What is a Boreal Forest?
The northernmost and coldest forest zone in the Northern Hemisphere is the boreal forest,
forming a continuous belt 1000 km in north-south width across North America, Europe and
Asia.
“The boreal forest is between the northern tundra and the southern grassland, having mixed
hardwood trees.
Canada's boreal forest is part of a great northern circumpolar band of mostly coniferous trees
extending across the subarctic latitudes of Russia, Scandinavia and North America. Globally, the
boreal forest comprises almost 25% of the world's closed canopy forest as well as vast expanses
of open transitional forest.
The boreal forest plays a significant role in the earth's environmental balance. Besides being a
producer of oxygen, the boreal forest absorbs and stores carbon dioxide and so plays a critical
role in mitigating global warming. Canadians cannot forget they are custodian to one third of
this essential global resource.
The boreal forest is characterized by the predominance of coniferous trees. Fossil records show
that their first occurrence was during the Miocene Epoch, from 12 to 15 million years ago. From
this time forward the boreal forest's adaptation to the immense forces of fire, glacial ice, insect
infestation and disease have produced the forest for which we now have stewardship. These
natural disturbances have been and continue to be necessary for the maintenance of the
forest's ecological balance. Human activities, such as tree harvesting, mining, manufacturing,
resource development and recreational use are causing stress and changes to this land. Their
cumulative and long-term effects will cause far-reaching and potentially disastrous changes to
the forest. “
http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/theme_modules/bore
alforest/index.html
The world’s boreal forests
Bibliography:
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=a1ARTA0000888
http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=354
http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/theme_modules/borealforest/index.html
(a really good website to use as a link that the students can use as well)
Canada’s Boreal Forest
Canada’s Boreal Forest region stretches 10,000 continuous kilometres across Canada’s breadth.
Its size rivals even that of the Amazon Rain Forest! As one of the world’s greatest remaining
forests, the boreal forest provides an important haven for the many creatures that inhabit its
vast canopy, lakes and wetlands. From afar, this rugged green swath of vegetation seems
tranquil and untouched; free from roads, development and human influences. Such is not the
case. Forest harvesting, hydropower development and mineral exploration and mining have
drastically altered the forest landscape. Sound management is a must to ensure conservation
efforts are practiced to protect the Boreal Forest for future generations.
The bison, North America’s largest land mammal, wanders throughout the northern boreal
forest while the world’s smallest carnivore, the least weasel, has its primary residence in the
regions underground. The world’s largest population of woodland caribou, black bears, and
wolves roam this frontier and billions of birds such as warblers, thrushes, waterfowl and
shorebirds, frequent this region to court, breed and raise their young.
This forest is characterized by a northern climate resulting in cold soils, slow decomposition of
organic matter, low nutrient levels and slow tree growth. White spruce and black spruce
symbolize the Boreal Forest, with numerous other softwood (coniferous) and hardwood
(deciduous) species. The Boreal Forest is also home to hundreds of First Nations communities
that rely on the forest’s resources.
In Saskatchewan, the Boreal Forest is described through the ecological classification system
(ECS). This system is based on the characteristics of the ecosystem components of air, water,
land, biota and humans.
The first level of classification is Ecozones of which Saskatchewan has four:
Taiga Shield
Boreal Shield
Boreal Plain
Prairie
Ecozones are characterized by major physiographical features.
Ecozones are subdivided into Ecoregions which have distinct climate zones and regional
landforms.
Ecoregions are further divided into Ecodistricts (landscape areas) with distinct landforms, relief,
surface geological material, water bodies, vegetation and land.
The Ecodistrict (landscape area) is further divided into Ecosites which if identified by specific
plant species that are common or is a typical expression of available moisture and nutrients,
e.g., blueberry. A good knowledge level of most of the plants in the forest is required at this
level.
