Complex Cognitive Processes
Woolfolk, chapter 8
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Overview
The Importance of Understanding
Learning and Teaching about Concepts
Problem Solving
Becoming an Expert Student
Teaching for Transfer
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Concept Map for Chapter 8
Teaching for
Transfer
Importance of
Understanding
Complex Cognitive
Processes
Becoming an
Expert Student
Problem
Solving
Learning & Teaching
about Concepts
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Thinking is the hardest work there is,
which is probably why so few people
engage in it. Henry Ford
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The Importance of Understanding
More than
memorizing
Applying what you
know
Transforming and
using knowledge,
skills, and ideas
Higher level thinking
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Thinking and Understanding
“…being able to do a
variety of thoughtdemanding things with a
topic - like explaining,
finding evidence and
examples, generalizing,
applying, analyzing, and
representing the topic in
new ways.”
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Learning and Teaching Concepts
Concepts are categories of similar ideas, events,
objects, people, etc.
Concepts are abstractions.
Concepts are ways to organize information.
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Concept Learning Terms
Defining attribute
Prototype : Representative member of the
concept
Graded membership
Exemplars
Concepts and schemas
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Strategies for Teaching Concepts
Concept attainment
Examples
Non-examples
Hypothesis
Compare & contrast
Concept constructed
through discussion
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Strategies for Teaching Concepts
Examples & nonexamples
Relevant & irrelevant
attributes
Name of the concept
Definition of the concept
– General category
– Defining attributes
Use visual aids
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Concept Attainment Lesson Structure
Phase 1: Presentation of Data & Identification of
Concept
–
–
–
–
Present labeled examples
Students compare negative and positive examples
Students generate and test hypotheses
Students state a definition
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Concept Attainment Lesson Structure
Phase 2: Testing Attainment of the Concept
– Students identify additional unlabeled examples as
‘yes’ or ‘no’
– Teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept,
restates definition
– Students generate examples
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Concept Attainment Lesson Structure
Phase 3: Analysis of Thinking Strategies
– Students describe their thoughts
– Students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes
– Students discuss type and number of hypotheses
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Concept Attainment Lesson Structure
Phase 1:Presentation
of Data &
Identification of
Concept
Present labeled
examples
Students compare
negative and
positive examples
Students generate
and test hypotheses
Students state a
definition
Phase 2: Testing
Attainment of the
Concept
Phase 3: Analysis
of Thinking
Strategies
Students identify
additional unlabeled
examples as ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Teacher confirms
hypothesis, names
concept, restates
definition
Students generate
examples
Students describe
their thoughts
Students discuss
role of hypothesis
and attributes
Students discuss
type and number
of hypotheses
See Table 8.1, Woolfolk, p. 282
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2001
by
Allyn
and
Bacon
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2001
byby
Allyn
and
Bacon
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2001
Allyn
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Bacon
Key Concepts for Teaching Concepts
Less obvious examples help prevent
undergeneralization
Non-examples help prevent
overgeneralization
Concept mapping can help connect the
new concept to other concepts they know
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Reflection Questions
Choose a concept, like tree or bird.
Identify a prototype.
What are the defining attributes?
Identify examples and non-examples.
What are the irrelevant attributes?
What thinking was required to analyze your
chosen concept?
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Construct a Concept Map for
Reinforcement Schedules
Types of Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous
Fixed
Interval
Variable
Ratio
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Teaching Concepts through
Discovery
Understanding the structure of the subject
Using a coding system
Teacher presents examples
Students discover the interrelationships
Inductive reasoning or eg-rule
Requires intuitive thinking
Guided vs. unguided discover approaches
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Teaching Concepts through
Exposition
Focus on meaningful verbal learning
The concept is presented
Expository teaching model : Ausubel
Learning progresses deductively : rule-eg
Subsumer is the general concept under which
other concepts fit
Advanced organizers help schema development
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Advanced Organizers
An introduction to help
the students understand
the coming concept
Comparative
– Activate existing schema
Expository
– Provides new knowledge
to understand coming
information
– Statement of the
subsumer
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Phases of Expository Teaching
Advance organizer
Present content in terms of
similarities and differences
using specific examples.
See Guidelines,
Woolfolk, P. 289
Relate content back to
advance organizer.
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Problem Solving
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Problem Solving
General or domain-specific?
