What was the ‘Self-Strengthening’
Movement and why did it Fail?
L/O – To identify the key features of the self-strengthening movement
and to evaluate the reasons for its failure
The Tongzhi Restoration 1861-1894
• By the 1860s, the Qing
Dynasty in China was facing
collapse. The impact of
Western imperialism and
internal rebellions had
brought China to the brink of
destruction.
• The Opium Wars had seen
China defeated by Britain and
France whilst the Taiping
Rebellion (1850-64) had led
to the deaths of over 20
million!
The Tongzhi Restoration 1861-1894
• China tried to restore its power by
embarking on a series of reforms. This
period has become known as the ‘Tongzhi
Restoration’.
• It was led by a group of reforming officials
within the Qing Dynasty who became
collectively known as the ‘SelfStrengthening Movement’.
• The Tongzhi Restoration ultimately failed to
stop the decline of the Qing Dynasty, unlike
the Meiji Restoration in Japan but did give
the Qing another 50 years of rule until the
1911 Revolution.
Emperor
Tongzhi
(1861-1875)
Historiographical Issues
• Was the Tongzhi Restoration and
Self-Strengthening Movement the
beginning of the end for Qing
China or did it rather give a
declining dynasty another 60
years it would not have had
without it?
• Did the Restoration begin the
process of declining state power?
• Were internal or external
pressures more to blame for the
decline of the Qing dynasty?
Source A: "Not only a dynasty but
also a civilization which appeared
to have collapsed was revived to
last for another sixty years by the
extraordinary efforts of
extraordinary men in the 1860s.
This was the T'ung-chih
Restoration."
By Historian Mary Wright
Source B: "That the Qing
managed to survive both
domestic and international
attacks is due largely to the
policy and leadership changes
known as the Qing Restoration."
By Historian John Fairbank
A New Emperor
• In 1861, the 5-year-old Emperor
Tongzhi ascended the throne, but
real power resided with his mother,
Empress Dowager Cixi, and his uncle
Prince Gong.
• The Imperial Court was divided
between Conservatives, led by Cixi,
and Progressives led by Prince Gong.
• Both believed that military and
economic modernisation was
necessary to strengthen and protect
China.
Emperor Tongzhi
Empress
Dowager
Cixi
(mother)
Prince Gong (uncle)
Who led the reforms?
• The Self-Strengthening Movement and
Restoration was led by Prince Gong and
a group of provincial officials.
Zeng Guofan
• Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo
Zongtang were all Scholar-Generals and
regional leaders who had risen to
power by defeating the Taiping and
Nian rebels.
Li Hongzhang
• They were given a free-hand to reform
China as the Imperial Court relied on
them to rule. In a sense, they operated
like the Warlords of the 20th century,
but unlike them, were loyal to the Qing.
Zuo Zongtang
Aims of the Reformers
• They sought to apply ‘practical
knowledge’ from the West whilst
reaffirming the old Confucian system of
government. Different from Japan?
Zeng Guofan
• The idea of self-strengthening was first
expressed clearly in a series of essays to
Zeng Guofan by Feng Guifen in 1861. He
even advocated political reforms
although this was too much for Zeng.
• Zeng and other Qing officials argued
that in order to strengthen itself against
the West, China had to adopt Western
military technology BUT NOT social or
political ideas. Mistake?
Feng Guifen
…Books on mathematics, mechanics, optics, light, chemistry, and others all
contain the ultimate principles of understanding things. Most of this information
is unavailable to people in China…
I have heard that with their new methods the Westerners have found that the
movements of the earth conform closely to those of the heavens. This can be of
assistance in fixing the calendar… Other things beneficial to the national
economy and the livelihood of the people should also be used… There are many
intelligent people in China. Surely there are some who, having learned from the
barbarians, can surpass them…
In my humble opinion, at the present time it is also appropriate to say “Learn from
the various nations,” for they are similar to us and hence their ways are easy to
implement. What could be better than to take Chinese ethical principles of human
relations and Confucian teachings as the foundation, (ti) and supplement them
with the techniques (yong) of wealth and power of the various nations?
