MOTIVATION, EMOTION, &
STRESS
Fast Track Chapter 5
(Bernstein Chapters 11 & 13)
What is MOTIVATION?
MOTIVATION is what drives people to do the
things they do; the internal and external factors that
direct behavior
Each person’s motivation is unique. In other
words, the same things don’t make us all “tick” the
same way.
Theories of Motivation
INSTINCT THEORY
explains motivation through instinctual behavior
instinct an unlearned, innate, and automatic response to a specific
stimulus
influenced by Charles Darwin’s evolutionary perspective that holds
organisms are motivated to perform certain behaviors to enhance their
survival of the survival of their species
e.g., geese flying south in response to colder weather
A criticism of instinct theory is that it provides labels and descriptions of
behavior instead of explaining why and how behaviors occur.
Theories of Motivation
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
homeostasis the premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal
physiological systems at a constant, stable level
need a biological requirement essential to proper bodily functioning
drive (thirst, hunger, sex, pain) a psychological state of tension, or arousal,
that directs an organism to take action to reduce the drive
A biological need for equilibrium is what motivates organisms.
When internal conditions fall below or raise above a desired level, your brain
detects this change and alerts the body to return to a normal and acceptable
level.
e.g., When a person’s temperature rises above 98.6 degrees,
homeostasis detects this and the body starts sweating to cool itself.
Theories of Motivation
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY
DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY (Clark Hull) suggests motivation is based on
the desire to reduce internal tension within the body that is caused by
biological needs not being met through homeostasis.
e.g., dehydration
1. through homeostasis, brain alerted that fluid levels are low
2. need for water is created and drive (thirst) is produced
3. causes or motivates you to get a drink of water (restoring
homeostasis and reducing drive)
Drive reduction theory cannot account for all types of motivation.
continuing to buy lottery tickets (not a biological need)
eating or drinking when not hungry or thirsty (social reasons, stress)
Theories of Motivation
OPTIMUM AROUSAL THEORY
People are motivated out of curiosity to try new experiences, and this
curiosity causes an increase in arousal.
arousal the result of several heightened physiological states
(including rapid heartbeat, intensified breathing, and muscle strain)
The OPTIMUM AROUSAL THEORY suggests people try to maintain an
ideal level of arousal through various behavioral activities.
Motivation is directed at maintaining a stable level of arousal.
People tend to perform well in activities with a maintained, moderate
level of arousal and are more likely to make mistakes when arousal is
either too high or too low.
Yerkes-Dodson law difficult or challenging tasks cause arousal to be
lower while easy tasks cause arousal to be higher
Theories of Motivation
INCENTIVE THEORY
INCENTIVE THEORY suggests that external stimuli “push” people to
positive incentives and “pull” people away from negative incentives.
based on the principles of physiological, cognitive, and social factors
Physiological factors such as food may appeal to a hungry person but not one who
has just finished a large meal.
Cognitive factors involve the liking of an incentive (based on the immediate
pleasure it brings) or wanting of an incentive (based on the value a person places on
it).
Social factors define which incentives are good and which are bad based on the
influence and opinions of others.
e.g., What factors influence an individual’s preference for a particular kind of car?
Not all motivation can be explained by incentives as some people help
others without the expectation of a reward. They simply help for the sake of
being helpful.
Theories of Motivation
HUMANISTIC THEORY
HUMANISTIC THEORY suggests people seek to build a positive selfconcept and are motivated to fulfill their potential.
Most humanistic psychologists believe motivation to achieve one’s potential
is innate but that the environment can either support or hinder this potential.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an attempt to explain how a
person achieves his or her potential.
According to Maslow, at each level of the hierarchy, the individual has needs
that must be satisfied before the the individual can address the next level.
Level 1 (Physiological Needs) food and water
Level 2 (Safety Needs) security and stability
Level 3 (Belongingness and Love Needs) supportive friendships, intimate relationships
Level 4 (Esteem Needs) feelings of worth and accomplishment
Level 5 (Self-Actualization) achievement of one’s potential
Theories of Motivation
HUMANISTIC THEORY
HUNGER
WHAT CAUSES IT?
The most important signals that start and stop hunger come from the blood.