A heuristic:
–
–
–
–
–
Identify the problem
Define and represent the problem
Explore possible strategies
Act on the strategies
Look back, evaluate the effects of your strategies
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Identifying the Problem
Identifying the problem:
Slow elevators or bored
riders?
The ‘problem’ is an
opportunity!
Consider alternate
perspectives
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Defining the Problem
Focusing attention
Understanding the words
Understanding the whole
problem
Translation & schema
training
Results of problem
representation
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Exploring Possible Solutions
Algorithms
Heuristics
–
–
–
–
Means-ends analysis
Working backwards
Analogical thinking
Verbalization
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Anticipate, Act, Look Back
Anticipate the
consequences
Act on the best solution
Look back and evaluate
your success
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The Problem Solving Process
Succeed
Construct a
representation
Search for
a solution
Try a
solution
Evaluate
Stop
Fail
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Factors That Hinder Problem
Solving
Functional fixedness
Response sets
Lack of flexibility
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Effective Problem Solvers
Large store of domain knowledge
Quickly recognize patterns
Organized knowledge schemas
Condition-action schemas
Elaborated & well practiced knowledge
Spend time analyzing
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Expert Teachers
Sense what is typical
Develop routines
Look for patterns
Apply principles
Possess deep
knowledge of subject &
students
Improvise
Are flexible
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Novice Knowledge
May possess
misinformation
Intuitive ideas are
incorrect
Hold on to
misconceptions
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Reflection Questions
Describe the differences between functional
fixedness and response set.
Describe a recent problem solving event in
which you overcame a response set or functional
fixedness. How did you do it?
Describe an expert teacher you had. How did
that teacher solve classroom problems?
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Becoming an Expert Student
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Expert Students
Are cognitively
engaged
Focus attention &
effort
Process
information deeply
Monitor
understanding
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Expert Students Possess:
Learning strategies and tactics
Several different strategies
Conditional knowledge for various strategies
– when to use them
– where to use them
– why to use them
Desire to employ learning strategies
Students may need direct instruction in schematic
knowledge: how to identify main ideas
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Learning Strategies
Deciding what is
important
Creating summaries
Underlining & highlighting
Taking notes
See Table 8.2, Woolfolk,
p. 303
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Visual Tools for Organizing
Maps & charts
Venn or tree diagrams
Timelines
Reading strategies
–
–
–
–
READS
PQ4R
CAPS
KWL
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READS
Review headings & subheadings.
Examine bold face print.
Ask, “What do I expect to learn?”
Do it – Read!
Summarize in your own words.
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PQ4R
Preview
Question
Read
Reflect
Recite
Review
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CAPS
Strategy for reading literature
Who are the Characters in the story?
What is the Aim of the story?
What Problem happens?
How is the problem Solved?
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KWL Plus
Guide for reading and inquiry in general:
What do I already know about this subject?
What do I want to know?
At the end of the reading or inquiry, what
have I learned?
See Guidelines, Woolfolk, p. 309.
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon
Focus
attention
&
effort
Possess
Learning
strategies
&
tactics
Desire to
use skills
Schematic
knowledge
Expert
Students
PQ4R
Monitor
understanding
Process
information
deeply
Conditional
knowledge
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Transfer of Learning
Low road & high road
Forward-reaching
Backward-reaching
Mindful abstraction
Situated learning
Overlearning
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Encouraging Transfer
Make learning meaningful
Practical applications: real life problem solving
Context
Teach critical thinking skills
Teach self-regulation skills
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Acquisition Phase
Teach a new strategy &
how to use it
Retention Phase
Practice the strategy
Give feedback
Transfer Phase
Provide new problems
Use the same strategy
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Summary
The Importance of Understanding
Learning and Teaching about Concepts
Problem Solving
Becoming an Expert Student
Teaching for Transfer
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon
Review Questions
Distinguish between prototypes and exemplars.
What are the four elements needed in concept
teaching?
What are the key characteristics of Bruner’s
discovery learning?
What are the stages of Ausubel’s expository
teaching?
What are the steps in the general problemsolving process?
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Review Questions
Why is the representation stage of problem
solving so important?
Describe factors that can interfere with problem
solving.
What are the differences between expert and
novice knowledge in a given area?
How do misconceptions interfere with learning?
Distinguish between learning strategies and
tactics.
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Review Questions
What key functions do learning strategies play?
Describe some procedures for developing
learning strategies.
Distinguish between specific and general
transfer.
Distinguish between low-road and high-road
transfer.
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End Chapter 8
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon