial Mixing - June 2004 LA County Museum of Art
The upper-class Spaniards views on
race, class and skin color during
the 1700s, when Mexico was a
colony of Spain…
"De Espaniol y Albina, Torna Atras"
= "From a Spaniard and Albino, return backwards."
1821 Mexican independence
1830s Anglo American presence
The Texas Revolt: (1820-1830s)
• Mexican government: freed enslaved people
and placed restrictions on U.S. immigration,
• Texas rebellion
• U.S. settlers go beyond an existing boundary and
intentionally aim to create new territory (Texas
portion of Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas)
• 1836 Republic of Texas; 1845 joins US
• 1848 Mexico surrenders ($15 million)
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Mexican Cession agreed by Mexico (White) and the Gadsden Purchase
(Brown). Part of the area marked as Gadsden Purchase near modern-day Mesilla,
New Mexico, was disputed after the Treaty. (1853)
California and New Mexico
• Discovery of gold in 1849 led U.S.
Anglos to enter California
• At the time of acquisition, the 50,000
Mexicans in what is now New Mexico
had long maintained cultural traditions
• Soon many lost their lands to invading
whites
PAST AND PRESENT IMMIGRATION
• Immigrants include:
• Those with official visas
• Undocumented Immigrants or Illegals
• Immigrants without legal immigration papers
• Braceros
• Seasonal farmers on contract
• Commuters
• Those with official visas that live in Mexico but work in
U.S.
• “Border Crossers”
• Domestic workers with short-term permits
Braceros and Undocumented Workers:
Encouraging Immigration
• 1924 Immigration Act; 1929 “illegal entry” is
a felony
• 1942 Emergency Farm Labor (Braceros)
Agreement
• Between U.S .and Mexico to provide Mexican
workers for agriculture
• Today they are not rural migrants but come
from urban areas in Mexico
• U.S. economy depends on immigrants from
Latin America
• “Backbone” of Dole, Green Giant, McDonalds,
Burger King, Del Monte, etc.
• U.S. involvement in Latin America long
involved U.S. government and major
corporations
• Most immigrants pulled by U.S. jobs
• Pushed by serious economic problems
• Maquiladoras (1960s)
• Manufacturing operations in Northern
Mexico near the U.S. border, where they
can take advantage of low-wage labor
and weak environmental standards
while avoiding certain tariffs and duties
On Maquiladoras…
Corp Watch
http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=1528
On vioence against women…
Femicide along the border
http://www.libertadlatina.org/Crisis_Lat_Mexico_
Juarez_Femicide.htm
• NAFTA – North American Free Trade
Agreement
• Accelerated U.S. investment and
manufacturing in Mexico
• Approx 12 million undocumented
• Most are temporary labor migrants caught by
INS and do not intend to live in U.S.
• Large reverse flow into Mexico goes unnoticed
and unreported
• Most pay more in income and other taxes than
they receive in government benefits
• 1986 Immigration and Reform Control
Act (IRCA)
• Legalization of undocumented immigrants in
U.S. since 1982
• Sanctions for employers who hire
undocumented aliens
• Reimbursement of government for cost of
legalization
• Screening of welfare applicants for migration
status
• Programs to bring in agricultural laborers
• 1.7 of 3 million applications accepted
• 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)
• Established regulations restricting legal
immigration as well as undocumented
immigration
• 2006 Secure Fence Act
• Estimated to cost $35 billion
• Increased number of border enforcement
personnel and surveillance technology
• Construction of physical barriers to Latin
American immigrants including doublelayered fence to be completed by 2008
In a country of immigrants, a(nother)
case of social closing:
Arizona Senate Bill 1070
Signed into law April 23,
2010:
It is the 1st state to
demand that immigrants meet
federal requirements to carry
identity documents legitimizing
their presence on American soil.
An example of prejudice,
discrimination, and
xenophobia.
Population and Location
• “Latinos” - fastest growing major racialethnic segment of U.S. population.
Approx 42 million.