The brain monitors two activities in this process:
1. the amount of nutrients absorbed in the blood send from the digestive system
2. the level of hormones released into the blood in response to the nutrients in the
bloodstream
CCK (cholecystokinin) hormone released as food moves from stomach to bloodstream;
detected by the brain and acts as neurotransmitter signaling short-term satiation (fullness)
Leptin hormone responsible for longer-term satiation; released into bloodstream as fat
supply increases; when leptin levels are high, a person feels full; low leptin levels lead to
hunger sensations
Glucose sugar that the body uses for energy; when glucose levels drop, hunger increases
Insulin hormone used to convert glucose to energy; affects the amount of glucose in the
body; when insulin levels rise, glucose levels decrease, causing the sensation of hunger
HUNGER
THE BRAIN’S ROLE IN HUNGER
The hypothalamus plays an important but not exclusive role in starting and stopping hunger.
It affects a variety of behaviors and drives, not just hunger.
ventromedial hypothalamus involved in satiation/stopping hunger; damage to this area
of a rat’s brain led to obesity and peculiarities in eating patterns
lateral hypothalamus role in initiating hunger; damage to this area of a rat’s brain
reduced food intake; the lateral hypothalamus produces orexin, a hormone that triggers
hunger
BODY WEIGHT
Throughout the day, 1/3 of a human being’s energy is spent on maintaining a lifestyle (daily
physical and cultural activities) while 2/3 is used for vital functioning (breathing, heart rate,
brain activity)
BMR (basal metabolic rate) regulates the expenditure of energy used to maintain our
body’s vital functions
Factors affecting the functioning of a person’s BMR:
as age increases, BMR slows down
women have a slower BMR than men
heavier people have a high BMR
genetics influence a person’s BMR
MISCONCEPTION: “If you eat less, you will lose weight.”
REALITY: Lowering caloric intake also slows BMR. It’s better to eat several smaller meals
and keep the BMR working and burning off calories rather than not eating regularly.
BODY WEIGHT
SET POINT THEORY
SET POINT THEORY a person’s ideal weight (or set point) is maintained through
increases or decreases in the BMR; consistent with the way homeostasis maintains and
monitors body conditions
If a person eats more than than the amount of calories that will keep him/her at the set
point, the BMR will increase to adjust for the increased caloric intake.
If a person eats less, the BMR will slow down to conserve the amount of calories
necessary to maintain the set point.
HOWEVER...the number and size of fat cells play a role in body weight maintenance.
The types of food a person consumes can increase the size of his/her fat cells.
If fattening foods continue to be eaten, the number of fat cells will increase as well.
An increase in the number of fat cells a person has increases his/her set point which
also impacts the BMR functioning.
Once the number of fat cells increases, there is no way to decrease it naturally.
BODY WEIGHT
OBESITY
BMI (Body Mass Index) the measure of a person’s weight in proportion to his/her height
normal BMI: 18.5-25
overweight BMI: 25-29.9
obese BMI: over 30
NOTE: BMI does not take into account muscle mass or bone density. A muscular individual
may have a BMI that indicates he/she is overweight when he/she really is not.
Factors (not excuses) contributing to obesity in America today:
genetics, higher number of fat cells, lack of physical activity, availability of highly fatty
foods, large portions in restaurants, etc...
What NOT to do if obese--cut calories! This will only slow your BMR.
Very bad!
Very VERY bad!
BODY WEIGHT
EATING DISORDERS
ANOREXIA NERVOSA an eating disorder characterized by a dramatic drop in caloric
intake and an obsession with exercise
primarily affects young women
may be a genetic predisposition or a biochemical imbalance
also influenced by cultural and media expectations promoting thinness
BULIMIA NERVOSA an eating disorder characterized by periods of binging (eating large
amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of consumed food by intentional vomiting or use of
laxatives)
more likely to be females who have problems with eating habits
can lead to throat damage and tooth decay
group therapy and antidepressants used to help improve eating habits
ACHIEVEMENT &
MOTIVATION
The desire for achievement also directs and affects
motivation.
