Chapter 1: The Dry Bones Speak
Human Origins in Myth and History
Early Myths
• “Myth” is an interpretative story with a moral
message that cannot be verified historically
• One of earliest myths is Enuma Elish
(Mesopotamia), dating to approximately 2000
B.C.E.
• Rigveda (India) dates to 1000 B.C.E.
• Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible
• All define creation and the role of people
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Human Origins in Myth and History
The Evolutionary Explanation
• Drawn from direct observations from the 18th
century
• Relied on the scientific method
• The most influential theorists were Charles Darwin
and Alfred Wallace
• Rejected the simultaneous creation of all species in
favor of the cumulative creation of species, which
reflected natural selection
1. The Dry Bones Speak
The Evolutionary Explanation
The New Challenges
• Changes in species not the result of a grand teleological
design with ethical goals but that reflected improved
ability to survive and reproduce
• Newer organisms that were simply “fit” to survive
• These organisms evolved from earlier forms of life rather
than as the result of a separate creation
• Darwin’s The Descent of Man cements evolutionary
explanation in 1871
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
The Puzzling Neanderthals
• Found in 1856, they were identified as the missing
link between humans and ape ancestors
• Research suggests Neanderthals made tools and
adapted to changing climates
• May also have been cannibals
• More discoveries showed that Neanderthals were
not the missing link
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
Homo Erectus: A Worldwide Wanderer
• Earliest discoveries of this species were in Java and
China
• Similarities among archaeological finds led to the
designation of homo erectus
• Few initial ideas of the relationship among the finds
led early experts to regard each find as a separate
species
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
The Search Shifts to Africa
• Louis Leakey made a major breakthrough in
understanding based on skeletal findings in the
Olduvai Gorge in East Africa (after 1959)
• Studies now involve paleoanthropology, the study
of the tools, species and plants included in the locale
of each find
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
Homo habilis
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Name means “handy person”
Existed 1.5 million to 2.5 million years ago
Possessed opposable thumbs
Walked in upright position
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
Australopithecus afarensis was discovered in
1974 by Donald Johnson; the first find was named
“Lucy” and dates to 3.2 million years ago
Ardipithecus ramidus was discovered in 1994; the
skeleton dates to 4.4 million years ago
Recent discovery of “Toumai” moves date of
earliest hominid to 6-7 million years ago.
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
Debate Over African Origins
• Multiregionalists argue that Homo sapiens evolved after
emigration of Homo erectus out of Africa
• Out-of-Africa proponents believe Homo sapiens evolved in
Africa and then migrated to rest of world
• Both sides agree that racial differences are simply adaptations
to climate and are superficial
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
Reading the Genetic Record
• Study of genetics rather than fossils largely supports
Out-of-Africa theorists
• Genetic dating suggests that humans, gorillas and
chimpanzees shared common ancestors until 5-7
million years ago
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Fossils and Fossil Hunters
The Theory of Scientific Revolution
• Thomas Kuhn’s theory of normal science and
paradigm shift fits well with developing
understanding of evolution
• The paradigm shift was Darwin’s theory of
evolution
• Subsequent paleoanthropological findings represent
additions achieved through “normal science”
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Biological Evolution and Cultural Creativity
• Homo habilis began cultural adaptations by
developing simple tools
• Additional developments of tools, rituals, art,
language, settlements and concepts mean that today
culture is more important than biology in
determining how humans cope with nature
• Cultural evolution may have been encouraged by
biology due to brain development
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Biological Evolution and Cultural Creativity
• Cultural transmission tied to infant need for longterm nurturing
• Burst of creativity 100,000 years ago has led
scientists to identify today’s people as Homo sapiens
sapiens
• This new subspecies is distinctive for its symbolic
expression that is spiritual and cultural in nature
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
How Did Humans Survive?
• Three explanations for success of Homo sapiens
sapiens success over other hominids
– Aggression, warfare and murder
– Mating and reproduction
– Success in competition for ecological niches
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Global Migration
• Modern humans spread out from Africa to Europe
and Asia between 90,000 and 120,000 years ago
• Migrations were stimulated by climate change
• Ice ages lowered water levels and made migration
easier
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Increased Population and New Settlements
• Early groups competed with one another for
ecological niches
• Hunter-gatherer tribes probably averaged five
hundred, divided into nineteen bands
• Each band needed 7-8 square miles of fertile or 77
square miles of unfertile land
• Movement to small settlements took advantage of
water resources
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Language and Communication
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No physical evidence for language development
Language began as soon as brain was large enough?
Brain had to be reorganized for language?
Language is both a biological and cultural development
Language promoted development of concepts and
reflective thought
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Humans Create Culture
Agriculture: From Hunter-Gatherer to Farmer
• Began as experimentation with plants near settlements
• Humans had ability to farm 12,000-17,000 years ago
• Permanent sources of food were crucial to decision to
farm
• Population pressure may have added to impetus
• Actual use of extensive agriculture began 10,000 years
ago
1. The Dry Bones Speak
Prehistory: What Difference Does It Make?
Myth and Science are partners in this analysis
Analysis is an example of “normal science” in
action
Legacies of this period include a) migration; b)
tools; c) formation of ever larger groups; d)
communication through language; e) selfexpression through art; and f) shifting between
acceptance and attempted control of nature