• Latino population in Los Angeles now
larger than population of numerous states
• More than one third of the residents of
California, largest state
• California and Texas have population
majorities that are not European
American
Conflict and Protests Since the 1960s
• Brown Berets,
Chicano Movement
• Chicano Studies
departments
• Cesar Chavez (March 31, 1927 April 23, 1993)
Latino civil rights activist
and founder of the
United Farm Workers
Delores C. Huerta
(April 10, 1930 - )
THE ECONOMY
• Mexicans initially incorporated into U.S.
economy by often violent conquest and
takeovers of Mexican lands
• Mexicans were original Vaqueros
• Spanish word for cowboys
• Late 1800s to early 1900s
• Working conditions in agriculture were often
severe and wages very low
• Few whites competed for these jobs
• Women concentrated in agriculture, domestic
service, and manufacturing
Continuing Language Discrimination
• Language discrimination in workplace
involves treating people unfairly because
they speak language other than English
• EEOC reports increase in complaints
• Garcia v. Gloor (1981)
• Supreme Court upheld firing an employee for
speaking Spanish
• Lawsuits over language discrimination more
common in recent years
• Language discrimination periodically draws
protests from Latinos
Unemployment, Poverty, and Income
• Latino unemployment rates relatively
high for decades
• Mexican American incomes consistently
low compared with whites
• Poorest families include workers
immigrated in recent decades with little
education or economic capital
• U.S. has predominantly service-worker
economy with decreasing industrial jobs
• Recent research shows two divergent
patterns of economic mobility
• Earning of low-skilled, foreign-born Mexicans
decrease as immigrants reside in U.S. longer
• Earning of high-skilled, foreign born Mexicans
increase as immigrants reside in U.S. longer
• Movement of large numbers of immigrants
into Latino communities buttressed local
economies and maintained a demand for
businesses that provide Latino goods and
services
• Extended family and strong cultural
frameworks remain at core of communities
Immigrant Workers:
Targeted for Discrimination
• Mexicans now neighbors of other
Americans in all U.S. regions
• Yet, other Americans treat them as outsiders
• Growing numbers report housing and
related discrimination by white neighbors
• Housing discrimination plagues Latino
families, both immigrants and established
citizens
• Patterns of discrimination led to Latinos
living in Latino-majority neighborhoods
POLITICS AND PROTEST
• Before 1910 only a few hand-picked
Latinos held office in territorial and state
legislatures in the southwest
• Gerrymandering in some districts
diluted Latino voting strength and
prevented election of Latino candidates
• Voter registration and turnout of Latinos
have risen over past three decades
Growing Political Representation
• Recent surveys indicate Latinos are
committed to working together to increase
political participation and political power
• National Association of Latino Elected
and Appointed Officials Educational Fund
• Empowerment organization for Latinos
• Played major role in increasing Latino voter
registration and turnout
• Between 1960s and mid-200s number of
Latinos in state legislatures increased
significantly and are overwhelmingly
Democrats
The Courts and the Police
• Mexican Americans long underrepresented in
judicial system
• First judge appointed in 1960s
• All together, Latinos make up 11% of police
but only 6% of first-line supervisors
• 3.5% of lawyers and 6% of various judicial
workers
• Arizona, California, and Colorado require
jurors to speak English, screening out many
citizens
• Recent survey found only 35% felt they receive
fair outcome when dealing with the courts
The Chicano Political Movement
• Chicano Political Movement
• Social movement that sought greater
political power and less discrimination
for Mexican Americans
• La Raza Unida Party (LRUP)
• Goals include significant representation in
local governments and pressing latter to
better serve Latino communities
• Mexican American women held important roles
in LRUP
• Feminism easy because of woman’s traditional
roles and strength as center of family
Other Organization and Protest
• Union organization has long history among
Mexican Americans
• 1st was Confederacion de Uniones Obreras
Mexicanas (CUOM) (1927)
• American GI Forum
• Formed after Texas cemetery refused to allow burial
of a Mexican American WWII veteran
• Chicanismo
• A philosophy of self-esteem and antiracism
• Mexican American Legal Defense and
Education Fund (MALDEF)
• Address problems of jury discrimination, police
brutality, and school segregation
Unions for Low-Wage Workers
• Agricultural Workers Organizing
Committee (AWOC) and National Farm
Workers Association (NFWA)
• Created by Jessie Lopez, Dolores Huerta,
and Cesar Chavez
• Agricultural Labor Relations Act (1975)
• Provided for protection of union activities
• Many Mexican American and other farm
workers still get low wages across the
country
• Increasing number members of mainstream
unions
Other Recent Challenges: Latinos and
African Americans
• Growing number of Latino population in
urban areas have led to political conflict
and cooperation with African Americans
• Modern capitalism sometimes pits new
immigrants against established citizens
who rely on lower-wage blue-collar and
service jobs
• General political competition between Latinos
and African Americans also generates conflict
• White-controlled media focuses more on
conflict and neglects cooperation
EDUCATION
• Mendez v. Westminster (1946)
• Federal judge ruled that segregation of children
in “Mexican schools” in California violated the
14th Amendment
• Anticipated Supreme Court ruling in Brown v.
