Chinese Psychological Aspects
Outline
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I. Chinese Childhood Socialization
II. Traditional Education for Chinese
Boys & Girls
III. Emotion Among the Chinese
IV. Contemporary Psychological
Findings: Chinese vs. Western
I. Chinese Childhood
Socialization
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Psychologists: focus on individuals,
examine individual capacities and
variation in child development .
Anthropologies: pay more attention to
cultural environmental influences, e.g.
socio-economic condition of a
population
I. Chinese Childhood
Socialization
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Childhood Socialization:
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how parents rear their children
how children learn to become acceptable
members of a society.
That is:
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what is an acceptable Chinese way of
socializing children
what kind of adults Chinese socialization
aims to produce.
I.1 The Confucian Tradition of
Parental Education儒家傳统家教
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Chinese concept of the child:
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Scholars (Confucians) & political authorities developed over
2000 years
important roles for adult family-members in early childhood
education.
first essays (in 1st century B.C) by Confucian scholars
Neo-Confucian新儒家scholars in Song, Ming明 (13681644) & Qing清 (1644-1911)--- short essays in plain
language to guide parents in providing their children
with proper discipline e.g. the Sanzijing 三字經 e.g.
人之初, 性本善,性相近,習相遠…).
I.1 The Confucian Tradition of
Parental Education
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Traditional Chinese:
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a person by nature is not yet an
acceptable/ full human being
xue (deliberate efforts) to attain ren.
Emphasis:
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on paternal responsibility for instruction
a child’s responsibility for learning about
the way of becoming human (zuo ren 做
人).
I.1.1 Environmental Theories of
Child Development— “fetus”
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before birth and during gestation:
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need for “womb education”
“When a woman becomes pregnant she is put
into a school of ‘gestatony education,’ in
order that she may be able to impart to the
child a proper disposition before it is born.”
胎教
“If she is affected by good things the child
will be good, if by bad things the child will be
bad.”
I.1.1 Environmental Theories
of Child Development- “fetus”
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A pregnant woman: wish to shape the
character of the coming child
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restriction of her activities
avoiding spicy or bitter food
listening to good music
Always smiling & be peaceful
I.1.1 Environmental Theories
of Child Development
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After birth
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parents must provide the correct
environment for raising it.
A good mother seeks the best
environment
e.g. Mencius’ mother (mentioned in Lei
Nu Zhuan 烈女傳, 77-6 B.C.)
I.1.1 Environmental Theories
of Child Development
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Confucians: to be a “full” human:
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must begin very early in the family
to lay the foundation for the child
to be one with proper manners and moral tenets.
Ancient Chinese theories of child development
emphasize:
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formation of habits of correct behavior without a
trace of deliberate teaching or coercion.
I.1.2 Models and Strategies of
Traditional Child Rearing
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Teaching by example 身教
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Parents=a child’s first teachers
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was and still is an important principle.
e.g. father/mother/ school-teacher =the standard
of personal morality.
Must of exemplary behavior to set a life-long
foundation for the child.
i.e. yi shen zuo ze 以身作則
Physical punishment體罰, normal & effective
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Mencius’ passage
I.1.3 Training of Affective
Control
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Yanshi Jiaxun ,Yan’s Family Teaching 顏氏家訓(531-
91 AD), 20 essays set a model for all:
--train a child from infant to learn to interpret adult’s
facial expressions (the control of affective display)
and to act according to parental wishes.
“Our family has always emphasized strictness in
teaching children. When I was a young child at
home, we walked properly and took every step
delicately, spoke gently and calmly, showed great
reverence and fear in front of parents and elders.”
I.1.3 Training of Affective
Control
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Emphasis: composed, reverential behavior & the
restriction of physical activities among children.
Text on family education:
Parents should teach their children “no leaping,
arguing, joking, or using vulgar language.”
“How children should be taught to sit, stand, walk,
speak, bow, recite, and write.”
“The little ones are exhorted always to walk slowly
with the arms held under the sleeves, with no waving
of the arms or jumping.”
Yan’s ideas vs. Nature of kids ???
