Belief Systems
• Belief Systems And Ideology
• A Belief System
is a ‘framework of ideas
through which an individual makes sense of
the world’
• Ideology
is a set of beliefs or principles.
Belief Systems
• Reading the above definitions is a little confusing – are
they not the same thing?
• In fact belief systems extend beyond ideologies.
• It is a bit of an umbrella term to include
religions, philosophies, even science
• Ideologies are just one type of belief system eg
Existentialism
• And often belief systems is attached to religion
and ideology attached to secular beliefs
Belief Systems
• Belief v Knowledge
• A belief is something we think may be true
• Knowledge is something we have proof to
back up.
• Beliefs involve doubt
• Knowledge involves facts
• This is where a faith v evidence debate often
occurs
• Belief Systems such as religions, philosophies and ideologies do not have
a firm factual basis but do offer attempts to explain the world
Belief Systems
• Religion and Science
• Explaining the world
• Many believe that religion has helped to explain the
unexplainable.
• But as we discover more through science the role
of religion has declined
• Normative guidelines
• Religion also has a normative dimension – it gives
a code of conduct for our lives e.g. moral
guidelines
Belief Systems
• Metanarratives
• Postmodernists use this phrase to describe a single
comprehensive explanation given to explain the
world
• This could be a religion such as Christianity,
Judaism etc or a philosophy like Marxism
Belief Systems
• The Enlightenment
• This is the phrase given to the advance of scientific
explanations based on objective knowledge.
• For many this replaces the subjective views of
religion – being based on feelings and personal
views
• Science is rational (based on reason) and is backed
up by proof and is consequently often at odds with
religious beliefs.
Belief Systems
• NOMA – Gould 1999
• Gould – a biologist –argues that science and
religion are 2 separate realms they are NOMA
(non overlapping magisteria).
• Science provides knowledge
• Religion provides moral guidance
• This is a relativist view which sees science as one
of many belief systems.
Belief Systems
• Science is superior knowledge
• Gellner (1974) argued that the objective nature of
science sets it above all else
• Dawkins (2006) – a famous atheist – argues that
Gould is just trying to appease powerful religious
groups and says atheists are often marginalised in
society
Is science a belief system?
• Rationalists – say no
• Science is based on facts wheras belief systems are
based on faith
• Beliefs based on God or Gods are irrational – if
God is creator – who created God?
• Scientific evidence has supported such things as
darwin’s evolutionary theory and the structure of
DNA
Is Science a Belief System?
• Realists – say yes
• Realists agree with postmodernists in suggesting
that there are lots of belief systems in a pluralist
world and that science is just another one of these.
• Scientists are human beings and as such can never
be totally objective no matter how hard they try.
• Their own personal views, feelings, career
aspirations etc. all conspire to prevent subjectivity
creeping in.
Is Science a Belief System?
• Khun -1972 found that scientists used paradigms – ‘a way of viewing the
world which underlies the theories and methodologies of science’
• In other words scientists use a system of ideas which
means they reject evidence that challenges this.
Eventually if challenges become particularly
common it may lead to a change in the paradigm.
• Scientists used to believe that the earth was at the
centre of the universe and other planets etc revolved
around us.....until a whole shift occured where the
sun was seen at the centre.
Is Science a Belief System?
The current paradigms of physics, chemistry
and biology suggest that such things as
homeopathy have no scientific basis yet
many researchers are assured
of their success– will this lead to a
whole new scientific paradigm?
Religion
Turner 1983
• argues that religion is important for sociologists.
• At the birth of the subject writers such as
Durkheim and Marx had strong things to say
about the role of religion
• Many people today hold religious beliefs and the
variety of religious groups and beliefs from
'established' churches to sects and cults is a
feature of modern society
Religion
• As sociologists we are looking at:
1. What people believe
2. Why people believe
3. The organisational context of beliefs e.g.
church,sect
4. How religion affects peoples lives
Religion
As sociologists our interest is not in the validity of
religious beliefs
and you don't have to have religious convictions to
study religion on the other hand religious commitments should
not bar you from studying religion sociologically
Defining Religion
1. Functional Definitions
These involve what religion does
It answers questions such as
What happens when I die?
Why are people poor?
And gives guidelines on how to behave
Functionalists see religion as important for
social cohesion
Defining Religion
2. Substantive Definitions
These say what religion is rather than what
it does
e.g. belief in God and other supernatural
beings
Defining Religion
• These definitions can be combined
• Durkheim 1912 defined religion as…
• ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to
sacred things, that is, things set apart and forbidden
which unite into one single moral community –
called a church – all those who adhere to them’
Defining Religion
There are a number of important
elements to this definition
1.
Durkheim sees religion as a combination of
belief and practice
i.e. doing is as important as believing
Defining Religion
2.
• The ‘sacred’ is important
• this makes religion special and not like the
mundane things in this world
Defining Religion
3.
