Animal Form and Function Marielle R., Coreen H., Christian E., Taylor Waits Regulation ● Multicellular organism are big, aggregated lineages of cells ● Each cell is a plasma membrane bound aqueous system with homeostatic mechanisms to maintain stasis ● Homeostasis is maintained through hormones and nervous system control Digestive System Function: ● Breaks down nutrients using enzymes secreted by cells in the: o Mouth o Stomach o Intestines o Liver Regulation: ● Regulated by nervous and endocrine system ● Insulin and glucagon (formed from the pancreas)- controls blood sugar levels ● Hypothalamus monitors the fullness of the stomach Digestive System Structure: ● Mouth o In the mouth, food is broken down by salivary glands with an enzyme called amylase ● Esophagus o A thick muscular tube food moves through the tube by peristalsis (series of muscular contractions that moves the food down assisted by gravity) ● Stomach o A expandable pouch that is lined with muscle that churns the food that mixes with gastric juices to make chyme ● Intestines o Small- three parts: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum o Large- ascending, transverse, and descending ● Pancreas o secretes enzymes that break down nutrients o produces insulin used to regulate sugar Respiratory System Function: ● Delivers oxygen to the body and carbon dioxide away from body Structure: ● Lung o Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is brought out o Red blood cells- bring oxygen to lungs then to the body then takes carbon dioxide out as a waste product ● Trachea o Aka windpipe o Filters air and branches out to bronchioles ● Bronchi o Two air tubes that branch off of the trachea o Carries air to the lungs Respiratory System ● Diaphragm o When breathing in -> the diaphragm contracts o When breathing out -> diaphragm expands o This allows air to come in the lungs by freeing space Regulation: ● Autonomic chemoreceptors keep track of the pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide and send signals to the respiratory system from the brain Circulatory System Functions a transportation system for Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Nutrients, Cellular Wastes, Immune cells, and regulatory molecules. Adaptations? Regulation? ● Open Circulatory System .vs. Closed Circulatory System ● More heart chambers supports higher metabolic rates, body sizes, and endothermy ● Countercurrent heat exchange ● Regulated by pacemakers ie. S.A Node (in humans) ● Baroreceptors that monitor blood pressure. Excretory System Functions to assist in water balance, filtration of blood, excretion of cellular nitrogenous waste (protein digestion) Adaptations? ● Based on osmosis, diffusion, active transport ● reclaim water and solutes as needed, excrete urine ● ammonia .vs. urea .vs. uric acid= type of waste product .vs. habitat and type of organism Regulation? ● ADH= reduces blood osmolarity (high solutes) ● Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus. ● Aldosterone= increases low blood pressure; monitored by JGA (near kidney) Muscular System ● Function:The muscular system helps us move. It’s the only tissue that can help move other parts of the body. It also assists with walking, speech, sitting, eating and many other things we do on a daily basis ● Structure: A muscle consists of muscle cells, a sarcomere, actin and myosin fibers, and tropomyosin regulator proteins. These parts help muscles with their contractions and relaxation states. Muscular System Evolutionary Trends: There are three types of muscle tissue: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle tissues. Cardiac muscles are along the walls of the heart and seem striated. The smooth muscles are on the visceral organ and are spindle-shaped. Skeletal muscles are in muscles around the skeleton and also are striated. Smooth and cardiac muscles are under involuntary control while skeletal muscles are under voluntary control. Immune System ● Function: This system protects the body from invading pathogens. ● Structure: It consists of the lymph system, leukocytes, lymphocytes, and macrophages. The organs consist of the tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow and lymphatic vessels. ● Evolutionary Trends: We have two kinds of immunity: non-specific immunity and acquired immunity. The innate, or non-specific, immunity is the first line of defense. Acquired immunity is the second line which takes care of pathogens that can get past the innate immunity. Immune System Miscellaneous: There are certain viruses such as HIV that cannot be reversed or destroyed by the immune system. Also vaccines can trigger immune responses. The immune system can be