I.1.3 Training of Affective
Control
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Aware of adults’ emotional states--to distinguish
pleasure from anger.
“To educate a daughter-in-law, one must begin on
the first of marriage; to educate a child, one must
begin with infancy.”
i.e. bugou yanxiao不苟言笑 (not to reveal one’s
thoughts and feelings)
To sum up: Chinese parents were pressured to instill
solemnity and self-control early on in their children.
Why? social/community norm
I.1.4 On Dongshi 懂事
(understanding things)
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The age when a child is old enough to be
punished (capacity for moral reasoning
right/wrong): dongshi (understanding things)
“When the son reaches the age of dongshi
(understanding/reason), the father must be
serious and proper in his speech and way of
living in order to teach his son.”
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Qn: why son & father ???
I.1.4 On Dongshi
(understanding things)
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Sima Guang’s 司馬程(AD1019-86) Jia fan家訓 (Family
Examples):
“As soon as the child can eat by himself, he must be
taught to eat with his right hand. Family discipline
must begin as soon as the child can talk and know
things. By the age of six, teaching of numbers and
names of things must begin.”
Cheng brothers 程氏兄弟(11 century Confucian
scholars) said, “People in ancient times discipline
children as soon as they can eat and talk.”
I.1.4 On Dongshi
(understanding things)
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Filial devotion孝 :
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taught to toddlers as soon as they can
walk/talk.
pay daily respect to seniors & to address
them properly.
“The family regulations are such that as
soon as a child begins to understand,
he is not only taught to obey, but also
loses his freedom of action.”
I.1.4 On Dongshi
(understanding things)
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Chinese theories of psychological development.
E.g. Li Shiyi李史義 (AD1611-72):
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study at the age of 4: use the innate memory capacity
At 15, to be pushed to study the classics (The Four
Books & Five Texts四書五經) for the national
examination科舉.
4 Books: Great learning大學, Chongyong中庸, The
Analects論語, Mencius孟子
5 Texts: The Book of Poety/The Book of Songs, The
Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of
Change, The Book of Spring & Autumn 詩,書,禮,易,春
秋
I.1.4 On Dongshi
(understanding things)
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Li’s theory:
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Base on an Analects passage
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***Not that everyone’s developmental stages is as his
(Analects 2.4): Confucius says, “At 15, I set my heart
on learning. At 30, I took my stand. At 40, I was no
longer in doubt. At 50, I know the propensity of tian.
At 60, I follow the my ears were attuned. At 70, I
followed the propensity of tian without overstepping
the line.”
“吾十五而有志于學,三十而立,四十而不惑,五十而知天
命,六十而耳順,七十而從心所欲不越矩.”
Confucius presents his own stages.
I.2 Contemporary Chinese
Conceptions of Socialization
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Modern Chinese socialization:
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for
for
for
for
obedience
proper conduct
impulse-control
the acceptance of social obligations
**A relative lack of emphasis:
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independence, assertiveness, and creativity
extremely important for Western children
How About Kids in Hong Kong ?
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British colony…
Over 97% are ethnic Chinese
2 written and 3 spoken languages
What do you think – Chinese identity,
parental control, independence????
How About Kids in Hong
Kong?
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Young Parents
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Western vs. Chinese influence ???
Background & Upbringing ???
Education ???
Cosmopolitan citizens ???
Small family ???
Good quality of life ???
I.2 Contemporary Chinese
Socialization: Summary
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All Chinese, even modern, parents share
certain traditional values and practices.
To train children to develop a moral character,
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e.g. respect elders, cooperate & maintain
harmonious social relations.
To help & push children to achieve in school
(value education—xue)
Adults to be role models
Young parents: not harsh disciplinarians,
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Yet, to obey, to act on parents’ command.