TAIGA SHIELD ECOZONE
land of little sticks and lakes
north of Lake Athabasca, Wollaston and Reindeer Lakes
transition between Boreal Shield and the Southern Arctic
mineral exploration
Selwyn Lake Upland Ecoregion
NE corner of Saskatchewan
flat lichen woodlands with black spruce
barren-ground caribou and arctic fox
Taiga Lake Upland Ecoregion
north side of Lake Athabasca
rugged Precambrian rock
black spruce and jack pine
willow ptarmigan
BOREAL SHIELD ECOZONE – 1/3 of the province
forest and shield
2 distinct ecoregions: sand over rock and rock (outcrops)
black spruce and jack pine
arctic grayling and lake trout (cold water fish)
Athabasca Plain Ecoregion – sand over rock
flat landscape
jack pine and lichen
uranium mining
Churchill River Upland Ecoregion – the largest ecoregion in the province
40% of the area is covered with lakes and fast flowing rivers
jack pine and black spruce
bald eagles
gold and uranium
forest industry, fur trapping, hunting, tourism, sports fishing
BOREAL PLAIN ECOZONE
3 ecoregions W-E-S
level to gently rolling landscape with pockets of upland: Porcupine Hills, Pasqua Hills,
and Duck Mountain
covered with 100 to 250 meters of glacial sediment
species richness and productivity high
Mid-Boreal Upland Ecoregion
major upland with flat top
merchantable timber
beaver
warm water fish: northern pike, walleye, whitefish
Mid-Boreal Lowland Ecoregion
low-lying area
fens and peatlands (sedges and peatmoss)
Cumberland delta – levees and river channels
moose, muskrat and loon
northern pike
forestry, ecotourism, hunting, sports fishing, hiking, wildlife viewing
Boreal Transition Ecoregion
forest and agriculture
aspen most common over white spruce and jack pine
fewer wetlands and lakes
river valleys of the North and South Saskatchewan Rivers
forestry mills in Prince Albert, Meadow Lake and Hudson Bay
red squirrel
PRAIRIE ECOZONE – grassland
level to gently rolling landscape plus the Cypress Hills
farming
Aspen Parkland Ecoregion
aspen groves and fescue grass
aspen on moister sites
river valley, sloughs and potholes (ducks)
Mixed Grassland Ecoregion
mid and short grasses
wheat grass, speargrass and blue gramma grasses
50% cultivated and rangeland (cattle)
oil and natural gas
Grasslands National Park
pronghorn antelope
Cypress Upland Ecoregion
flat top upland
cobble stone
lodgepole pine
north facing slopes are treed
south facing slopes are grass
rangeland
www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/science9/.../lesson06t.html
www.virtualsk.com/maps/index.html
Did you know? / Interesting Facts…
The boreal forests are named after Boreas, the Greek god of the North Wind.
The boreal forest forms a continuous belt 1000km in north-south width across
North America, Europe and Asia.
The common loon is one of the most familiar and cherished birds of the region, and
up to 70% of its population relies on the Boreal Forest to nest and breed each year.
The boreal forest is used by nearly half of the birds in North America each year.
The boreal forest contains wetlands that filter millions of litres of water each day.
Canada’s Boreal Forest
Percent of land in Canada covered by boreal forest: 53%
Percent of the world’s boreal forests that lie within Canada’s borders: 25%
Litres of water absorbed and filtered in the boreal forest every day: several million
Percent of the world’s unfrozen fresh water supply found in Canada’s boreal forest: 80%
Number of indigenous communities living in the boreal region: more than 500
Number of lakes distributed throughout the boreal forest: 1.5 million
Boreal Birds
Total number of birds breeding in the boreal region: up to 5 billion
Number of bird species that breed in the boreal forest in Canada: approximately 200
Number of waterfowl species using the boreal forest: 35
Percent of Canada’s bird population that can be found in the boreal regions: 60%
Percent of North America’s migratory waterfowl using the boreal forest: 40%
Boreal Mammals
Animal species include: Caribou, Lynx, Wolverine, Black Bear, Moose, Coyote, Timber Wolf,
Bison, among others
Habitat
Number of tree species in the boreal region: approximately 20
Number of species of fungi growing in boreal forests around the globe: more than 5,000
Age of the oldest lichen growing in the boreal forest: 100 years
Dominant tree species include: White and Black Spruce, Jack Pine, Tamarack, Balsam Fir,
Balsam Poplar, White Birch, and Trembling Aspen
Water bodies include: bogs, fens, marshes, shallow lakes, rivers, and wetlands
Conservation
Percent of Canada’s boreal forest publicly owned: 94%
Percent of boreal forest that has been allocated to industry: more than 30%
Percent of boreal region within a kilometer of a road: 30%
http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/jf04/indepth/justthefacts.asp
THE BOREAL FOREST:
Quick Facts
The world's boreal forest (meaning north or northern forest) wraps around the northern hemisphere like a green
cloak. This vast ecosystem is easily seen from space and is sometimes referred to as Earth's green halo.
The boreal forest is found in Russia, Canada and Alaska and Scandinavia. The original boundary of Russia’s
portion of the Boreal is larger than Canada's, but much is fragmented and lost due to development.
Overall the boreal forest spans 12,000 kilometres, covering nearly 11 per cent of our planet's total surface. This
makes it the biggest terrestrial ecosystem on Earth.
Boreal forests are ecologically sensitive places and are easily damaged. Soils are cold and often very shallow.
Growing seasons are short. Nutrient cycling is typically slow. Trees are relatively small and slow growing.