From “On the Adoption of Western Learning” by Feng Guifen
The Role of Zeng Guofan
• Zeng Guofan was the most influential
and powerful reformer, responsible
for defeating the Taiping Rebels.
• He sought to restore order by
restoring the Confucian education
and exam system and by reorganising agriculture.
• He then advocated adopting aspects
of Western learning like science and
engineering in order to build modern
ships and armaments.
Zeng Guofan
The Role of Zeng Guofan
• In 1864 he sent Yung Wing (the first
Chinese graduate of Yale University) to
purchase machines in the USA in order
to build a China’s first modern weapons
factory (arsenal) in Shanghai in 1865.
Yung Wing (1828-1912)
• Further arsenals were built at Fuzhou in
1867 along with China’s first
engineering school for studying
mechanical skills and navigation were
founded.
• In 1868, China built it’s first steamship
at Fuzhou, with a further 11 warships
being built by 1873.
Chinese warship Yangwu
Fuzhou Arsenal, Fujian Province - 1867
The Role of Prince Gong
• As co-regent and grand
councillor, Gong had considerable
influence and he championed the
reform movement.
Prince Gong
Wenxiang
• From 1861, he led the new
‘Office for the Management of
the Business of All Foreign
Countries’ (Zongli Yamen) and
along with his second in
command, Wenxiang, worked to
modernise China’s foreign
relations.
Zongli Yamen Building in Beijing
The Role of Prince Gong
• In 1862 they opened an
interpreter’s school, the Tongwen
Guan, in Peking to teach Chinese
students English and French.
• In 1867, despite conservative
protests, Gong and Wenxiang
converted the school into a fullfledge college teaching Western
subjects such as mathematics,
chemistry, geology and
American Missionary W. A. P. Martin
international law.
was responsible for transforming the
Tongwen Guan into a modern school
The Role of Prince Gong
• In 1863 Gong also reformed
the Imperial Maritime Customs
Service in Shanghai, run by an
international staff and led by
Inspector-General Sir Robert
Hart.
First Customs House
built in 1854
• The office collected maritime
trade taxes and provided the
Beijing government with 1/3 of
its entire revenue.
• Prince Gong and Zongli Yamen
officials even started
discussions with the British to
renegotiate the unfair treaties
imposed on it.
Hart worked closely with Prince
Gong and persuaded him to
establish the Tongwen Guan
Third Customs House as it is today in
Shanghai, originally built in 1927
Initial Successes
• By 1870, the Self-Strengthening
Movement had managed to
restore order to China, build
new diplomatic structures,
collect huge amounts of tax,
build modern warships and
weapons and had partially
modernised education.
• It appeared that the Qing
dynasty could modernise and
regain its former strength.
However it wasn’t to last.
Failure of Leadership
• Reforms slowed in the 1870s. In 1869,
the reformer Prince Gong was
removed from power by Cixi after
having one of her favourite eunuchs
executed for corruption.
• Key reformers also died. Zeng Guofan
died in 1872 and Wenxiang in 1876.
Even the Emperor Tongzhi died in
1875.
• Cixi then had her 3-year-old nephew,
Guangxu, appointed as Emperor. Cixi –
a conservative opposed to reforms –
was now the ultimate political
authority in China.
Prince Gong
Emperor Guangxu
Empress Dowager Cixi
The Role of Li Hongzhang
• Despite a slow down in selfstrengthening programs, the reform
movement continued under the
leadership of Li Hongzhang until 1894.
• Li was trusted by Cixi due to his loyalty
Li Hongzhang
in helping to get Emperor Guangxu
appointed. He was made Viceroy of
Li had worked closely with
Zhili and Commissioner of Trade for Prince Gong and Zeng Guofan as
the northern ports in 1871.
a reformer. He also led Chinese
• From the 1871-1894, Li worked hard
to implement economic, educational
and diplomatic reforms.
forces during the Sino-Japanese
War of 1894-95. On his death he
was replaced by Yuan Shikai. He
has an interesting history –
check him out!