II. Traditional Education for Chinese Boys
& Girls in the Past (till the end of the
monarch)
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Education:
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Boys (at 6-8):
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VERY expensive, only for better families
study in the village school
hire a live-in teacher家師
The Poor:
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illiterate, help in the family since young,
inherit his father’s profession
II.1 Traditional Education for Chinese
Boys in the Past (till the end of the
monarch)
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Boys: study/memorize text to prepare for the public
examination-- to bring glory (to family, village, county)
Exam Content (since Tong):Ancient texts (ConfucianFour Books & Five Texts四書五經)
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Strategic issues
Calligraphy
Poetry writing: since Tong to early Ming
From late-Ming to Ching Dynasty
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exclude poetry & strategic issues--not included in the exam
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the
monarch)
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Most girls: illiterate, even from a rich family
“Females without ability are virtuous” 女子無才便是
德
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Sewing, clothes-making, cooking, take care of the family,
kids-raising, how to serve a hushand & parents –in-law
Few parents: more open-minded
 A live-in teacher/ teach by female family members
for girls
Main Texts for these lucky girls: Four Books for
Females 女四書
 An ideal daughter/ daughter-in-law/ wife/ mother
孝女賢妻良母
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the monarch)
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The most important female text:
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Dynasty (no authorship)
8 chapters:
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The Text of the Great Ladies 列女傳, of West Han
105 stories of famous & moral ladies
Ch. 1-7: ladies in antiquity
1. queens & mothers of important people
2. ladies who help their husbands (focus on
morality)
3. clever & intelligent wives & mothers
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the
monarch)
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4. virginal & obedient ladies
5. ladies acting according to yi(righteous),
such as sacrificing their lives & assets for
their fathers, husbands, & sons
6. ladies with good reasoning & arguments
7. Counter-examples of virtuous ladies,
mainly the bad queens, concubines of
previous corrupt kings
8. Moral and famous ladies in West Han
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the monarch)
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E.g. Ch 1.: queens & mothers of important
people
Most famous: Mencius’ mother changes the
location of their house 3 times for a good
environment for her son.
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1. next to a market -- Mencius learns to be a
merchant
2. near the grave -- Mencius is following the
burial/ritual performers’ practices
3. next to a school -- Mencius is surrounded by
the text-phrases, interested in studying
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the
monarch)
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E.g. Ch. 2. ladies who help their
husbands (on moral aspect)
wife of Liuxiawei柳下惠 reminds Liu:
“When dao did not prevail in the
kingdom (when the king was corrupt), it
was shameful to be rich and of high
status.”
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the monarch)
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Teaching Aim: help one’s husband or sons
E.g. on morality, on problem-solving, be
virginal & pure, obedient, sacrifice of oneself,
to provide good upbringing for the children
These ladies –
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do not plan for/ think about themselves.
praised : to impose/ bring good influence to their
closest males.
Females with a GOOD name/ highly regarded:
live SOLELY for the male.
II.2 Traditional Education for Chinese
Girls (till the end of the
monarch)
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Later Classical Texts for Girls:
Theme: as that of “The Text of the Great
Ladies” 列女傳
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1. NuJie女戒, “Prohibited Rules for the Female,” by
Banzhiu班昭
2. Jiafen家範, “Models for the Family,” by
Zimaguang司馬光
3.Yuanzizifan袁氏世範, “Models of the Yuan’s
Family,” by Yuancai袁采
4. Nufenjielui女範捷錄: 156 ladies as models
All by famous Confucian scholars
III. Emotions & Love among
Chinese
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Arthur Kleinman (Harvard anthropologist,
1986 paper): Chinese tend to believe emotion
to be dangerous, value moderation中庸 in all
matters, and emphasize social harmony over
individual expression.
That is, emotional behavior is normatively
moderate or suppressed.
In traditional Chinese medicine, extreme
emotions are thought to cause/closely related
to physical illness (e.g. depression/worries &
illness in liver 憂傷&肝鬱結)
III.1 Emotional Behavior in a
Social Context
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Potter (1988 paper) provides a different
analysis: Emotions are less relevant in China
than they are in the West.
Emotions are best ignored like minor aches
and pains, They do not achieve social ends
and are not needed to legitimate social
relationships.
Harmful emotions can therefore be
discouraged; others emotions can be
expressed but ignored.