altered to fit certain preferences, but it usually has negative effects on other parts of the immune system. Nervous System -Sensory Input; Motor Function; regulation -Made up of Neurons Nervous System Evolutionary Trends -Voltage gated channels & ion gated channels -Na & K channels, Na/K pump, neurotransmitters Reproduction -produce and deliver gametes, nurture fetus Reproduction Evolutionary Trends -External & Internal Fertilization -Sperm Production v. Egg Production Regulation -FSH & LH, testosterone, estrogen, female monthly cycle Development Functions as a way to help organisms go from one-celled zygote to multi-cellular organisms with differentiated tissues and organs. Development Evolutionary Trends ● cleavage, gastrulation, neurulation, organogenesis 3 tissue layers: 1. ectoderm: skin, teeth, nails, nerves 2. mesoderm: bone, blood, muscle 3. endoderm: digestive system Differentiation Plant Form and Function Plant Structure Cells Parenchyma -least differentiated -photosynthetic leaf tissue Collenchyma -support Sclerenchyma -tough walls -no longer growing Tissue Dermal -Outer layer (protective) Vascular -Transport Ground -all other functions Specialized Tissue Xylem: Tracheids & Vessel elements that conduct water and dead functional maturity Phloem: Sieve-tube elements & companion cells that conduct sugar and provide molecular needs of the sieve-tube elements Plant Growth Structure: Meristems (apical, lateral, vascular, cambium, cork cambium) are embryonic stem cells that produce new cells Energy Production Structure: 1. Epidermis (upper and lower) 2. Palisade layer 3. Vascular bundle (phloem and xylem) 4. Mesophyll 5. Stomata 6. Guard cells Energy Production ● During photosynthesis: 1. Light is captured from the sun by chloroplasts and forms energy 2. Energy used to make ATP and NADPH 3. NADPH and ATP power synthesis of carbohydrates from CO2 Response Plants exhibit responses by using: ● Hormones ○ Auxin, gibberellins, ethylene, cytokinins, and abscission acid ● Signal pathways ● Tropisms (movement due to stimulus) ○ Gravitropism ○ Phototropism ○ Thigmotropism ○ Hydrotropism Reproduction ● ● Structure: Petals attract the pollinators to the flower. Stamen is the male reproductive structure that makes the pollen. Ovules are the female reproductive structure which become seeds. Pollen grain has two sperm nuclei and ovules have eight nuclei. Function: Double fertilization occurs in angiosperms and is the combining of one female gametophyte with two male gametes. One sperm fertilizes the egg cell to make a zygote and the other combines with two polar nuclei to make endosperm. Reproduction ● Alternation of generation: Sporophyte makes spores which turn into haploid gametophytes. They mature to make gametes and those gametes form to make a zygote. Evolution ● ● Bryophytes (mosses): These plants do not have a vascular system. Some have specialized tissue for water transport, but it’s still not considered a vascular system, because it does not contain ligin. Water absorbed by diffusion. They have no flowers, so they don’t produce seeds. They depend on water very much for survival and reproduction. They may reproduce sexually or vegetatively. They rely on water to transport male gametes to female gametes. Have dominant gametophyte and parasitic sporophyte. Pteridophytes (ferns): These have a vascular system. Still have swimming sperm with no flowers or seeds. They have the xylem and phloem which allows them to move water around. Have dominant sporophyte and a reduced gametophyte. Evolution ● ● Gymnosperms (conifers): These are cone bearing plants. They use pollen and naked seeds rather than sperm transportation through water. Pollen and ovules are in the cones. The sporophyte is dominant and gametophytes are highly reduced. The development of the seed allowed for protection of the embryophyte. Angiosperms (flowering plants): They contain flowers and produce fruits that contain seeds. All the pollen and ovules are in the flowers. Pollen is taken from the plant to another where that plant can reproduce. Mineral and Water Transport Minerals and water move up plant from roots through xylem to leaves adhesion cohesion evaporation Mutualistic relationships between plant roots and bacteria help plants acquire nutrients Mycorrhizae Rhizobium Gas Exchange Stomata allow for gas exchange guard cells K+ concentration Diffusion of O2 in and O2 and H2O out through transpiration Calvin Cycle AP Essay Question Multiple Choice 1. Which of the following is required in all living things in order for gas exchange to occur? a. Lungs b. Gills c. Moist membranes d. Blood 2. Oxygen is transported in human blood by which type of cell? a. Erythrocytes b. Leukocytes c. Lymphocytes d. Platelets 3.. In the mammalian heart, the SA node generates electrical impulses and is sometimes called the pacemaker of the heart. Which of the following correctly describes its function? a. It delays the nerve impulses to the walls of the ventricle. b. It controls the action of the atrioventricular valve. c. It regulates the amount of blood that exits with each heartbeat d. It sets the rate and timing of cardiac muscle contraction. 