A Tepee for Change: American Indian Activities at Cal State Hayward/East Bay
Aaron Johnson
History 4032
Professor Ivey
13 December 2012
2
The American Indian story in the latter half of the 20th century is a story of migration,
assimilation, resistance, victory and defeat. In many respects it is a story of the American people
in the ever-changing and dramatic upheaval that shook the foundation of American society
during this period. The specific time period includes WWII to the fall of communism, roughly
1941-1988. During this period of time the American people experienced cultural and political
change on a grand scale, from the hippie to the conservative revolution America was a place of
staggering change. Within this period of change one can easily overlook the first Americans and
their contributions to the national conscience. But if one is to truly understand American culture
in the latter half of the 20th century, a grasp of the American Indian and its cultural awakening
must be taken into account. With the dramatic backdrop of the cultural change taking place
during the period the American Indian rediscovered a sense of culture and identity. This
reawakening lead to political action, cultural improvement, education and violence in what
would become known by various names such as the Red Power Movement or the American
Indian Movement.
On November 20, 1969 a group of American Indians successfully executed a takeover of
the federally owned Alcatraz Island located in the middle of the San Francisco Bay.1 This
takeover was without precedent in modern times for its ability to capture the nation's attention
and to form a cohesive American Indian Movement. American Indians have faced
overwhelming odds for the past two hundred years and have faced various forces that have
fought against their culture and ways of life head on. These forces of cultural change, whether
1
Smith, Paul Chaat and Warrior, Robert Allen. Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded
Knee. (New York: The New Press, 1996). (p.1).
3
intentional or in some cases by accident, were often caused by the policies of the American
government. The occupation of Alcatraz would last for one year and seven months and would be
considered a great success and lead many youths to rediscover their Indian roots. In the words of
Robert Allen Warrior, Indian youths "... had come to the island to figure out what being Indian
was all about."2 The gathering of young Indians to the island and the exposure to Indian causes
they experienced laid the foundation for future activism in the Bay Area and the nation.
The American Indian Movement would move across the nation from one coast to the
other, but would find its roots in the Bay Area. The San Francisco Bay Area would become a
center for American Indian activists and a place for Indians from all over the country to unite for
the common purpose of Indian rights. The foundation of the movement would be comprised
mainly of college and university students in the Bay Area. During the occupation of Alcatraz,
most of the Indians that lived on the island were university students from the area's schools
including San Francisco State, UC Berkeley, and CSU Hayward.3 Youth was at the very heart of
the movement as the young peoples of American Indian communities began the process of
rediscovering their identity as American Indians. As the movement took hold in nation and the
Bay Area, Indian students at the California State University Hayward (later to be renamed
California State University East Bay) joined forces to change the University for the better.
By understanding what brought Indians to the Bay Area and at the same time Cal State
Hayward, a picture begins the develop of why activism, cultural renewal and the need for higher
education become fundamental parts of the Indian community in the Bay Area. During the
2
Smith, Paul Chaat and Warrior, Robert Allen, (p.61).
The Daily Review, Hayward CA, 1969 - This newspaper contained, almost daily articles concerning the
occupation of Alcatraz and is a wonderful source for any who seek to understand the conflict from the view of the
national and local press.
3
4
1950s the American government experienced a policy shift in Indian affairs. During the 1930s
and 40s under the policies of New Deal Liberalism, "Commissioner of Indian Affairs John
Collier promoted a kind of cultural and political pluralism that sought to end the longstanding
policy of forced assimilation and instead allow tribes to retain some sovereignty and to develop
as much as possible within the contexts of their own cultures."4 Within the policies established
by John Collier a renewal of Indian identity and self-determination emerged and was carried with
large proportions of Indians as they migrated to the cities to take advantage of WWII jobs. The
1940s was a period of Indian renewal and unprecedented prosperity for many Indians that moved
off the reservations to gain high paying jobs in urban settings, it is estimated that about 40,000
Indians left their homes for the city during this period.5 The prosperity and cultural freedoms
experienced in the 1930s and 40s set the stage for the backlash that would occur during the
1950s and carry into the 60s and 70s.
In 1953 John Collier and his policies of Indian cultural respect became a thing of the past.
It was in this year that congress formally adopted the new Indian policy know as termination and
relocation. The Truman administration was responsible for the formation of the policy and had
preempted congress and initiated termination by executive order. Over the next eight years
congress and the president would pass twelve termination bills in which tribes were given the
choice of selling their reservation, dividing communal land into individual allotments, or forming
a private management corporation to administer tribal property, in short this was a policy that
attempted to eliminate the Indians' traditional ways of life.6 The termination policy also hinged
upon the ability of the United States government to relocate those that were being terminated.