Li’s Economic Reforms
• He pioneered the creation of
government owned and privately
operated businesses to boost the
economy.
• In 1872, he created the China
Merchant Steamship Navigation
Company in order to stop the
domination of shipping by foreign
powers.
The China Merchant
Steamship Navigation
Company in Shanghai
today
• In 1877, he expanded the Kaiping Coal
Mines near Tianjin and built a huge
cotton mill at Shanghai in 1878.
The Kaiping Mine was the
most productive in China
producing 38,000 tons in 1882
Li’s Economic Reforms
• Further economic
reforms in the 1880s
included the
construction and
enlargement of
weapons arsenals in
Tianjin, the
development in
1881 of the Imperial
Chinese Telegraph
Administration, a
new dock facility in
Lushun and China’s
first steam train in
1881.
Nanjing Jinling Arsenal,
originally built by Li in 1865
The ‘Rocket of China’ constructed in China by
Englishman Claude William Kinder and Tong King
Sing. Used to transport coal from the Kaiping Mine
The docks at Lushun (Port Arthur) in 1904.
Li’s Education Reforms
• Earlier educational reforms
were carried on by Li.
Students were sent
overseas to the USA, UK,
France and Germany to
study Western sciences and
military theory.
• He also established the
Tianjin Beiyang Military
Academy in 1885 which
taught Western military
science and was staffed by
German Officers.
The first group of students to study in the
USA in 1872. The programme was stopped
by conservatives in 1881 as the students had
‘plunged themselves into American culture’
The Academy was destroyed in 1900 during
the Boxer Rebellion by international forces.
Li’s Diplomatic Reforms
• Despite a lack of success,
Li worked alongside the
Zongli Yamen to negotiate
tricky international issues.
• He tried to contain
Japanese ambitions Asia,
persuading the Korean
King Kojong to open his
country and sign treaties
with the West to avoid
Japanese domination in
the 1880s.
Li Hongzhang
King Kojong of
Korea
Li’s Diplomatic Reforms
• He did have success with
Russia, signing the Treaty of
St Petersburg in 1881. This
gave land back to China and
secured its long border with
Russia.
• However war broke out
between France and China
in 1884 and finally between
Japan and China in 1894.
China’s defeat and
humiliation in both wars
showed that SelfStrengthening had failed.
Treaty of St. Petersberg
Why did Self-Strengthening fail?
• The movement failed to
strengthen China sufficiently to be
able to ensure survival from
imperialist encroachment.
• There are many factors for the
failure of the movement. These
include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Lack of Central Leadership
Role of Cixi
Corruption of Officials
Resistance of Conservative Officials
Anti-Western Sentiment
Hostile Imperialist Powers
Are there any other
factors missing from
this list?
1. Lack of Central Leadership
• The Imperial Court was divided
over both the necessity and nature
of reform that was needed.
• The divide between Conservatives
led by Cixi and Reformers led by
Prince Gong resulted in poorly
planned reforms.
• The Emperor’s Tongzhi and
Guangxu were also too young to
rule and politics became
dominated by Cixi.
2. Role of Empress Dowager Cixi
• Cixi often worked against and
limited the potential of the
Self-Strengthening Movement,
being ignorant of the outside
world.
• Her ambitions led to her
removing Prince Gong from
power who was a key reformer.
• She even diverted funds from
reform projects to build a
summer palace for herself!
3. Corruption of Officials
• Many regional officials were
corrupt and often diverted money
away from reform projects and
modernisation.
• Lack of oversight also led to
officials competing in the same
industry, leading to inefficiencies.
• Many officials had purchased
their positions during the Taiping
Rebellion, often being
unqualified, so they were
therefore resistant to any
modernisation in society.
4. Resistance of Conservatives
• Many Confucian scholars and
government officials were
resistant to Westernisation.