The boreal forest is home to hardwood trees like birch and trembling aspen but is dominated by coniferous trees
such as spruce, fir, and pine.
The boreal forest is a key resource for all citizens of this globe. It filters our water, keeps our air clean, helps
regulate climate and sustains a vast variety of living organisms, including human beings. The forest works hard
for us. On an average day, this boreal region is responsible for filtering tens of millions of litres of water,
rebuilding soils, restoring nutrients, storing carbon and producing oxygen, holding back floodwaters or releasing
needed water into rivers and streams, combating erosion and providing food and shelter.
An incredible array of wildlife live in the boreal forest, including wood bison, snowshoe hare, marten, whooping
crane, great gray owl, lynx, and hundreds of species of songbirds. It is the last stronghold for many species at
risk, such as woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) and wolverine (Gulo gulo).
Here in Canada, the boreal forest supports our economy and inspires many cultures. It is home to people whose
daily lives are intrinsically linked to the well being of the forest. Hundreds of Aboriginal communities across
Canada still practice their traditional ways of life and depend upon the forest for food, medicines and an
economic livelihood.
The boreal forest is part of our national identity. As Canadians, we are in a unique position to set an example
that the world can follow. We are stewards of one of the world's last intact ecosystems.
http://www.cpaws-sask.org/boreal_forest/about_forests_facts.html
Bibliography:
http://www.fws.gov/birds/documents/unspoiledfinal.pdf
http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=354
http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/jf04/indepth/justthefacts.asp
http://www.cpaws-sask.org/boreal_forest/about_forests_facts.html
White Spruce
Picea glauca
Identification:
Leaves: needle-like, are concentrated on the upper sides of the branches. In color, they
are dark green to blue-green. In a cross-section the needles are diamond-shaped.
Cones: range from 3-5cm in length. Cones grow sessile with the branch, meaning they
have little or no stem attaching them to the branch. The cones are cylindrical and slender
and are light green in color, until mature, when they become light brown, purplish. The
scales are rounded and smooth and open when ripe.
Bark: smooth, light gray when young, darker gray and scaly with age, having a tinge of
brown. One quarter, to half an inch thick, composed of broken, irregularly shaped scales.
The under bark is a salmon pink in color.
Wood: wood dries easily, is stable after drying, is moderately light in weight and easily
worked, has moderate shrinkage and is moderately strong, stiff, tough and hard. It is
straight, even grained and soft and finishes with a satin-like surface. The wood is creamy
white or straw-coloured, and there is little difference between the colour of the
heartwood and sapwood.
Distribution/location: White spruce has a transcontinental range spanning from Newfoundland
and Labrador west across Canada along the northern limit of trees to Hudson Bay, Northwest
Territories, and Yukon.
Habitat/Climate: White spruce is commonly found in Northern forests. Grows on a variety of
different soils and tolerates a range in climatic conditions. It is shade-tolerant. After being
suppressed, recovers well with additional light. Commonly found near the arctic tree-line. It
does best on well-drained soils.
Growing Characteristics: White Spruce usually grows about 25 meters high, and 60 cm is
diameter. The crown is broadly conical, ragged, irregular, densely foliated, but spire-like in
northern parts of the range. Branches are generally horizontal, or slightly upward, yet
sometimes slope downward near the crown. The root system is shallow, tough, pliable, and
wide spread.
Reproduction: White Spruce begins seed production at around age 4, however does not
produce in large quantities until around age 30. Seed dispersal is aided by the wind, most falling
within 1m, though seeds have been found up to 400m away. Seeds are lost for a number of
reasons including, red squirrel predation, insects, and other mammals’ meals. Seeds overwinter
under snow, and germinate in the spring. Germination is usually between 50-70% of the
surviving seed fall.
Uses:
Traditionally - saplings were used to make snow shoe frames and bows; the resin was
used as glue to fasten skins onto bows, and arrowheads to shafts; decayed wood was
used for tanning hides; and bark was used for making baskets, cooking pots, and trays.
Modernly - white spruce are used for shelter-belt planting, meaning they are planted in
planned rows to protect other crops or gardens. White Spruce is important
commercially for pulpwood and construction lumber. It is also used for specialty items
such as sounding boards, paddles and oars, cabinets, boxes, and food containers.
Another modern use of the white spruce is for Christmas trees, so next Christmas, be
sure to ask your parents, “What kind of tree are we going to get this year?”
Fun Facts:
The bark, branches, buds and seeds from the White Spruce are a meal for deer, rabbits,
porcupines, birds, and small rodents.
The white spruce can grow up to 40 meters in height and 1 meter in diameter.