4
Burt, W. Larry. "Roots of Native American Urban Experience: Relocation Policy in the 1950s." American Indian
Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Spring, 1986), p. 86.
5
Burt, W. Larry, p.86
6
Philp, Kenneth R. "Termination: A Legacy of the Indian New Deal" The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 14,
No. 2 (Apr., 1983), p.165
5
They did this by providing 35,000 Indians, between 1952 and 1960 with travel money - usually
in the form of a one way bus ticket - for the purpose of finding employment in urban areas.7
While many of the Indians that accepted the money eventually found their way back to the
reservation, around 70% stayed in the urban area of his/her choice. This was the case for the Bay
Area and because of WWII, the termination policy, and relocation the population of American
Indians in the Bay Area increased dramatically. With the population came the culture of their
ancestors and as the government sought to terminate a revival of Indian ways, instead what had
been achieved, was the growth of a counter movement that sought to foster and advance
traditional ways, not termination. The new counter movement would find a home in the minds
and hearts of young college students, these students would help construct the framework for
many of the programs that universities and colleges offer today.
On Thursday April 23, 1971, at noon, in room 4111 of Meiklejohn hall, located at Cal
State Hayward a group of young Native Americans came together and the first meeting of the
Native American Organization (later referred to as NAO in this paper) was held.8 The short and
long range goals of the organization were defined and adopted, the following is a list of some of
their goals, they "...include the setting up of classes on Native American culture, language and
customs taught by instructors of Indian descent."9 The goals would later be achieved, as this
paper will show. "Another goal they hope to accomplish is the eventual building on campus of a
Native American cultural center." 10 The cultural center was to take the form of a "Round House"
and provide for discussion and intercourse for American Indian students. This goal was never
7
Philp, Kenneth R, p.166
The Pioneer, April 23, 1971. - This was the Universities newspaper and is still in print today. The Cal State East
Bay library contains all of the issues on micro fill.
9
The Pioneer, April 23, 1971
10
The Pioneer, April 23, 1971
8
6
achieved but was the catalyst in bringing attention to the students and the eventual hiring of
Native American teachers. An interesting side point to this incident, that the student paper
mentions, is that "This is not the first time the Round House idea has been presented to the
administration."11 Evidently American Indian students had been active on the front for some
time, it is however unknown for how long. The first meeting of American Indians on the Cal
State Hayward campus had taken place and within the meeting the seeds of identity had been
sown. These seeds would eventually grow into a strong tree that is still with the University today.
Prior to the first meeting of the NAO, the American Indian students on the campus had
undertaken the task of preparing the administration and the general student population for the
campaign that would come later. Beginning in the spring of 1971, running in concurrence with
the occupation of Alcatraz, several American Indian cultural events took place on the campus.
The first of these events took place on April 20th, 1971. The event took place at the Agora, a
large outdoor stage located across from the present day bookstore and students centers.
Representatives from the Pomo and Wintu California tribes performed native dances and
ceremonies for those that gathered to observe. The American Indian student that had organized
the event had done so with the purpose of educating students about Indians, in the words of one
of the Dancers, "we have no business here but to teach you about us."12 These words speak
directly to the purposes of the NAO, that they were preparing the University for the outspoken
presence of its Native American population. The event also took on some of the more radical
elements of the American Indian movement and can be seen in the these words spoken by one of
the performers, "The saddest moment in the history of the Indian nation came when the pilgrims
11
12
The Pioneer, April 23, 1971
The Pioneer, April 20, 1971
7
set foot on Plymouth Rock."13 With these words the hearts and minds of the hearers had been
prepared for the events that would take place over the next few months.
Another more subtle example of the preparation that took place occurred not on the
campus but took place at the community center in Hayward. The meeting that took place was
recorded and then reported in an article in the Daily Pioneer in April. One can assume with little
doubt that the article's intention was to draw readers to the American Indians' cause on campus
and in general. The event was centered around a talk given by "Phil Galvan, one of 214 living
Ohlone Indians."14 Galvan's talk consisted of his ideas concerning history and focused on the illtreatment of the Ohlone peoples by the United States government. Most of the ideas presented
by Galvan were given in a manner that made it clear that Native Americans were a people with
cultural identity and that this identity was in danger of extinction. The groundwork for the NAO
had been accomplished, it was now time to take action.