III.1 Emotional Behavior in a
Social Context
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According to Potter’s research, villagers in his
research did not expect emotional
expressiveness to help in achieving an end.
(e.g. anger would not help repeal an
unpopular policy/ make a travel permit
available).
E.g The open expression of sorrow did not
elicit public sympathy.
Expression of sorrow did not elicit any valued
response, and sharing of emotion was not a
sign of intimacy between individuals.
III.1 Emotional Behavior in a
Social Context
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Chinese society/interpersonal relation:
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Childhood development:
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harmony
avoid conflict
comply with group norm
suppress/ do not show emotions
Extreme/ Strong emotions:
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Discouraged
ignored
III.2 Romantic Love in Traditional
Chinese Community
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Western: love = basis of all relationships
Chinese human attachment= role duty,
responsibility
Potter’s research village in rural China:
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Passionate/romantic love- not required for a
successful relation
social order/ relationships and behavior do not
require an emotional basis.
e.g. arranged marriages : deliberate passionate
love between two persons harms social structure
III.2 Love -- a Social Context
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E.g. Dad/Mom: love a kid too much = spoilt/ no
respect/ improper/ bring harm to the kid
Strong & deliberate Love:
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Potter: “Romantic love is culturally alien in Mainland
China… even marriage is based on ‘good feelings.’”
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not affirming the social structure
BUT to endanger it.
Similar to “love” in family – one to work and sacrifice on
others , unconditional responsibility and altrusim
Love/ oi-ching愛情, a new term, only since modern
Chinese in 1954
III.2 Love in a Social Context
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Jankowiak (1993 paper):
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in his study of Hohhot, the capital of the inner Mongolian
Autonomous Region.
Romantic love as the theme of films and magazines.
Young people date and fall in love.
Jankowiak: “Romantic love existed well before the
founding of the Han dynasty, in some cases, actually
thrived in the face of powerful parental opposition.”
Famous ancient literature on love:
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poems in Book of Songs (Early Zhou Dynasty) e.g. Kwantsui
關睢
A long poem in Han (the 1st Chinese love story): “Southeast
the Peacock Flies”
II.2 Love in a Social Context
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Traditional marriage: arranged, without
passionate love; but emphasis
obligation & duty
Yet, love between a man & a prostitute/
a concubine-- he can make his own
choice of his love.
IV. Contemporary
Psychological Beliefs
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1. Locus of Control控制方向
2. Externality & the Nature of the
Outcome外在因素與結果
3. Effort and Ability Attributions in
Academic Situation學術上努力與能力
IV.1 Locus of Control
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Locus of control: internal/external
Internal control內在控制: the belief that
reinforcements are under the control of the
individual
External control外在控制: reinforcements are
under the control of external forces, e.g. fate,
luck, chance
It is widely agreed in literature that because
of the collectivistic orientation, Chinese tend
to possess a stronger belief in external
control (fate, deterministic) than Westerners.
IV.1 Locus of Control –
disagreement
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Tsui (1978 paper): HK Chinese
undergraduates were more internal than were
American-born Chinese undergraduates in the
US.
Hung (1974 paper): undergraduates in
Taiwan did not differ from the Americans in
internality.
Smith, Trompenaars, & Dugan (1993 paper):
Chinese are not necessarily more external
than are all Westerners.
IV.2 Externality & the Nature of
the Outcome
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Humility恥, which originates from
Confucianism, is a norm in Chinese
culture. Chinese employees in Taiwan
evaluated their performance less
positive than did their supervisors, a
pattern opposite to that commonly
observed in the US.
IV.2. Externality & the Nature
of the Outcome
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The humility norm is related to the attributional
pattern of the Chinese, who tend to make external
attributions for successes (others’ joint effort) and
internal attributions for failures (blaming oneself).
HK Chinese subjects made self-effacing attributions
for their performance in public but self-enhancing
attributions in private.
The salience of the humility norm in Chinese societies
suggests that Chinese people select more internal
explanations for failures than for success, the US the
opposite.