Usually, white spruce live between 250-350 years old, but trees up to 1000 years old
have been located!
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 102/103
http://www.nearctica.com/trees/conifer/picea/Pglauca.htm
http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex1013?opendocument
http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/piceaglauca.html
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/veg/Boreal/White_spruce-ice_effect_GK.html
http://bolt.lakeheadu.ca/~borfor/nwwood.htm#glauca
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
Identification:
Leaves: needle-like, straight, 8-15mm long, blunt pointed, dull grayish-green, lines of
white dots more prominent on the undersurface; needles densely set along the twig, side
needles at right angles, and upper needles pointing forward.
Cones: seed cones (female) are small and purplish. The old cones hang on the tree for
several years. Pollen cones (male) are dark red.
Bark: reddish-brown or grayish-brown, thin, scaly or shredded when young, becoming
darker with larger scales when mature. Newly exposed bark is olive green or yellowishgreen.
Wood: attains a creamy white or straw color. The graining runs straight and there is little
visual difference between heartwood and sapwood. There is little shrinkage to the fibers;
the wood dries easily with little or minimal cracking.
Climate/Habitat/Location: Grows on a variety of sites. It is generally confined to wet poorly
drained sites in the southern part of its range, in pure stands, or with tamarack. Northward, it
usually grows on moist organic soils in extensive pure stands, or mixed with jack pine, white
spruce, balsam fir, white birch and trembling aspen. Moderately shade tolerant. Black spruce
tolerates poor growing conditions. It is frequently found in cold, poorly drained areas, such as
swamps and bogs.
Growing Characteristics: On poorly drained sites, trees are small, up to 20m high and 30cm in
diameter. On well drained upland sites, trees are medium-sized, up to 30m high and 60cm in
diameter. Root system is very shallow, especially on organic soils with a high water table.
Reproduction: Reproduces by seed and by vegetative layering.
Uses: Traditional - The Carrier people used black spruce wood to make fish traps. Other
aboriginal people made snowshoe frames and drying racks. They also used powdered
resin on wounds to speed healing.
Modern - The long fibers in black spruce make this a preferred pulp species for paper
products.
Fun Facts:
The red squirrels remove the cones from near the top of the black spruce trees, which
can create a thick dense clump of branches at the top of the tree.
Special uses of the trees leaves include distillation for perfume and as a main ingredient
for spruce beer.
Spruce grouse feed entirely on spruce needles in winter.
Distribution of Black Spruce in North America
http://azael100.tripod.com/id3.html
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 106-107
http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/piceamar.html
http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/ClimateChange/2ColumnSubPage/267240.html
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/blackspruce.htm
http://www.raydw.com/evergreens.htm
http://www.bedfordaudubon.org/seasons/winter/winter03.html
http://www.ehow.com/list_7492577_characteristics-black-hills-spruce-lumber.html
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Identification: A distinctive tree of the northern forest of central and eastern Canada because
its regular crown gradually tapers to a spire-like top.
Leaves: needle-like, short, flat, resinous needles, 1 to 1.5cm long.
Flowers: male strobili about 3mm long at maturity, yellowish-red and tinged with
purple. Female strobili about 2-3cm long at maturity and purplish, found singly or in small
groups, confined to the top 2m of the crown.
Cones: cylindrical, perched upright on year-old branches in the crown.
Bark: grayish, smooth, with raised resin blisters when young; with age, breaking into
irregular brownish scales.
Wood: light, soft, weak, somewhat brittle, odorless, white, little contrast between early
wood and latewood, or heartwood and sapwood.
Distribution/Location: In Canada, balsam fir extends from Newfoundland and Labrador west
through the more northerly portions of Quebec and Ontario, in scattered stands through northcentral Manitoba and Saskatchewan to the Peace River Valley in northwestern Alberta, then
south for approximately 640 km (400 mi) to central Alberta, and east and south to southern
Manitoba.
Climate: Balsam fir grows best in the eastern part of its range in southeastern Canada. This area
is characterized by cool temperatures and abundant moisture.
Habitat: Adaptable to a variety of soils and climate. It grows in pure stands or mixed with
trembling aspen, white birch, white spruce and black spruce.
Growing Characteristics: Medium size trees, up to 25m high, 70cm in diameter, and 150 years
old.
Reproduction: By seeds.
Uses: Modern - The resin is used to produce Canada balsam. Balsam fir is primary used is in
the pulp and lumber industry. It used extensively for Christmas trees in parts of the country.
Traditional - used as a cold remedy and as glue for glass and optical instrument
components. The wood is used for paper manufacture and is also a popular Christmas
tree.
Fun facts:
Wildlife relies extensively on this tree for food and shelter.