The community basis of religion gives rise to
possible conflicts between communities
e.g. N Ireland
Religion can unite and divide people at the
same time
Defining Religion
Weber - The problem of theodicy
This is about how people see the world with
all its problems as meaningful
Religion helps to answer the why questions in
life
Why have I got cancer?
Why is our community oppressed?
Why did that accident happen?
Defining Religion
Stark & Bainbridge 1985 - Compensators
religion makes up for things lacking in this
life
promise of rewards in the next life if you
are suffering now
suffering becomes a test of faith
Defining Religion
Ways of dealing with the problem of theodicy
have social consequences.
Weber saw a link between protestantism and
the growth of capitalism.
Islam believes that suffering is crucial and has
important consequences for such as Iraq in
the face of Western sanctions.
Defining Religion
Criticisms Of Functional Definitions
They tend to include many things some
would not regard as religious
e.g. nationalism
perhaps science has replaced religion in
answering some of the fundamental
questions
Defining Religion
Criticisms Of Substantive Definitions
Many are based on Western monotheistic
beliefs and are too narrow.
Defining Religion
Thus the difference between the 2 approaches is one of
practice versus belief. This is very important to
remember when we look at the secularisation process
later. Those who prefer the functional definitions see
religion as still being important in the job that it does in
society. Those who prefer substantive definitions are
more likely to agree with the supporters of secularisation
thesis – that religious belief has declined and has been
replaced with rational, scientific thought.
Perspectives
Functionalism
As we would expect Functionalists see religion
as functionally necessary.
In particular the contribution of religion to the
needs of society and the individual.
It’s role in maintaining social solidarity is very
important.
Perspectives
Marxism
‘Religion is the opium of the masses’
Again as we would expect there is a clear link to
class-conflict. Religion is an illusion which
eases the pain of exploitation in capitalist
society.
In a communist utopia religion ceases to exist
because there is no need for it.
Perspectives
Feminism
Feminists see religion in a similar vein to the
Marxists - causing pain and oppression –
the difference here is that this stems from
Patriarchy.
Religion serves the interests of men.
Perspectives
Interpretivism
Tends to see religion as meeting the needs of
individuals.
As such religion is still very important in helping
to answer the big questions.
Perspectives
Post Modernism
Post Modernists too focus on the individual and
how he/she makes sense of their lives.
People no longer accept ‘universal truths’ and as
such adopt a pick’n’mix mentality to religion –
often taking bits from different beliefs to make
their own sense of things.
Religious Organisations
CHURCH
Most sociologists suggest that ‘church’ refers to a
large organisation which is often linked to the
state e.g. The Church Of England. Most
churches fit in with the status quo of the society
they belong to meaning that members go along
with the norms and values of that particular
society.
Religious Organisations
DENOMINATION
• In the UK the term ‘denomination’ is usually used to
refer to a branch of the Christian church e.g. Baptists,
Methodists etc. Stark and Bainbridge (1985) use the term
to describe ‘diluted churches’ They are separate from the
state and more open to new ideas but they are still
usually hierarchical structures and conform to the norms
and values of society
Religious Organisations
SECT
The sect/cult difference is one which does offer a
lot of confusion. Generally sects are seen as a
little bit deviant but generally do conform to the
way things are in this world even if they have a
different ‘take’ on it. Sects are generally smaller
than churches and often have grown out of
mainstream churches in protest over some issues.
Religious Organisations
CULT
Of all the terms here the ‘cult’ classification is the
most difficult to tie down.
They tend to be seen in ‘world rejecting’ terms i.e.
they are usually critical of mainstream society
and of other religious organisations.
They tend to be small in size with highly committed
members. Some cults have very charismatic
leaders and require their members to cut their
ties with their old lives when they join e.g. with
family, friends, jobs etc.
Religious Organisations
New Religious Movements
• Because of the problems with defining terms such as sect and cult and
their confused usage particularly in the media the terms New Religious
Movement (NRM) and New Age Movement (NAM) have been developed
to solve the problem.
•
New Religious Movement (NRM)Is a term that is used more these days
to get away from the Sect/Cult definition problem. It usually refers to a
group of worshippers (not necessarily Christian)
•
These have usually undergone an intense conversion experience and are
often regarded as ‘weirdos’ i.e. with suspicion by the rest of society
(often via media amplification).
Religious Organisations
New Religious Movements (NRM’s)
Is a term that is used more these days to get away
from the Sect/Cult definition problem. It usually
refers to a group of worshippers (not necessarily
Christian)
These have usually undergone an intense
conversion experience and are often regarded as
‘weirdos’ i.e. with suspicion by the rest of society
(often via media amplification).
Religious Organisations
Wallis talks about
1. World Rejecting NRM’s
Members are expected to cut ties with past
lives, jobs, family etc and often live in a
new community.
