Overview of the Urinary System
 The urinary system has three major functions:
 (1) excretion, the removal of organic waste products
from body fluids (kidneys)
 (2) elimination, the discharge of these waste
products into the environment, and (bladder and
urethra)
 (3) homeostatic regulation of the volume and solute
concentration of blood plasma.
Other functions
 Regulating blood volume and blood pressure, by
adjusting the volume of water lost in urine.
 Regulating plasma concentrations of sodium,
potassium, chloride, (electrolytes) and other ions, by
controlling the quantities lost in urine.
 Helping to stabilize blood pH, by controlling the loss of
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions in urine.
 Conserving valuable nutrients, by preventing their
excretion in urine while excreting organic waste
products.
 Assisting the liver in detoxifying poisons.
These activities are carefully regulated to keep the
composition of blood within acceptable limits.
Kidneys
 The kidneys are located on either
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side of the vertebral column,
between vertebrae T12 and L3.
The left kidney lies slightly superior
to the right.
The superior surface of each kidney
is capped by an adrenal gland.
A typical adult kidney is reddishbrown and about 10 cm long, 5.5 cm
wide, and 3 cm thick.
Each kidney weighs about 5.25 oz.
The hilum, a prominent medial
indentation, is the point of entry for
the renal artery and renal nerves,
and the point of exit for the renal
vein and the ureter.
Kidney function
Urine production
begins in microscopic,
tubular structures
called nephrons
 kidneys receive 20–25
percent of your total
cardiac output
 Each kidney receives
blood through a renal
artery

 Controled by
sympathetic innervation
 (1) adjusts rates of
urine formation by
changing blood flow
and blood pressure at
the nephron
 (2) stimulates the
release of renin, which
ultimately restricts
losses of water and salt
in the urine
Principles of Renal Physiology
 The goal of urine production is to maintain
homeostasis by regulating the volume and
composition of blood.
 Involves the excretion of solute waste
products:
 Urea: is the most abundant organic waste.
You generate roughly 21 g/day, most of it
through the breakdown of amino acids.
 Uric Acid: a waste product formed during
the recycling of the nitrogenous bases
from RNA molecules. You produce
approximately 480 mg of uric acid each
day.
Principles of Renal Physiology
 Creatinine: is generated in skeletal muscle
tissue through the breakdown of creatine
phosphate, high-energy compound that
plays an important role in muscle
contraction. Your body generates roughly
1.8 g of creatinine/day, and virtually all of
it is excreted in urine.
Principles of Renal Physiology
 These waste products are dissolved in
the bloodstream and can be eliminated
only while dissolved in urine. As a result,
their removal is accompanied by an
unavoidable water loss.
 The kidneys also ensure that the fluid
that is lost does not contain potentially
useful organic substrates that are present
in blood plasma, such as sugars or amino
acids.
 These valuable materials must be
reabsorbed and retained for use by other
tissues.
Basic Process of Urine Formation
 The kidneys rely on 3 distinct processes:
 Filtration: blood pressure forces water and solutes across the
wall of the capillaries and into the capsular space. Solute
molecules small enough to pass through the filtration
membrane are carried by the surrounding water molecules.
 Reabsorption: removal of water and solutes from the filtrate.
Most of the reabsorbed materials are nutrients the body can
use. Whereas filtration occurs solely based on size,
reabsorption is a selective process involving either simple
diffusion or the activity of carrier proteins. Water reabsorption
occurs passively, through osmosis.
 Secretion: transport of solutes. Secretion is necessary because
filtration does not force all the dissolved materials out of the
plasma. Tubular secretion, which provides a backup process for
filtration, can further lower the plasma concentration of
undesirable materials. Secretion is often the primary method of
excretion for some compounds, including many drugs.
Composition of Urine
 More than 99 percent of the 180 liters of filtrate produced
each day that is reabsorbed and never reaches the renal
pelvis.
 The composition and concentration of urine are two related
but distinct properties.
 composition of urine reflects the filtration, absorption, and
secretion activities of the nephrons. Some compounds (such as
urea) are neither actively excreted nor reabsorbed along the
nephron.
 Organic nutrients are completely reabsorbed, and other
compounds, such as creatinine, that are missed by the
filtration process are actively secreted into the tubular fluid.
 The concentration of these components in a given urine sample
depends on the osmotic movement of water.
Composition of Urine
 Normal urine is a clear, sterile solution. Its yellow color
results from the presence of the pigment urobilin,
generated in the kidneys from the urobilinogens
produced by intestinal bacteria.
 The evaporation of small molecules, such as ammonia,
accounts for the odor of urine. Other substances not
normally present, such as acetone or other ketone
bodies, can also impart a distinctive smell.
Urine Transport
 Filtrate modification and urine production end when the
fluid enters the renal pelvis. The urinary tract (the ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra) is responsible for the transport,
storage, and elimination of urine.