The fir tree has been a favorite Christmas tree for more than 400 years.
Distribution of the Balsam Fir in North America
http://www.survivaltopics.com/survival/balsam-firpitch/
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar pages 84-85
http://www.firevergreen.com/types_of_trees/balsam_fir/
http://www.taylortrees.com/Christmas%20Tree%20Descriptions.htm
http://www.birchbrook.ca/plants1.html
http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/abiesbal.html
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/pubs/silvics_manual/volume_1/abies/balsamea.htm
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Identification: A hard pine, characteristic of the northern forests; the most widely distributed
pine in Canada.
Leaves: needle-like evergreen, in bundles of 2, 2-4cm long, straight or slightly twisted,
stiff, sharp-pointed, light-yellowish-green, spread apart, edges toothed.
Flowers: monoecious, males cylindrical, yellow-green, in clusters at twig tips; females
oval, reddish appearing in May.
Cones: cones take two years to develop. Variable in shape, oblong to conical,
asymmetrical, straight, or curved inward, 3-7cm long, yellowish-brown when mature,
stalkless, usually pointing towards the end of the branch, often in clusters of 2 or 3 at
nodes; usually remaining closed and persistent on the tree for 10-20 years and many
stay on the tree for the life of the tree. Scales thicken at the tips, smooth, held closed by
a resin bond; opening when exposed to heat from a wildfire or sometimes from direct
sunlight or warm days. Seed crops begin at 5-10 years and occur in most years
thereafter.
Bark: thin, reddish-brown to gray when, with age becoming dark brown, flaky, furrowed
into regular thick plates.
Wood: moderately hard and heavy. Weak, light brown in color.
Distribution: It is found in the coniferous belt all across Canada.
Climate: Dominant tree in southern boreal forest.
Habitat: Occurs on poor quality sites such as coarse sands, shallow soils, and rock out crops.
Grows in pure stands or mixed stands with others shade-intolerant species such as white birch,
trembling aspen, balsam poplar and tamarack and with shade tolerant species such as black
spruce, white spruce and balsam fir.
Growing Characteristics: They are small trees up to 20m high, 30cm in diameter and 150 years
old, occasionally larger. Open-grown trees: have tapered trunks, crown is conical, open;
branches ascending, and arching. Forest-grown trees: slender, straight, with little taper, the
crown is short. On poor soils and rocky sites, the tree is short, and often twisted with long stout
branches, some of them dead or dying with the crown an unkempt look. Root system is widespreading, moderately deep, and often has a tap root.
Reproduction: Reproduces by seed. Minimum seed bearing age in open stands is 5-10 years.
Some seed is produced every year and serotinous cones accumulate in the crown. A mature
stand may have as many as 2 million seeds per acre stored in unopened cones. Because of
abundant seed production, few mature trees are necessary to regenerate a stand.
Uses: Modern - An important commercial timber species. The moderately hard and heavy
wood is used for pulpwood, lumber, telephone poles, fence posts, mine timbers, and railroad
ties. It is also planted for Christmas trees.
Fun Facts:
Jack Pine is the territorial tree of the Northwest Territories.
Jack Pine have adapted so well to their environment that they REQUIRE wildfires (or a
lot of sunlight) in order for their seeds to be released from the cones. You can try this
out at home by placing the cones in a dry sunny location or someplace where it is warm.
In a few days the cones will open and seeds will start to fall out.
Distribution of Jack Pine in North America
http://azael100.tripod.com/id3.html
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 58-59
http://www.borealforest.org/trees/tree8.htm
http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_jack_pine.htm
http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2006/03/03/globaltrees/
http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/pinusbank.html
Tamarack
Larix laricina
Identification:
Leaves: needle-like, are three-sided and blue-green, turning bright yellow in autumn.
The second year and older needles grow in clusters of 15 to 25 on short woody
projections which remain on the twig after the needles fall. The first year needles appear
as single needles on the stem.
Fruit/Cones: the small, round seed cones are red at flowering and turn brown with age.
Pollen cones are yellow.
Bark: thin, smooth, gray when the young, becoming reddish-brown, scaly. Newly
exposed bark is reddish-purple.
Wood: tamarack has yellowish-brown heartwood and somewhat whitish sapwood. Its
annual growth rings are fairly easy to see and the transition from early wood to latewood
is abrupt. Outside in harsher weather conditions, the wood changes colour over time and
turns silvery grey. Tamarack wood is coarse-textured and often spiral-grained. The wood
is more or less oily and somewhat waxy to the touch. It is the densest softwood in North
America.
Distribution/Location: Tamarack occurs from northwestern Canada to the east coast. In British
Columbia and the Yukon tamarack is not well represented and is only found in small stands.
