RESEARCH METHODS
Casual research vs. empirical research
Casual research is what we do everyday as we
observe our surroundings and draw conclusions
about what we see
Empirical Research: Structured Generalizability
(representative sample). Systematic, controlled
observation. Theoretical basis for method of study
What Is The Scientific Method?
The Scientific Method:
•A systematic series of steps that ensures
maximum objectivity and consistency in
researching a problem
Defining the Problem:
– State as clearly as possible what you
hope to investigate.
– Operational Definition: An explanation
of an abstract concept that is specific
enough to measure.
Reviewing the Literature:
– Literature:
•
•
•
•
The relevant scholarly studies and
information that pertains to the subject
what you’re interested researching.
begin to talk about theoretical perspective
Formulating the Hypothesis:
–Hypothesis:
• A speculative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables.
–Variable:
• A measurable trait or characteristic that is
subject to change under different conditions.
Formulating the Hypothesis:
Types of Variables:
• Independent:
– The variable that is hypothesized to cause
or influence another.
• Dependent:
– The variable whose action depends on
the influence of the independent variable.
Formulating the Hypothesis:
Correlations:
• Exist when a change in one variable
coincides with a change in another.
Correlations:
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Ban of assault rifles
Use of weapons in crime
Degree of integration
into society
Likelihood of suicide
Parents’ church
attendance
Children’s church attendance
Time spent preparing
for quiz
Performance on quiz
Parents’ income
Likelihood of children’s
enrolling in college
x
y
Correlation
CAUSATION
=
Does the difference make a difference?
• Hypothesis Testing
– Is the specified relationship statistically
“significant”?
• What is the likelihood of the relationship
occurring by chance?
• Can we say with some certainty that the
relationship will reappear?
Collecting and Analyzing Data:
Selecting the Sample
• Representative Samples:
–
A selection from a larger population
that is statistically typical of that
population.
•Random Samples:
–
When every member of an entire
population has the same chance of being
selected.
Collecting and Analyzing Data:
Ensuring Validity and Reliability:
•Validity:
The degree to which a measure truly
reflects the phenomenon being
studied.
•Reliability:
The extent to which a measure
provides consistent results.
Major Research Designs
Surveys:
•A study generally in the form of an
interview or questionnaire.
•Provides sociologists with
information about how people act
or think.
Research Methods, cont.
Survey Research: data collected through
questionnaires or interviews; can measure things
such as attitudes or values that can not be
observed
Advantages:
large population can be studied
random, representative sample means
results
can be generalized
Disadvantages:
can not provide in-depth information about
people’s behavior or experiences
Research Methods, cont.
What do you think the chances are these
days that a white person will not get a
job or promotion while an equally or less
qualified black person gets one instead?
_____ Very likely
_____ Somewhat likely
_____ Somewhat unlikely
_____ Very unlikely
_____ Don't know
Ethnographic Research:
•Interviews:
High response rate.
Can probe beyond questionnaire.
•Questionnaires:
Inexpensive.
Good for large samples.
Field Research:
Collecting information through direct
participation and/or observation of a
group.
Participant Observation:
•When the researcher “joins” a
group for a period of time to get a
sense of how it operates.
Field Research:
Field Research (Participant and nonparticipant
observation): researcher directly observes people in
their natural settings
Advantages:
• provides detailed and descriptive understandings of
people’s everyday lives
• generally inexpensive to conduct
Disadvantages:
• time consuming
• difficult to replicate
• difficult to generalize to other groups
• particularly susceptible to ethical issues
Experiments:
• The artificially created situation that allows
the researcher to manipulate variables.
• Experiments involve two types of groups:
Experimental: Exposed to independent
variable
Control Group: Not exposed to
independent variable.
Experiments:
Experiment: the use of experimental and control groups,
usually in a laboratory, to test the effect of one variable on
another variable
Advantages:
experimenter is able to control other variables so causal
relationship can be studied
easy to replicate
Disadvantages:
not a natural environment
many sociological concepts can not be measured in a lab
Use of Existing Sources:
Secondary Analysis:
• Research techniques making use of
publicly accessible information and
data.
Content Analysis:
• The systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some
rationale.
Finally…
• Make Conclusions
• Report Findings
American Sociological Association Code of
Ethics on Sociological Research:
• Researchers should always maintain
objectivity and integrity
• Respects respondents right to privacy
• Protect respondents from personal
harm
• Preserve confidentiality
• Disclose all sources of funding
• Do not abuse role as researcher