Board of Education
• For decades, some schools with high
percentages of Latino students prohibited all
manifestation of Mexican American
subculture
• “Six-hour retarded”
• Functioned well in the outside world but mislabeled by
school discrimination and poor testing
Current Education Issues:
Segregation and Bilingualism
• 2000s, too many Mexican American
children placed in learning-disabled
classes, textbooks still neglect Mexican
American history, and de facto racial
segregation persists
• Children with limited English proficiency
become discouraged, develop low selfconfidence, and fail to keep pace with
English speakers
• Myth propagated by nativists is that
bilingual education is ineffective
Educational Achievement
• Mexican American attainment lowest of
three Latino groups
• Dropout / “pushout” rate is high
• Poverty and need to earn money to help
relatives is an obstacle
• Education highly valued by students and
their families
• 9 out of 10 believe college education important
• Steps to improve public education
• Include Spanish language and Mexican
American culture, involve parents, increase
meaningful interaction between teachers and
students
ASSIMILATION OR INTERNAL
COLONIALISM
• Assimilation theorists
• 10,000 initially brought by U.S. conquest
• Most arrived later voluntarily and generally
improved their economic circumstances
relative to those in Mexico
• Aspects of traditional culture have begun to
disappear as acculturation proceeded
• Yet, substantial degree of Mexican cultural
heritage persists
• Bilingualism
• The ability to speak two languages
• One U.S. problem is structural
• Private and public organizations do not now
provide enough language training
• Widespread use of English among immigrants
underscores error of xenophobic calls for
English-only laws and school policies
• Structural assimilation, especially
economic upward mobility, has come
slowly for many
• Behavior-receptional and attitudereceptional assimilation have varied
considerably
The Limits and Pacing of Assimilation
• Structural assimilation or marital
assimilation reached a high level
• 1970s study revealed some intergroup
friendship contacts
• Significant numbers demonstrate
movement toward identificational
assimilation
• Indicates diversity of opinion
• Racial and ethnic identification varies
with class, age, experience and whether
self-defined or imposed
• Structural socioeconomic incorporation
also limited
• Ease of movement and incorporation into
white institutions varies with perceived class
and skin color
• As long as there are major immigration
streams from Mexico into Mexican
American communities, traditional
assimilation will be slowed
• Latinos interested in developing or viewing
their own mass media
• Fastest growing television audience in 2000s
Applying a Power-Conflict Perspective
• Internal colonialism analysis
• Mexican American history began with
ruthless conquest of northern Mexico
• Problem in applying traditional colonialism
perspective
• Most entered as voluntary immigrants after
initial conquest
• Most significant difference between
Mexican and European immigrant
experience
• Intensive discrimination and cultural
subordination of later Mexican immigrants
in U.S.
• Mexican immigrants entered environment
in which progress and mobility generally
limited
• Low wages, inferior schools, and various
types of racialized discrimination
• Internal colonialism analysts
• White employers intentionally created a split
labor market from which they received
enormous profits
• Power-conflict analysts
• Emphasize continuing reality that majority of
whites still see Mexicans as not white
A Pan-Latino Identity
• Anti-Latino discrimination has led many
Mexican Americans to adopt a broader
Hispanic or Latino identity
• Collective Latino/Hispanic
consciousness developed since 1960s
• Pan-Latino process emerged as a
political strategy to accomplish political
goals shared by component groups
• Facilitated by shared language and similar
home cultures
Further Reading:
Acuna, Rodolfo F. (2011), Occupied
America: A History of Chicanos (7th
ed.), Boston: Longman