COMPETENCE MOTIVATION (NEED MOTIVATION)
shown by people who are driven to master a task or
achieve a personal goal
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION when people try to
outdo or beat other people
SELF-EFFICACY BELIEF (Albert Bandura) the level
of confidence one has when facing the challenges and
demands of a situation
plays an important role in determining personal
achievement
If a person has positive self-efficacy beliefs,
then he/she has a higher chance of
achievement and success.
ACHIEVEMENT &
MOTIVATION MOTIVATION AT WORK
INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY field that uses psychological concepts to
optimize the workplace as an effective and productive environment
PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY field of industrial-industrial psychology that attempts to
match the right job with the right employee (through personality questionnaires to help place
employees properly)
Such questionnaires often indicate an employee’s intentions and desired achievement.
intrinsic motivation a desire to achieve internal satisfaction or personal
accomplishment
extrinsic motivation a desire to achieve an external factor, such as a pay raise
ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY another field of industrial-organizational psychology
that addresses worker satisfaction and productivity
seek to develop favorable working conditions that increase worker performance
INTRODUCTION TO
EMOTIONS
Emotions are related to motivation in that people are more motivated to perform activities
that produce positive emotions (happiness) and less motivated to participate in activities that
create negative emotions (anger or fear).
EMOTIONS are based on cognitive appraisal (mentally assessing a situation), physiological
reactions (both innate and learned), and expressive behaviors.
basic emotions (happiness or anger)
complex emotions (happiness and sadness and nervousness at graduation)
Emotions v. Moods--moods last longer whereas emotions tend to be brief expressions
Intensity and Expression of Emotions
varies greatly from person to person
illustrates subjective interpretation of stimuli which can cause different expression
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
EMOTIONS
Central Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System play critical role in generation
and interpretation of emotions
emotions activated by the sympathetic nervous system (division of the ANS) which arouses
the body
fight or flight response the body preparing and responding to what are perceived as
threatening stimuli (fight produces anger, flight produces fear)
love and excitement also activated by sympathetic nervous system (producing similar
responses to fear and anger)
some emotions produce lower levels of arousal not originating in the sympathetic nervous
system (contentment)
different emotions linked to different physiological responses (anger raises skin temperature,
fear lowers it)
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF
EMOTIONS
Emotions activate different areas of the brain.
limbic system (especially the amygdala)
critical in learning emotions, recognizing
emotional expression, and interpreting
emotional stimuli
pyramidal motor system includes the motor
cortex and is responsible for voluntary facial
expressions representing specific emotions
(acting out anger or fear)
extrapyramidal motor system responsible
for natural, or involuntary, facial expressions
(when a person is truly happy, he/she
automatically smiles)
cerebral cortex (specifically the right
hemisphere) associated with the expression
of emotion (people with damage to the right
hemisphere understand comical events but
lack ability to express humor)
THEORIES OF
EMOTION
SEE HANDOUT
EMOTIONAL
EXPRESSION
People express emotions through nonverbal cues
(body posture, hand gestures, facial expressions)
Carroll Izard believed facial expression are innate
pain present at birth
smiling around 3-4 weeks
sadness and anger visible at 2 months
fear expressed at 6-7 months
Paul Ekman and others have found facial expressions
for basic emotions to be similar across cultures
(although intensity of emotion displayed varies).
display rules societal and cultural norms can
restrict the expressiveness of emotion
INTRODUCTION TO
STRESS
STRESS a negative emotional state in response to circumstances or
situations that exceed a person’s ability to control them
What constitutes stress varies from person to person based on:
individual interpretation of circumstances contributing to the stress
what resources available for coping with stress
how much stress can be dealt with during a particular period of time
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL used by health psychologists to identify and
prevent illness caused by stress
focus on the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors
that contribute to a person’s health and illness
look at how to prevent stress-related illnesses by applying productive
methods for thinking and acting during stressful times
TYPES OF STRESSORS
STRESSORS circumstances, events, or situations that contribute to stress
DAILY HASSLES minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day
getting up for school, traffic, conflicts/issues at work
Richard Lazarus suggest the way we interpret these daily hassles
plays an important role in how we cope with these stressors.