• They believed that learning
from ‘barbarians’ wouldn’t
work and would undermine the
Confucian system of culture
and government.
• Many were unwilling to
contemplate political or social
reforms.
5. Anti-Western Sentiment
• Anti-Christian sentiment and
a belief that Westerners
were uncultured barbarians
influenced the views of
many Chinese and
prevented changes.
• Anti-Christian anger and
riots prevented many
Chinese from learning
Western ideas and
education in missionary
schools.
6. Hostile Imperialist Powers
• Unfortunately for China, many
imperialists nations from the West
and Japan sought to undermine
and control China.
• Western nations dominated trade
in China, putting domestic
industries out of business and
forcing the Qing state into debt.
• Arguably, Self-Strengthening may
have worked if it wasn’t for the
major defeats of the Sino-French
War of 1844-45 and Sino-Japanese
War in 1894-95.
Historiographical Issues – Your Views
• Was the Tongzhi Restoration and
Self-Strengthening Movement the
beginning of the end for Qing
China or did it rather give a
declining dynasty another 60
years it would not have had
without it?
• Did the Restoration begin the
process of declining state power?
• Were internal or external
pressures more to blame for the
decline of the Qing dynasty?
Source A: "Not only a dynasty but
also a civilization which appeared
to have collapsed was revived to
last for another sixty years by the
extraordinary efforts of
extraordinary men in the 1860s.
This was the T'ung-chih
Restoration."
By Historian Mary Wright
Source B: "That the Qing
managed to survive both
domestic and international
attacks is due largely to the
policy and leadership changes
known as the Qing Restoration."
By Historian John Fairbank
Plenary
1. Why was Self-Strengthening needed?
2. Who were the leaders of the movement?
3. What were the aims of the reformers?
4. What achievements did the reformers make until 1894?
5. Why did the Self-Strengthening Movement fail?
6. Was the failure of the movement inevitable?
7. Make a table showing the successes and failures of the
Self-Strengthening Movement using the following
headings: social/cultural; political; economic; military
Did we meet our learning objective?
L/O – To identify the key features of the self-strengthening
movement and to evaluate the reasons for its failure
Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2010)
• Compare and contrast the Self-Strengthening Movement in China
(1861-1894) and the reforms under the Meiji Restoration in Japan
(1868-1894). (20 marks)
The question requires candidates to analyse economic and military modernization, as well as the
degree of social and political change in both China and Japan. Expect reference to the philosophical
aims of both reform movements; to the different systems of government; to the underlying cultural
attitudes that influenced the impact of modernization upon each society and to the nature of the
actual reforms. Candidates may note that in Japan a political revolution occurred producing a new and
dynamic leadership capable of sweeping reform on a national level, whereas China’s government was
reluctant to embrace change and unable to promote a sense of national unity. For China candidates
may discuss: the Tongzhi (T’ung-chih) Restoration of Confucian government; the concept of selfstrengthening; the weakness and conservatism of the central government; Cixi’s (Tz’u-hsi’s) power;
roles of Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang), Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang)
and Prince Gong (Kung); the success or failure of the various reforms undertaken. For Japan: the Meiji
Restoration, the Regency and Imperial rule; “Western science and Eastern ethics”; Shintoism,
Confucianism and Buddhism; readiness for reform; the Constitutions of 1868 and 1889; political,
cultural, economic, military and social change. Candidates may cite the Sino–Japanese War (1894–
1895) as evidence of Japanese success and Chinese failure. Many answers will focus on contrasts, but
comparisons should also be identified. If only China or Japan is addressed, mark out of a maximum of [7 marks].
Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2013)
• “Japan’s self-strengthening reform during the Meiji period was successful because
it was directed from the top, but the self-strengthening movement in China failed
because it was not.” To what extent do you agree with this statement up to 1895?