Tamarack grows at about sea level in the north, and at higher elevations in the southern part of
its range.
Climate: Tamarack can be found in many different climates, as demonstrated by its large
range. Tamarack is also shade intolerant, and will only grow with ample sunlight or in other
words not under the canopy of other faster growing trees.
Habitat: Found mainly on cold, wet, poorly drained sites such as sphagnum bogs and muskeg;
often mixed with black spruce. Grows better on moist, well-drained, light soils, mixed with
black spruce, white spruce, trembling aspen and white birch.
Growing Characteristics: Medium- sized trees, up to 25m high, 40 cm diameter and 150 years
old. The trunk is slender, straight or sinuous; the crown is narrowly conical, open, and becoming
irregular with age. The principal branches are horizontal or sometimes ascending. Root systems
are shallow, and wide-spreading. In nutrient-poor bogs, near the tree line in the far north the
trees are often stunted with short needles and narrow cone scales.
Reproduction: Tamarack is a monoecious tree, meaning that both pollen cones and seed cones
can be found on the same tree. Pollen is developed in the yellow-colored male cones and
transferred via wind to the ovule cone where fertilization and embryo development takes
place. Ripe seeds then drop and if site conditions are adequate seeds will germinate. Bogs and
muskegs do not offer many good seedbeds except in drier years.
Uses: Traditional - Tamarack produces a heavy, durable wood used mainly for pulp but also
for posts, poles, and fuel.
Some native groups chewed tamarack resin to relieve indigestion.
In the days of wooden sailing ships, tamarack roots were used to join the ribs to the
deck timbers.
Modern – Tamarack produces a heavy, durable wood used mainly for pulp but also for
posts, poles and firewood.
Tamarack growing range, North America
http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/2010/panich_just/Site/Habitat.html
Fun facts:
Tamarack occurs in every province and territory of Canada.
Tamarack is one of the fastest growing conifers when planted in well-drained soil.
Tamarack comes from an Algonquin word, akemantak, meaning "wood used for
snowshoes."
Tamarack has the strongest wood of all the conifers.
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 74-75
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/tamarack.htm
http://www.treesfortomorrow.com/seedling.htm (just a picture, no information)
http://forestry.about.com/library/tree/bltam.htm
http://www.quebecwoodexport.com/eng/softwood/tamarack.htm
http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/2010/panich_just/Site/Reproduction.html
http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/2010/panich_just/Site/Habitat.html
Trembling Aspen
Populus tremuloides
Identification:
Leaves: smooth, round to triangular-shaped leaves with a flattened stalk that is longer
than the leaf. They are dark green above, paler underneath and turn golden yellow or red
in the fall.
Flowers: the flowers are borne in male and female catkins on separate trees. Male catkins
are small, 2 to 3 centimetres long, and the female catkins are larger, 4 to 10 centimetres
long. Seeds ripen 4-6 weeks after flowering. Good seed crops occur every 4-5 years.
Fruit: tiny capsules covered with cottony down.
Bark: smooth and waxy appearance, pale green to almost white when young, becoming
darker and furrowed into long flat-topped ridges with maturity, diamond-shaped marks
about 1cm across sometimes occurs. A white chalk-like bloom often occurs on the south
side of the trunk.
Wood: the wood of the trembling aspen is light, soft and low in strength. Its colour
from white to gray.
Distribution/Location: Trembling aspen is the most widely distributed tree species in North
America. It grows from Alaska across the Northwest Territories to Quebec and Newfoundland.
It occurs in ALL Canadian provinces and most of the states of the United States.
Habitat: Occurs on a great variety of soils; prefers sheltered areas. Often grows in pure stands,
especially as a young tree; also mixed with white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, white birch,
balsam poplar, and jack pine. It is considered a “nurse crop” because other broadleaf and
conifers species enter a pure stand and eventually replace the aspen.
Growing Characteristics: It is a medium-sized tree, up to 25m high and 40cm in diameter, and
80 years old; larger and older on favorable sites. Trunk is long, cylindrical, smooth, with little
taper; branch-free in the lower part through self-pruning. Crown is short and rounded. The root
system is shallow and very wide-spreading.
Reproduction: Trembling aspen produce new trees via sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction is rare because conditions have to be just right for the seeds to germinate and
survive. Aspen are dioecious, meaning that "male and female flowers are on different plants of
the same species." Trembling aspen first flowers when they are 10-20 years old and reach a
production peak around 50 years old. The flowers are contained in catkins and are pollinated by
the wind. The seeds are dispersed by the wind, some up to several kilometers, and they can
also be scattered by water in aquatic environments. A single aspen can produce 1.6 million
seeds every year, and larger crops are produced in 2-3 or 4-5 year intervals. The seeds can only
survive with suitable temperatures, nutrient-rich soil, and plenty of water. Seedlings produced
by sexual reproduction provide diversity in an otherwise genetically identical or similar colony
of trees.