IV.2. Externality & the Nature
of the Outcome
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The internality of Chinese is qualified by
the nature of the outcome.
Chinese were more external for
successful events than were the US.
IV.3 Effort and Ability Attributions
in Academic Situation
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Compared with Americans, Chinese believe
that academic achievements is more strongly
related to effort.
Chinese parents of primary students in
Taiwan put more stress on the importance of
hard work, and less on the importance of
innate ability, than did American parents in
explaining their children’s academic results.
Such an emphasis on efforts is rooted in
human malleability which is advocated by
Confucianism.
IV.4 Self-Concept
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Chinese culture: group-oriented, believing the group
rather than the individual is the basic unit in society.
This group-orientation hypothesis has obvious
implications for the conception of the self.
The collective self集體我 was more salient for
subjects from China than for the US. Chinese identify
themselves as the member of a specific group.
Yet, Chinese subjects from HK responded at a level
similar to the US.
So, was the difference due to cultural or political &
economic differences?
IV.4 Beliefs about Self-Concept
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The idea of “yuan”緣 (predestined
interpersonal affinity) is endorsed in Chinese
societies.
Yuan refers to the belief that interpersonal
outcomes are determined by fate or
supernatural forces.
Yuan, as an external explanation for those
who enjoy a positive interpersonal
relationship and protect the face of others
who enjoy less interpersonal relationship.
IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs
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Chinese: collectivistic
Because the futures of individuals from the
same in-group are inter-related and that each
person’s well-being depends upon the results
of collective effort. If each person follows the
norms of the group and acts in the interest of
the group, the group will be harmonious and
prosperous.
E.g. Chinese subjects in HK allocated a larger
share of a group reward to in-group members
than did American subjects.
IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs
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The collectiveness of Chinese leads them to
believe that an effective way to get things
done is often through one’s guanxi 關係
(interpersonal connections).
Chinese tend to believe that out-group
members are less likely to be dependable and
trustworthy than are members of the ingroup.
HK Chinese were more likely to sue a
stranger than were US subjects.
IV.5 Collectivist Beliefs
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In Chinese culture, it is widely believe that it is more
effective to resolve disputes through negotiation and
compromise rather than through confrontation.
Chinese subjects from HK prefer mediation和解調停
over adjudication裁决 in dispute processing, whereas
US subjects prefer both to the same extent.
Chinese employees in HK, when ranked the five
conflict resolution: compromise first and competition
last; UK managers who worked in HK: competition
second and compromise third.
IV.6 Beliefs Related to Power
Distance權力距離
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Social structure for Chinese: hierarchical and
exhibits a large power distance.
The basic belief is that the ideal way to
organize a collective is through a well-defined
hierarchy, with explicit responsibilities for
each role in the hierarchy.
E.g. the typical leadership pattern in Chinese
societies tends to be paternalistic 父權and
authoritarian權威性.
IV.7Primary & Secondary Control
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Primary control is a predominant strategy in the West.
In order to attain one’s goal and wishes, one has to
attempt to bring about objective changes in the
environment.
Secondary control is prevalent in the East. Because
of the emphasis on interdependence and harmony in
groups, people should show a stronger tendency to
adjust themselves to fit the environment.
Chinese believe that secondary control is a more
effective way to attain their goals than is primary
control.
IV.8 Beliefs about Uncertain
Events
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British subjects tend to adopt a probabilistic
view of uncertainty and are able to assess the
likelihood of occurrence of uncertain events
more accurately.
The South-east Asian subject (including HK
people) tend to view the world in terms of
total certainty or uncertainty, and were less
inclined to make a probabilistic judgment of
uncertain events.
IV.8 Beliefs about Uncertain
Events
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A probabilistic view of the world is conductive to a
rational approach to decision-making and to use of
facts and figures in coming to a decision, and it is
derived from the social logic of low power distance.
A non-probabilistic world-view would diminish the
importance of objective facts and figures, thus
making the role of intuition important and arbitrary
authority acceptable. e.g. major business deals are
made by Chinese tycoons (the head of the company)
rather than meticulous calculations by the
management.