(20 marks)
This question requires candidates to analyse the process of reform in both Japan and China during the respective
periods and assess the success of these reform movements with reference to the degree of political, social, cultural,
economic and military modernization that was achieved. Both movements were rooted in the concept of selfstrengthening in order to withstand the demands and aggression of the West. Themes that may be used to compare
and contrast could be: the philosophical aims of both reform movements; the different systems of government; the
underlying religious and cultural attitudes that influenced the impact of modernization upon each society; geographic
and demographic factors; the roles of individuals or groups in each society; and the nature of the actual reforms.
Candidates may note that in Japan a political revolution occurred producing a new and dynamic leadership capable of
sweeping reform on a national level, whereas China’s government was reluctant to embrace change and unable to
promote a sense of national unity. For Japan candidates may discuss: the Meiji Restoration, the Regency and Imperial
rule; “Western science and Eastern ethics”; Shintoism, Confucianism and Buddhism; the readiness for reform; the
Constitutions of 1868 and 1889; the extent of the political, cultural, economic, military and social changes. For China
candidates may discuss: the Tongzhi (T’ung-chih) Restoration of Confucian government; the concept of selfstrengthening; the weakness and conservatism of the central government; the Regency and the extent of Cixi’s (Tz’uhsi’s) power; the aims of Prince Gong (Kung) and his conflict with Cixi (Tz’u-hsi); the choice of another boy Emperor,
Guangxu (Kuang-hsu) in 1875; the roles of Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang), Zuo Zongtang
(Tso Tsung-t’ang); the localized nature of many of China’s reforms; the success or failure of the various reforms
undertaken. Candidates may cite the Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895) as evidence of Japanese success and Chinese
failure. Better answers may challenge the assumption in the quotation and identify a number of successful ventures in
China and that resistance to change also existed in Japan. Many answers will focus on contrasts, but comparisons
should also be identified. If only Japan or China is addressed, mark out of a maximum of [12 marks].
Paper 3 - Exam Question 3 (2002)
• “China’s Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1894) is often regarded
as a failure.” To what extent do you agree with this assessment? (20
marks)
[7 marks] for a descriptive list.
[8 to 10 marks] for awareness that there were substantial achievements, particularly in
the
years 1860 to 1874, and some optimism for the future.
[11 to 13 marks] for which some analysis to establish the degree of success or failure will
be
expected.
[14 to 16 marks] for candidates who develop this further into an assessment of the entire
period and who give a relevant conclusion. Better candidates will realise that the final
measure of success or failure was the war against Japan and that China.s efforts at
modernisation have perhaps been unjustly dismissed in their entirety because of their
defeat.
[17+ marks] for a sophisticated analysis and an awareness that the statement may be
questioned.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 4 (2004/2007)
• To what extent do the careers of Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang and Li
Hongzhang demonstrate the weakness of the Qing government of
China between 1864 and 1895? (20 marks)
1864 marks the defeat of the Taiping Rebellion; 1895, the defeat of China by Japan. Zeng (Tseng), Zuo
(T’so) and Li rose to prominence because of their roles in defeating the Taiping and other rebellions and
became leaders of the Self-Strengthening Movement. While recognising that the Self-Strengthening
Movement had its successes, candidates should concentrate upon the revealed weaknesses of the Qing
(Ch’ing) government. Self-Strengthening was largely a provincial affair: central planning and direction
were lacking; Confucian-trained scholars despised the modernisers and undermined their authority.
Corruption was rife; rebellion diverted attention; provincialism undermined cooperation.
[0 to 7 marks] for narrative or lists of events from their careers.
[8 to 10 marks] for a fairly complete account of the careers of the three officials or for an
incomplete account which recognises some of the weaknesses of the regime.
[11 to 13 marks] for a simple analysis in which the weaknesses of the regime are illustrated by
reference to the careers of at least two of the three officials.
[14 to 16 marks] for more detailed analysis of the weaknesses and failures of the regime with
reference to the three officials, but focussing upon Li as the most active, long-lived and powerful.
[17+ marks] for sophisticated running comparison and analysis based upon sound knowledge of the
weaknesses and failures of the regime.