4.. 5. 6. The succession of rapid cell division that follows fertilization is called a. Gastrulation b. cleavage c. Morphogenesis d. Organogenesis Barrier defenses are an important non-specific arm of the immune system. All of the following are barrier defenses except a. Skin b. Phagocytes c. Lysozyme in saliva d. Mucous secretions What type of cell acts as a intermediary between humoral and cell-mediated immunity? a. Plasma cell b. Cytotoxic T cell c. B cell d. Helper T cell 7. 8. 9. Which of these correctly describes the autonomic nervous system? a. It integrates sensory inputs to the brain b. It carries signals to and from skeletal muscles c. It regulates the internal environment of the body d. It is part of the central nervous system Which of the following represents a failure of a homeostatic mechanism? a. Activation of the thirst center after profuse sweating b. Production of insulin after eating a jelly doughnut c. Hypothermia after falling into a glacier-fed lake d. Skin flushing and sweating during exercise Muscle contraction occurs via the a. Contraction of the sarcoplasmic reticulum b. Plasma membrane c. Flow of calcium ions out of the cell d. Sliding of thin filaments by the thick filaments 10. In the blood, carbon dioxide is primarily transported in what way? a. By hemoglobin b. As carbon monoxide c. In erythrocytes d. In bicarbonate ions 11. Pepsin in the stomach begins the enzymatic digestion of proteins. What molecules are the end products of protein digestion? a. Nucleic acids b. Amino acids c. Fatty acids d. Monosaccharides 12. Select the one descriptive feature that is not a feature of the immune system. a. An antibody has more than one antigen-binding site b. An antigen can cause different antibodies to be generated c. A pathogen may present more than one antigen d. A lymphocyte has receptors for more than one antigen An animal’s input of energy and materials would exceed its outputs a. If the animal in an endotherm, which must always take in more energy because of its high metabolic rate b. If it is actively foraging for food c. If it is growing and increasing its mass d. Never; to maintain homeostasis, these energy and material budgets always balance. 14. Altruism is putting the well-being of another ahead of one’s own. How could it persist in terms of natural selection? a. Survival of other members of the species will maintain Hardyweinberg equilibrium b. It can result in the survival of the recipients of the behavior c. This is just one aspect of an evolutionary principle, survival of the fittest. d. If the altruistics member’s behavior is directed toward a close relative, his genes will persist in the population. 15. Pepsinogen is an inactive precursor of pepsin that can be activated by HCl. The muscular stomach wall could be digested by the active proteolytic enzyme, pepsin. There are several mechanisms, listed below, that will prevent digestion of the stomach wall from happening. Identify the one that will not help prevent this autodigestion. a. Pepsin is stored and secreted in an inactive form as pepsinogen. b. Mucus lines the inside surface of the stomach and presents a barrier to digestive enzymes. c. Mitosis generates enough new cells to replace the stomach lining every few days d. Pepsinogen is activated by pepsin and hydrochloric acid. 13. 16. Fluid lost from the capillaries and not reabsorbed is returned to the blood vi a. Venou system b. Arteriole system c. Lymphatic system d. Capillary beds 17. Which of the following is released into the synaptic cleft and acts as a signaling molecule? a. Sodium ion b. Calcium ion c. Neurotransmitters d. Receptor proteins 18. Salivary amylase, an enzyme secreted in saliva, begins the breakdown of molecules that will produce monosaccharide. Which category of nutrients does this enzyme digest? a. Starches b. Proteins c. Lipids d. Nucleic acids 19. At this moment your heart is pumping about 70ml of blood per heartbeat and your heart is beating at a rate of 72 beats per minute. How many liters of blood will you pump in the next hour? (nearest tenth) 20. Did you learn something? a. Yes b. Yes Holtzclaw, Fred W., and Theresa K. Holtzclaw. “Campbell Biology.” N.p., n.d Web.