 The sizes of the minor and major calyces, the renal pelvis, the
ureters, the urinary bladder, and the proximal portion of the
urethra are somewhat variable, because these regions are
lined by a transitional epithelium that can tolerate cycles of
distension and contraction without damage.
 The ureters are a pair of muscular tubes that extend from the
kidneys to the urinary bladder—a distance of about 30 cm (12
in.).
Urine Storage
 The Urinary Bladder:
 a hollow, muscular organ
that functions as a
temporary reservoir for the
storage of urine. The
dimensions of the urinary
bladder vary with its state
of distension, but a full
urinary bladder can contain
as much as a liter of urine.
 The smooth muscle fibers of
this sphincter provide
involuntary control over the
discharge of urine from the
bladder.
Urination
 In females, the urethra is very
short, from the bladder to the
external urethral orifice near
neck of the urinary bladder to
the anterior wall of the vagina.
the exterior of the body.
 In both sexes, where the urethra
 In males, the urethra extends
passes through a circular band
from the neck of the urinary
of skeletal muscle called the
bladder to the tip of the penis.
external urethral sphincter.
The male urethra can be
This muscular band acts as a
subdivided into three
valve.
portions: prostatic urethra,
 The external urethral sphincter,
membranous urethra, and
which is under voluntary
spongy urethra.
control has a resting muscle
tone and must be voluntarily
relaxed to permit micturition
(peeing)
 The Urethra: extends from the
Urination
 Urine reaches the urinary bladder by peristaltic
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contractions of the ureters. The process of urination is
coordinated by the micturition reflex.
Stretch receptors in the wall of the urinary bladder are
stimulated as the bladder fills with urine.
The urge to urinate generally appears when the bladder
contains about 200 ml of urine.
Infants lack voluntary control over urination, because the
necessary spinal connections have yet to be established.
Incontinence is the inability to control urination
voluntarily. Trauma to the internal or external urethral
sphincter can contribute to incontinence in otherwise
healthy adults.
Aging and the Urinary System
 In general, aging is associated with an increased incidence of
kidney problems.
 Age-related changes in the urinary system include the
following:
 A Decline in the Number of Functional Nephrons.
 Problems with the Micturition Reflex. Three factors are
involved in such problems:
 (1) The sphincter muscles lose muscle tone and become less
effective at voluntarily retaining urine. This leads to incontinence,
often involving a slow leakage of urine.
 (2) The ability to control micturition can be lost after a stroke,
Alzheimer’s disease, or other CNS problems affecting the cerebral
cortex or hypothalamus.
 (3) In males, urinary retention may develop if enlargement of the
prostate gland compresses the urethra and restricts the flow of
urine.
Excretory Systems
 The urinary system is not the only organ system involved in
excretion. The urinary, integumentary, respiratory, and
digestive systems are an anatomically diverse excretory
system whose components perform all the excretory
functions that affect the composition of body fluids:
 Integumentary System. Water and electrolyte losses in sensible
perspiration can affect the volume and composition of the plasma.
The effects are most apparent when losses are extreme, such as
during peak sweat production. Small amounts of metabolic wastes,
including urea, also are eliminated in perspiration.
 Respiratory System. The lungs remove the carbon dioxide generated
by cells. Small amounts of other compounds, such as acetone and
water, evaporate into the alveoli and are eliminated when you exhale.
 Digestive System. The liver excretes small amounts of metabolic
waste products in bile, and you lose a variable amount of water in
feces. These excretory activities have an impact on the composition of
body fluids.
Fluid Balance
 Most of your body weight is water: up to 99 percent of the volume
of the fluid outside cells, and it is an essential ingredient of
cytoplasm. Water accounts for roughly 60 percent of the total
body weight of an adult male, and 50 percent of that of an
adult female. This difference between the sexes primarily reflects
the proportionately larger mass of adipose tissue in adult females,
and the greater average muscle mass in adult males
 All of a cell’s operations rely on water as a diffusion medium for the
distribution of gases, nutrients, and waste products.
 If the water content of the body changes, cellular activities are
jeopardized. EX. When water content reaches very low levels,
proteins denature, enzymes cease functioning, and cells die.
 To survive, we must maintain a normal volume and composition
of both the extracellular fluid or ECF, and the intracellular fluid or
ICF.
 The ionic concentrations and pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of
these fluids are as important as their quantities.
Volumes and Concentrations
 Fluid Balance. You are in fluid balance when the amount of
water you gain each day is equal to the amount you lose to the
environment.
 The maintenance of normal fluid balance involves
regulating the content and distribution of body water in the
ECF and the ICF.
 The digestive system is the primary source of water gains; a
small amount of additional water is generated by metabolic
activity.
 The urinary system is the primary route for water loss under
normal conditions. Although cells and tissues cannot
transport water, they can transport ions and create
concentration gradients that are then eliminated by
osmosis.