Asexual reproduction produces clones of identical trees. The extensive root system of an aspen
sends up shoots or suckers where there is an area of sunlight. A mature system of roots can
produce 400,000 to 1 million suckers per acre (0.4ha). Aspen clones rely on occasional habitat
disturbances to provide them with enough sunlight to survive. These clone shoots are
genetically identical to the original aspen, but are individual trees. A grove of aspen is
commonly composed of a variety of widespread, interconnected clones. Most clones grow
within 8m or even 25m of the parent tree. Clonal colonies survive for many years, some
estimated to be hundreds or even thousands of years old! Aspen also sprout from root collars
and stumps in asexual reproduction.
Uses:
Traditional- Aspen branches boiled in water made a cleanser for guns, traps, and
buckskins. Hunters would also wash themselves in this solution to remove human
odour.
Modern- After decades of being treated as a weed, the forest industry now values
aspen for pulp and wafer board. It is also used to make plywood, particleboard, pallets,
crates, excelsior, and matches.
Fun facts:
Trembling aspen is exported for use in the chopstick industry.
Other names include quaking aspen or quivering aspen. In several native languages, the name
translates as "woman's tongue" or "noisy leaf."
The trembling aspen is the most widely distributed tree in North America.
Roll the leaf stalk between your fingers to feel the flat stalk. This is why the trembling aspen can
tremble with the slightest breeze.
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 346-347
http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/tremblingaspen.htm
http://www.domtar.com/arbre/english/album_photo/p_tremb.htm
http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_potr5.pdf
http://www.borealforest.org/trees/tree13.htm
Balsam Poplar
Populus balsamifera
Identification:
Leaves: alternate, simple, ovate, finely serrated, shiny dark green, paler and often
blotchy orange below, leaf stalk (petiole) long with glands at the leaf base.
Flowers: dioecious, male and female as hanging, long pale yellow green catkins,
appearing in May.
Fruit: small, 2-valved, dry capsule containing numerous small seeds. Capsules are a
lustrous green during development but turn dull green at time of dispersal. Male
flowers are shed promptly and decay; female catkins are shed shortly after dispersal is
completed but remain identifiable for the remainder of the summer.
Bark: greenish- brown when young, becoming gray and deep furrowed with age.
Wood: wood is light, soft, and low in strength, grayish white to light grayish brown in
colour.
Distribution/Location: Alaska to Labrador and Newfoundland.
Habitat: Found most often in river valleys; also on any moist, rich, low-lying ground, grows in
pure stands or mixed with balsam fir, black spruce, white spruce and white birch.
Growing Characteristics: Medium- sized trees, up to 25m high, 50cm in diameter, and 70 years
old, occasionally much larger and older. Often the largest tree in the northern and west parts of
its range.
Reproduction:




Seed production begins at about 8 years, with a good crop every year.
Dispersal by wind before leaves completely emerge; within 200m of the parent tree.
Germination: Seeds remain viable 2-4 weeks but will germinate immediately following
arrival on a suitable seedbed of exposed, moist mineral soil. Seedlings require 1 month
of abundant moisture to survive.
Vegetative reproduction from root suckers, stump sprouts, stems sprouts, and buried
branches.
Uses: Traditional – Burns well and was used to make friction fire sets. Ashes were used to
make a cleanser for hair and buckskin clothing.
The Thompson people produced soap from the inner bark. The Hudson‘s Bay Company
reportedly continued using their method of combining the inner bark with tallow.
Native Americans used resin from buds to treat sore throats, coughs, lung pain and
rheumatism. An ointment, Balm of Gilead, was made from the winter buds to relieve
congestion.
Modern- Buds contain a waxy resin with disinfectant properties still used in some
modern natural health ointments. Bees collect resin and use it to seal off intruders, such
as mice, which might decay and infect the hive.
Balsam poplar is used for pulpwood, lumber and veneer, and high-grade paper and
particle board. Also used to make boxes and crates. The short, fine fibres are used in
tissues and other paper products.
Fun facts:
Squeeze the buds between your fingers to see how sticky they are. Then smell the balsam
fragrance.
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 340-341.
http://www.borealforest.org/trees/tree11.htm
http://www.domtar.com/arbre/english/album_photo/p_pbaul.htm
http://www.abtreegene.com/trees.html
http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/trees/populusbal.html
White Birch
Betula papyrifera
Identification: Occurs in all forested regions across Canada, north to the tree line. Frequently
planted for landscape purposes.