LIFE CHANGES events and situations that cause a person’s lifestyle to
change dramatically
death of a spouse or parent, divorce, disaster, relocating to a new city,
new job
affects thinking and behavior because individual must adapt to new
circumstances brought on by the change
CAUSES OF STRESS
Causes of stress include conflicts, frustrations, and pressure.
when people have to make hard choices, lose something of value, or
perform/conform to a certain level, stress occurs.
CAUSES OF STRESS
APPROACH-APPROACH CONFLICT occurs when a person has to make a decision
between two appealing choices
e.g., choosing between two courses you want to take
AVOIDANCE-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT occurs when a person has to make a decision
between two unappealing choices
e.g., choosing between physics and chemistry to fulfill a science requirement
APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT a choice has both appealing AND unappealing
choices (considered the most stressful type of conflict)
e.g., chance to earn college credit v. extra requirements for taking an AP course
MULTIPLE APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICTS occur when two choices have both
positive and negative points
e.g., going away to college v. staying at home and commuting
CAUSES OF STRESS
FRUSTRATION experienced when the pursuit of a goal is blocked
failures and losses
e.g., frustrated because you can’t find your keys and it makes you late for
work
PRESSURE made up of the extra demands placed on a person to perform a
certain way
affects performance
Some people work better under pressure while others do worse.
e.g., coaches putting extra demands on student-athletes
STRESS AND THE BODY
Stress affects the body both directly and indirectly.
indirect affects: interference with sleep, poor eating habits, increased drinking and
smoking, disruptions in cognitive processes
direct affects: weakening the immune system, muscle tension and headaches, speeds up
the progression of diseases
Stress directly affects the endocrine system as seen through Walter Cannon’s research
on the fight-or-flight response to perceiving an immediate threat.
1. hypothalamus & lower-brain structures activate the sympathetic nervous system
2. sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal medulla
3. adrenal medulla releases hormones called catecholamines (including
adrenaline and noradrenaline)
4. catecholamines in bloodstream increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration,
and blood flow to the muscles; digestion slows and pupils dilate
STRESS AND THE BODY
Hans Selye described general adaptation syndrome (GAS) which identifies physical
changes that occur through continued exposure to stress
1.
ALARM STAGE Intense body arousal occurs as the threat of a stressor is interpreted. This
arousal, as Cannon stated, causes the release of catecholamines, which alarm the body.
2.
RESISTIVE STAGE This stage is characterized by the body’s trying to adjust to the intense
arousal triggered in the alarm stage.
3.
EXHAUSTIVE STAGE If the stressor continues to arouse the body, the body becomes
exhausted which can lead to illness, mental exhaustion, and even death.
Selye also discovered a second endocrine pathway that occurs during prolonged stress.
1.
hypothalamus triggers pituitary
2.
pituitary triggers release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3.
ACTH triggers adrenal cortex to release stress hormones known as corticosteriods
4.
corticosteriods increase release of stored energy and reduce immune system response; may
lead to illness if allowed to continue unchecked
THE EFFECT OF STRESS
ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Stress can reduce the effectiveness of the immune system.
Early research suggested the immune system operated independently from the nervous and
endocrine systems (and thus was not affected by psychological processes).
Robert Adler and Nicholas Cohen showed the immune system could be affected through the
psychological process of classical conditioning (rat experiment):
Flavored water (neutral stimulus) was paired with a drug (unconditioned stimulus) that
suppresses the immune system (unconditioned response).E
Eventually the water alone (conditioned stimulus) would suppress the immune system
(conditioned response).
Adler and Cohen’s research led to the creation of psychoneuroimmunology which looks at
the connections of the psychological, nervous, and immune systems.
BEATING STRESS AND
PROMOTING WELLNESS
SEE HANDOUT
THE ROLE OF CULTURE ON
STRESS
Different cultures deal with stress in different ways.
Individualistic cultures (e.g., the U.S. and other Western countries)
tend to handle stress alone
tend to blame themselves for stress
emphasize problem-focused coping strategies
Collective cultures (e.g., Asian countries)
tend to seek out social support from others when facing stress
tend to use emotion-focused coping strategies
ACCULTURATIVE STRESS occurs through the pressure of trying to adapt to a new culture
(e.g., trying to hold on one’s cultural practices and viewpoints in a new surrounding that may
not agree with those same practices and viewpoints)