Volumes and Concentrations
 Electrolyte Balance. Electrolytes are ions released through the
dissociation of inorganic compounds; they are so named
because they can conduct an electrical current in a solution
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Electrolyte balance primarily involves balancing the rates of
absorption across the digestive tract with rates of loss at the kidneys,
although losses at sweat glands and other sites can play a secondary
role.
 Acid–Base Balance. You are in acid–base balance when the
production of hydrogen ions in your body is precisely offset
by their loss.
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Preventing a reduction in pH is the primary problem, because your
body generates a variety of acids during normal metabolic
operations. The kidneys play a major role by secreting hydrogen ions
into the urine.
The lungs also play a key role through the elimination of carbon
dioxide.
Intracellular vs Extracellular
 The principal ions in the ECF are sodium, chloride,
and bicarbonate. The ICF contains an abundance
of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions,
plus large numbers of negatively charged proteins.
 If the cell membrane were freely permeable,
diffusion would continue until these ions were
evenly distributed across the membrane. But it
does not, because cell membranes are selectively
permeable:
 Ions can enter or leave the cell only via specific
membrane channels. In addition, carrier mechanisms
move specific ions into or out of the cell.
Intracellular vs Extracellular
 Despite the differences in the concentration of
specific substances, the osmotic concentrations of
the ICF and ECF are identical. Osmosis eliminates
minor differences in concentration almost at once,
because most cell membranes are freely permeable
to water.
 Because changes in solute concentrations lead to
immediate changes in water distribution (Na+, Cl) the regulation of fluid balance and that of
electrolyte balance are tightly intertwined.
 when you lose body water, plasma volume decreases and
electrolyte concentrations rise.
 When you gain or lose excess electrolytes, there is an
associated water gain or loss due to osmosis.
Fluid Movement
 Water circulates freely within the ECF compartment. At capillary
beds, pressure forces water out of plasma and into interstitial
spaces. Some of that water is reabsorbed along the distal portion
of the capillary bed, and the rest enters lymphatic vessels for
transport to the venous circulation.
 Water Losses. You lose roughly 2500 ml of water each day through
urine, feces, and insensible perspiration—the gradual movement of
water across the epithelia of the skin and respiratory tract. The losses
due to sensible perspiration vary with the activities you undertake.
Sensible perspiration can cause significant water deficits, with
maximum perspiration rates reaching 4 liters per hour. Fever can also
increase water losses.
 Water Gains. A water gain of roughly 2500 ml day is required to
balance your average water losses. You obtain water through eating
(1000 ml), drinking (1200 ml), and metabolic generation (300 ml).
 Gonads, or reproductive organs that produce
gametes and hormones.
 Ducts that receive and transport the gametes.
 In both males and females, the ducts are
connected to chambers and passageways that
open to the exterior of the body. The structures
involved constitute the reproductive tract.
Males
The Testes
 Each testis has the shape of a flattened egg that is roughly 5 cm (2 in.)
long, 3 cm (1.2 in.) wide, and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick. Each has a weight of
10–15 g (0.35–0.53 oz). The testes hang within the scrotum
 In adult males, the testes, or male gonads, secrete sex hormones called
androgens. The testes also produce the male gametes, called
spermatozoa, or sperm—one-half billion each day.
 Spermatogenesis begins at puberty and continues until relatively late in
life (past age 70).
 During emission, mature spermatozoa travel along a lengthy duct
system, where they are mixed with the secretions of accessory glands.
The mixture created is known as semen
 Spermatozoa
 Seminal fluid (prostate)
 enzymes
Female
 A woman’s reproductive system produces sex
hormones and functional gametes, and it must
also be able to protect and support a developing
embryo and nourish a newborn infant. The
principal organs: ovaries, the uterine tubes, the
uterus, the vagina, and the components of the
external genitalia.
 Ovaries
 The ovaries perform three main functions:
 (1) production of immature female gametes, or
oocytes,
 (2) secretion of female sex hormones, including
estrogens and progestins
 (3) secretion of inhibin, involved in the feedback
control of pituitary Follicle Stimulating Hormone
production.
 Oogenesis Ovum production, or oogenesis, begins before a
woman’s birth, accelerates at puberty, and ends at menopause.
 Between puberty and menopause, oogenesis occurs on a monthly
basis as part of the ovarian cycle.
 Ovarian cycle
 Menses The uterine cycle begins: degeneration of the functional zone
of the endometrium. Deprived of oxygen and nutrients, the secretory
glands and other tissues in the functional zone begin to deteriorate.
Eventually, the weakened arterial walls rupture, and blood pours into
the connective tissues of the functional zone.
 Proliferative Phase: In the days after menses, the epithelial cells of the
uterine glands multiply and spread across the endometrial surface,
restoring the integrity of the uterine epithelium. Further growth and
vascularization result in the complete restoration of the functional
zone.
 The Secretory Phase During the secretory phase of the uterine cycle,
the endometrial glands enlarge, accelerating their rates of secretion,
and the arteries that supply the uterine wall elongate and spiral
through the tissues of the functional zone.
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