Leaves: ovate or triangular, 5-10cm long, tip pointed, base broadly wedge-shaped,
rounded, straight, or cordate; double-toothed; upper surface dull green, lighter
beneath.
Flowers: pollen catkins in clusters of 1-3, each 1-3cm long and 2-4mm wide in winter,
about 9cm long during pollination in the spring. Seed catkins which develop in the
spring are 1-2cm longs, erect; stigmas pink or red.
Fruit: mature seed catkins 3-5cm long, hanging from the dwarf shoots. Nutlets 1.52.5mm long, half as wide as long; wings much wider than nutlet. Scales variable, 2-3mm
long, usually hairy, with 2 rounded lateral lobes diverging from a short, pointed central
lobe. Fruits and scales shed from September onwards, leaving the bare catkin axis on
the tree.
Bark: thin, smooth, dark red to almost black on young stems, becoming reddish-brown
and then bright creamy white; often shedding in large sheets. On removal of the outer
bark, the reddish-orange inner bark soon dies, turns black and divides into flakes.
Exposing large areas of the inner bark may kill the tree.
Wood: texture is uniform, colour is pale, has no odor.
Climate/Location: White Birch grows in climates ranging from boreal to humid and tolerates
wide variations in precipitation. Its northern limit of growth is the arctic circle, with boreal
spruce woodlands being more common.
Habitat: Found on forest edges, lakeshores, and roadsides. It grows on a wide variety of soils in
pure stands and mixed stands of pine, spruce, poplars and balsam fir. Not shade-tolerant.
Among the first species to reforest areas that have been burned or cut.
Growing Characteristics: It is a small or medium-sized tree, up to 25m high, 40cm in diameter,
and 120 years old. It commonly grows in clumps of 3 to 6 stems or it can be found growing as a
single stem. Trunk slender often curved usually distinct to midcrown or higher. Crown narrowly
oval, open, branches ascending.
Reproduction:

Monoecious – male and female flowers are found on the same tree.

Staminate (male) catkins form in fall, remain dormant over winter, and mature in the spring.

Pistillate (female) flowers are borne in cylindrical catkins in the spring. Two or three catkins
are arranged on lateral spur shoots, disintegrating once mature.

Once pollinated, female catkins will develop seeds, beginning to ripen in early August until
mid-September.

Seed dispersal begins soon after ripening.

The winged-seed is easily dispersed by the wind.

Reproduction is mainly by seed but this species has limited capacity to reproduce asexually
from spouts following a disturbance such as harvest or wildfire.

Seed has the capacity to lie dormant for up to two years until moisture conditions are
favourable for germination.
Uses: Traditional- Aboriginal Native Americans used birch bark to make canoes, rattles,
torches, many types of containers, and also used it in construction of their dwellings.
Lightweight and flexible, the bark could be cut and bent to make containers of any desired
shape. Trays, dishes, storage boxes, buckets and cooking pots were made of birch bark. The
edges of the container were sewn together with plant fibers. If the edges were sealed with pine
pitch or spruce resin, the container could be used to carry water or hung over a fire to cook a
soup or stew. Birch bark cutouts or stencils often were used to decorate containers, and also
provided patterns for Native American beadwork.
The white outer bark layer made a good substitute for the paper that it resembles, and
drawings could be made on it with a piece of charcoal. Birch bark burns easily. It was shredded
and used for tinder to start campfires, folded and stuck in the cleft of a long pole to illuminate
the water depths for night spear fishing, and rolled into cylinders used as long-burning torches.
Modern – It is most commonly used for firewood and furniture framing.
Fun and Important facts:
Birch juice extracted by cutting the standing trees is considered a common drink in rural
Ukraine, Belarus and Russia.
Birch leaves make a diuretic tea and to make extracts for dyes and cosmetics.
Trees can be tapped for birch syrup.
Birch is considered to be the most important allergic tree pollen; with an estimated 1520% of hay fever suffers sensitive to birch pollen grains.
The chaga mushroom is an adaptogen that grows on white birch trees, extracting the
birch constituents and is used to treat cancer.
White birch (often called paper birch) is Saskatchewan’s tree emblem.
Bibliography: Trees in Canada by John Laird Farrar page 284-285
http://whitebirchtree.com/ (photo)
http://www.camping-field-guide.com/types-of-trees.html (photo)
http://www.trees-online.co.uk/advanced_search_result.php?keywords=BIRCH (photo)
http://www.cirrusimage.com/tree_white_birch.htm
http://www.srd.alberta.ca/BioDiversityStewardship/WildSpecies/TreesPlants/Trees/WhiteBirch
.aspx