At California State Hayward the revival of native American awareness and culture took
many forms, one of which was fostered out of the free speech and anti-war movements:
"Radical" activism. While California State Hayward was one of the less militant campus in the
Bay Area during this time period, it was once home to one of the most successful students bodies
in achieving their intended goals. In the case of the Native American students their goals, as
stated earlier, were advanced through the use of protest, clubs and Pow-Wows. One of the first
demands that the NAO made was access to federal funds in the amount of $148,000 set aside
"for economically underprivileged students."15 The members of the NAO desired some of the
federal money to establish a cultural center or Round House that would function as a center for
13
The Pioneer, April 20, 1971
The Pioneer, April, 1971
15
The Pioneer, May 6, 1971
14
8
the understanding and advancement of American Indian thought and culture. Their rationale
behind why they should receive some of these funds was the fact that both the "blacks and
Chicanos have their own cultural center and it's about time we did."16 Another reason that the
Indians sought out a part of these funds was the need to hire full-time American Indian staff, at
the time they only had one American Indian teaching and only part-time. The final reason for
the NAO demands was the establishment of courses taught by Indians for anyone interested in
American Indian culture and ways of life.17 The demands of NAO students set the stage for
greater actions based on their desires to see native peoples take control of their own education
and culture. The foundation was being built for the establishment of an American Indian studies
department that would eventually become one with the Black Studies and Chicano Studies
departments, and together form the Ethnic Studies department. The next step in the process was
to ratchet up the demands by taking action outside of words.
Towards the end of May, 1971 the NAO took its first actions outside of print. In the
empty land adjacent to the Meiklejohn Hall parking lot, members of the NAO erected a tepee on
the site they were demanding for their cultural center.18 This act was to draw attention to the
requests that had been presented to the administration, in particular the addition of courses titled:
"Indian Literature", "Indian Political Systems", "Contemporary Indians in Urban Settings", and
"Indian Wars." Prior to these demands the only course that was related to American Indians was
"Indian Games and Dance" and that was offered through the P.E. department. The establishment
of the tepee was not only an act to bring attention to the NAO but was to serve as the symbolic
16
Larry Dunham, as quoted in The Pioneer, May 6, 1971. Larry Dunham was a American Indian student and
chairmen of the NAO during the time period of the articles used in this paper. He is prominently featured in most of
the articles used for this paper.
17
The Pioneer, May 6, 1971
18
The Pioneer, May, 1971
9
and somewhat practical home of the American Indian presence on campus. The tepee was
located on vacant land where ownership was unclear, "Some speculated it (the owner) was
Carlos Bee, others said it was state lands."19 The ambiguous nature of the land ownership
allowed the tepee to stay in its place and serve as a visual reminder to the students and
administration of the American Indian presence on the campus. The presence of the tepee and
the requests of a united student organization were key in reaching their goals of adding full-time
staff and class offerings, the administration would heed their words and act upon them.
The NAO had given birth to a vision and given its members a voice that would bring into
reality the goals and desires that had been envisioned. As the administration listened to the
request of the students they made the decision to hire an individual to accomplish the task of
starting a Native American studies department. The establishment of this department would
meet some of the goals outlined in the first meeting of the NAO. The University hired Dean
Chavers who was charged with organizing and starting up the Native American studies
department. Dean Chavers came to California State Hayward while still in graduate school at
Stanford. He was/is a tribal member of the Lumbee Indians in South Carolina, which is known
for their propensity in churning out intellectual Indians.20 The coming of Chavers to the
University marked a turning point in American Indian activities on campus and was marked by
the establishment of the Native American studies department, this department was later merged
with the Black Studies and Chicano Studies to form the Ethnic Studies department that is still
19
The Pioneer, May, 1971
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. Interview by Author, 12 November 2012. Professor Dunbar-Ortiz was one of the first
full-time faculty hired in the newly formed ethnic studies department. Professor Dunbar-Ortiz was an active
member of AIM during the 1970s and served on the Bay Area AIM council. She also worked on various project for
AIM including traveling to North Dakota to provide legal help in regards to the second Wounded Knee event that
took place 1973-74. Further information on Professor Dunbar-Ortiz can be gained through her website:
www.reddirtsite.com
20
10
with the University today. The hiring of Dean Chavers and others in the department was only
made possible by the work and determination of students that were members of the NAO.