(e.g. Moonies, Hare Krishna)
Religious Organisations
2. World Affirming NRM’s
These see the external world more
benevolently – members live in the
real world but see themselves as
finding new ways of relating to it
and therefore their ‘enlightenment’
brings more joy and contentment
(e.g. Transcendental Meditation,
Scientology)
Religious Organisations
3. World Accommodating NRM’s
These tend to emphasise the
importance of individual religious
experiences.
Members live and work in the real
world
(e.g. Charismatic Christian Groups)
Religious Organisations
New Age Movements
NAM’s refer to a large number of groups
emerging since the 1970’s. The ‘new’ bit
is often a rather paradoxical label
because many have their routes in very
old belief systems.
Religious Organisations
Bruce 1996 has suggested 2 categories of NAM
•
Audience Cults
‘these resemble loose knit lecture circuits
where members participate in lectures,
seminars and workshops.
Involvement is rather sporadic and is less
face to face and more likely to involve
reading literature (either in hard copy or
on-line).
Astrology is one of the best examples of
this type of NAM.
Religious Organisations
2. Client Cults
These groups offer services to their members.
Therapists have grown up in lots of different fields
to ‘help’ clients get to grips with aspects of
their lives, e.g. crystal therapy
Critics have argued that many NAM practices are
more concerned with making money than
offering real benefits to members.
Religious Organisations
Why do people join NRM’s?
•
Practical
many members hope to gain something from
joining, either financially, spiritually or just a
sense of happiness and well being.
Religious Organisations
2. Spiritual
•
•
Post modernists and others point out that with
the decline of established religion people are
still seeking answers to the big questions in life
and therefore have cast their eyes wider than
before.
These ‘spiritual shoppers’ are seeking amongst
all the pots on offer just like a child with a bag
in front of the pick’n’mix sweet pots in
Woolworths!
Religious Organisations
3. Relative Deprivation
– People are often attracted to such groups
because they feel that they have something
missing in their lives.
– This can include material poverty but often
other factors too such as lack of esteem, lack
of purpose, frustration with career etc.
– This helps to explain why many middle class
(reasonably well off) people are attracted to
NRMs
Religious Organisations
4. Marginality
Weber – Sects attract those on the
margins of society
‘Theodicy of Disprivilege’ – gives people
hope of something in the next life!
Wilson (1970) a variety of situations lead
to marginalisation Wars, natural disaster, economic collapse
Wallis 1984 –Not always economic
marginalisation. Some MC whites feel cut
off from society
Religious Organisations
5. Social Change
Wilson – sects arise in periods of rapid
change –traditional norms are disrupted
Bruce (1996) agrees and says that
secularisation and weakening of
established churches leads many to look
elsewhere.
Established religion is too watered down for
some
Wilson – Sects are ‘last outposts of religion’
Religious Organisations
Wallis (1984) pointed to a number of social
changes helping NRM’s to grow in the
1960’s
1. Growth in Higher Education
2. Youth Culture developed
3. Economic boom time
4. Radical political movements
Religious Organisations
NRMs are popular with young adults. Such groups
have left childhood behind but haven’t become
tied down by careers, families of their own and
other commitments.
World rejecting NRMs are particularly popular as
they offer a ‘certainty’ to many young people at
a time of uncertainty in their lives.
Religious Organisations
Barker in her study of the Moonies (The Unification
Church) in the 1970’s found that many members
were young and came from comfortable middle
class families.
The group offered a surrogate family setting for
them and provided a lot of mutual support.
Despite many fears of brainwashing in the
media,
Barker discovered that the high drop out rate
suggested a short term fulfilment of temporary
needs.
Religious Organisations
•
Bird (1999) has suggested 3 key things these groups
offer:
•
They fulfil a spiritual need in a very
materialistic world.
In order to compete in this ‘material world’ they
offer strategies to become successful.
They provide ways of developing the inner self to
develop personal happiness.
•
•
Religious Organisations
• Why do people leave NRM’s?
1. Commitment levels too high
• The reality of living in a sect may prove too
demanding for members.
• E.g. Barker found that some Moonie members
left once they experienced negative aspects of the
religion such as mass arranged marriages.
Religious Organisations
•
•
•
•
•
Why do people leave NRM’s?
2. Death of the charismatic leader
If a person only joins due to the influence of the
leader, they may see little point in staying if the
leader dies
3. Personal crisis resolved
If a person has joined a sect in hope of being
‘healed’, they may leave once their crisis is dealt
with.
Religious Organisations
•
•
•
Why do people leave NRM’s?
4. Commitment levels are hard to sustain over
time
The second generation of members may want to
experience life outside the sect – they may not
have the enthusiasm levels of the original
members. This can be seen in the Amish
community.
Religious Organisations
•
•
•
•
•
Why do people leave NRM’s?
5. The sect engages in illegal activities and is
‘terminated’
Examples include the Branch Davidians (ending
in a shoot-out)
The People’s Temple (ending in mass suicide)
The Children of God (ended when leaders
arrested on suspicion of child abuse).