Gender Gender 1930’s Margaret Mead – Is masculine/feminine idea of gender universal? – Three groups in New Guinea – Gender patterned by culture Sex and Gender Sex is biological Gender is cultural – Social, cultural, psychological expectations a culture has of members of each sex – At least two sexes and genders, sometimes more Sex and Gender Cultural construction of gender – 1970’s feminist anthropology studies gender roles focusing on women’s lives – History, impact of colonialism, industrialization Sex and Gender Many cultures recognize alternatives – Nandi of Kenya, female husband – Oman of Saudi Arabia, xanith – Native American, two-spirit role – Tahiti, mahu – India, hijra Cultural variation in sexual behavior Acceptable sexual behavior varies by culture What is erotic? – Kissing – sniffing(Tahitians) – grooming(Trobrianders) Cultural variation in sexual behavior Acceptable sexual behavior varies by culture Is homosexuality acceptable? – Stigma – Period of homosexuality part of process of becoming a man (Sambia of New Guinea) Cultural variation in sexual behavior Acceptable sexual behavior varies by culture What role does sexuality play in culture? – The Irish of Inis Beag Not discussed, not mature until 40’s, little sex – Polynesians of Mangaia Sex is private, but much public joking Cultural variation in sexual behavior Acceptable sexual behavior varies by culture How does power influence sexuality? – Covering the body, seclusion, honor and shame – Marriage, divorce, adultery controlled by one part of society, church, colonial power – Female circumcision (to control sexuality, prove marriageability), Chinese footbinding, sati (widow joins funeral pyre) Rites of Passage In the US, adolescence is transition between childhood and adulthood In many cultures passage into adulthood marked by ritual – Announces transition to community – Transmission of culture – Reduces trauma of transition Rites of Passage Male initiation – Separation from family, often traumatic and prolonged – Often in cultures where boys have strong connection with mother Rites of Passage Female initiation – May be public or private, long process or quick ceremony – Often in cultures where woman lives with mother in adulthood Gender Roles A culture’s expectations of men and women – What kind of jobs – Personality traits – Acceptable behavior Gender Roles Gender hierarchy – Ways in which gendered activities and qualities are valued differently – Different distribution of resources, power, and prestige Gender Roles Private/public dichotomy – Gender system in which women have low status because they are at home with children while men are identified with public, prestigious, political and economic roles Gender Relations - Foraging Women gather food and hunt Tlingit, NW Coast – Egalitarian gender relations – Men and women equal access to status by trade and by becoming a shaman – Women held positions- head of clan – History has carried on, today Tlingit women hold high offices, are encouraged to pursue education and professional careers Gender Relations - Horticultural Wide range of gender relationships Segregation of sexes – Men’s house, ritual, secrecy – Women’s strong bonds to female kin through shared work harvesting swamp taro Gender Relations - Horticultural Example of change over time – Nukumanu, Polynesian atoll – Horticulture and fishing, male and female roles equally valued – 1880’s colonialism, coconut production commercial foods bought with wages replaced taro that had been produced by women Gender Relations - Agricultural Women work more in home, raising more children, status declines Men produce product for market and food for family, status increases Gender Relations - Industrial Use of machinery and wage labor often increases gender inequality Gender Relations Development projects should consider the impact on gender relations Do not want to create gender inequality as this may increase conflict within society