The NAO never achieved their desired goal of constructing a "Round House" but the
spirit that the house embodied was established. The NAO had achieved its goal of the "setting
up of classes on Native American culture, language and customs taught by instructors of Indian
descent."21 With the Native American department firmly established NAO turned its attention to
promoting American Indian culture on the University campus. What followed was an
astounding display on the campus that featured many diverse aspects of American Indian culture.
California State Hayward during the 1970s experienced a flurry of Native American cultural
activities, combined with other cultural groups, this made the Hayward Campus one of the most
diverse campuses in the nation. By taking a look at a few of the American Indian cultural events
on the campus a clear picture of California State Hayward comes to the forefront. The heritage
of California State University Hayward/East Bay is one of diverse ethnic and cultural experience,
this diversity was only made possible by individuals that came together to form an organization
promoting diversity and culture. Today as we reflect on the history of the University we would
do well to recognize the debt owed to the American Indian students of the 1970s and the legacy
they helped to establish; a University of diversity.
21
The Pioneer, April 23, 1971
11
Bibliography
Secondary Sources
Banks, Dennis and Erdoes, Richard. Ojibwa Warrior Dennis Banks and the Rise of the American
Indian Movement (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004). - I consulted this
work to gain a better understanding of the individual mind set of those involved in the
movement and the mind set of those that started AIM. This work did help with
understanding motives and reasons for why the movement gained such traction in the
Bay Area and the rest the country.
Burt, Larry W. "Roots of Native American Urban Experience: Relocation Policy in the 1950s."
American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Spring, 1986), pp. 85-99. - This article was
used to help establish certain figures regarding American Indian populations used in my
paper.
Johnson, Troy. "The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Roots of American Indian Activism."
Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 63-79. - This source was used
for establishing the origins of the American Indian movement in the Bay Area and the
rest of the country. I chose this article for it depth of insight into the roots or foundation
of American Indian activism.
Nagel, Joane. "American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Politics and the Resurgence of Identity."
American Sociological Review, Vol. 60, No. 6 (Dec., 1995), pp. 947-965. - Nagel was
helpful in understanding why American Indians experienced a cultural and ethnic
renewal in the late 60s and 70s. I include this reference because it helped me gain a
better understanding of why American Indians in this time period experienced a new
appreciation for their culture.
Philp, Kenneth R. "Termination: A Legacy of the Indian New Deal"
The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Apr., 1983), pp. 165-180. - I chose
this reference for its take on how the Truman policy of termination effected American
Indians. It was very useful in establishing American Indian backlash from termination
of the 1950s.
Smith, Paul Chaat and Warrior, Robert Allen. Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from
Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: The New Press, 1996). - This book more than
any other work represents the most comprehensive work written on the Indian movement
during the 1960s and 70s. I used the work to help establish background on the Indian
movement as it pertained to the Bay Area. This work was also helpful in establishing
the presence of students active on Bay Area university and college campuses.
12
Weyler, Rex. Blood of the Land (Philadelphia: New Society publishers, 1992). - This source
was not that helpful but I include it for the single purpose of its name. Why the name
you ask? Because for me it represented where a majority of ideas concerning the Indian
movement were born out of: the blood of Indians. It helped me to understand the deep
resentment held by some individuals in the American Indian movement.
Primary Sources
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne. Interview by Author, 12 November 2012. - The oral interview with
Roxanne was an instrumental foundation and starting point for my research. She was one
of the first staff hired by Dean Chavers, the founder of the Native American Studies
Department, and was a wealth of information as to the origins of the NAO, the Ethnic
Studies Department and the activities of American Indian activities on campus.
California State University East Bay Library Archives. Collection: Student Affairs (#7),
Oversize Box 1, Series #3: Associated Students Newspapers, Posters. - This particular
collection was helpful as it contained several students flyers pertaining to American
Indians on campus and help establish the presence of a strong and active American
Indian student population.
California State University East Bay Library Archives. Collection: Student Affairs (#5), the
student handbook collection from 1957-1980. - This collection was helpful in establishing a
timeline for the formation of the NAO and their goals.
The Daily Review, Hayward CA, 1969. - The particular articles found in this local paper were
used to help establish background on American Indian activity in the Bay Area and tie
their movements with American Indian students on the CSUEB campus.
The Pioneer, 1969-present. - The campus newspaper was the main primary source for this paper
and was a wonderful resource for gaining a clear picture of American Indian students
and their activities on campus. The paper did an excellent job of chronicling the
beginnings of the NAO and their subsequent demands. I used this source because of its
unbiased nature and for its unique take on the Indians and their activities on the
University campus.