2: Sociological Research
Anne Mook, September 8, 12th edition
Richard T. Schaefer
A Look Ahead
How do sociologists go about setting up a
research project?
How do they ensure that the results of the
research are reliable and accurate?
Can they carry out their research without
violating the rights of those they study?
What Is the Scientific Method?
• Scientific method: a systematic, organized series
of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem
1.
2.
3.
4.
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating a testable hypothesis
Selecting the research design and then collecting and
analyzing data
5. Developing the conclusion
• A report is then prepared, with an executive summary
Figure 2-1 The Scientific Method
The scientific method allows sociologists to objectively and logically evaluate
the data they collect. Their findings can suggest ideas for further sociological
research.
Defining the Problem
• Operational definition: explanation of an abstract
concept that is specific enough to allow researchers
to assess the concept
Reviewing the Literature
• Literature reviewed
consists of relevant
scholarly studies and
information
– Refine the problem
– Clarify possible
techniques for
collecting data
– Eliminate or reduce
avoidable mistakes
Formulating the Hypothesis
• Hypothesis: speculative statement about the
relationship between two or more factors known as
variables
• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions
– Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another
– Dependent variable: variable whose action depends on
influence of the independent variable
Formulating the Hypothesis (Continued)
• Causal logic: involves relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence,
with one leading to the other
• Correlation: exists when change in one variable
coincides with change in the other
– Correlation does not necessarily indicate
causation
– https://tylervigen.com/old-version.html
Collecting and Analyzing Data
• Selecting the Sample
– Sample: selection from a
larger population that is
statistically representative
of that population
– Random sample: when
every member of an entire
population being studied
has the same chance of
being selected
– Snowball or convenience
samples: participants
recruited through word of
mouth or by posting
notices on the Internet
Collecting and Analyzing Data (Continued)
• Ensuring Validity and Reliability
– Research results must be both valid and reliable
– Validity: degree to which a measure or scale
truly reflects the phenomenon being studied
– Reliability: extent to which a measure produces
consistent results
Developing the Conclusion
• Supporting Hypotheses
– Sociological studies do not always generate data that
support the original hypothesis
– Sociologists interested in both the general pattern that
emerges from data and exceptions to that pattern
• Controlling for Other Factors
– Control variable: factor held constant in order to test the
relative impact of an independent variable
In Summary:
The Scientific Method
DEFINING THE
PROBLEM
REVIEWING THE
LITERATURE
FORMULATING A
HYPOTHESIS
DEVELOPING THE
CONCLUSION
COLLECTING AND
ANALYZING DATA
The Scientific Method, Example
• Example: Does it “pay” to go to college?
– Operational definitions: education and earnings
– Review of state-by state comparisons of income and
educational levels
– Hypothesis: The higher one’s educational degree, the more
money one will earn
• Variables: level of education; level of income
– Information collected from Census Bureau survey
– Conclusion: People with more schooling do earn more
money than others, although there are exceptions to the
pattern
Figure 2-4 Impact of a College Education on Income
Forty-one percent of people with a high school diploma or less earn under $25,000 per year, while
only 32 percent earn $40,000 or more. In contrast, only 20 percent of those with an associate’s
degree or higher earn less than $25,000, while 64 percent earn $40,000 or more.
Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt and Proctor. 2015: PINC-03. Only people with earnings included.
Photo: © Tom Grill/Corbis RF
Figure 2-2 Educational Level
and Household Income in the
United States
•
This macro-level study based on
census data found that in states
whose residents have a relatively
high level of education, household
income levels are high as well.
Causal Logic Figure 2-3
• In causal logic, an independent
variable (often designated by the
symbol x) influences a dependent
variable (often designated as y)
• Thus, x leads to y
• For example, parents who attend
church regularly (x) are more
likely to have children who are
churchgoers (y)
Independent
variable x
→
Level of
educational degree
→ Level of income
Degree of lack of
integration into
society
→
Likelihood of
suicide
Availability of
affordable housing
→
Level of
homelessness
Parents’ church
attendance
→
Children’s church
attendance
Time spent
preparing for quiz
→
Performance on
quiz
→
Likelihood of
children’s enrolling
in college
Parents’ income
Dependent
variable y
Major Research Designs
• Research design: detailed plan or method for
obtaining data scientifically
–
–
–
–
Surveys
Ethnography
Experiments
Existing sources
Surveys
• Survey: study, generally interview or questionnaire,
that provides sociologists with information about
how people think and act
– Interview: researcher obtains information through
face-to-face, phone, or online questioning
– Questionnaire: researcher uses a printed or written form
to obtain information from a respondent
– Example: Top Reasons Why Men and Women Had Sex
Table 2-1 Top Reasons Why Men and Women Had Sex
Source: Meston and Buss 2007:506.
Reason
Men Women
I was attracted to the person
1
1
It feels good
2
3
I wanted to experience the physical pleasure
3
2
It’s fun
4
8
I wanted to show my affection to the person
5
4
I was sexually aroused and wanted the release
6
6
I was “horny”
7
7
I wanted to express my love for the person
8
5
I wanted to achieve an orgasm
9
14
I wanted to please my partner
10
11
I realized I was in love
17
9
I was “in the heat of the moment”
13
10
Surveys (Continued)
Quantitative research: collects and reports data
primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field
and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small
groups and communities
Ethnography
• Ethnography: study of an entire social setting
through extended systematic fieldwork
• Observation: the basic technique of ethnography;
direct participation in closely watching a group or
organization
– Ethnographic research also includes collecting historical
information and conducting in-person interviews
– Participant observation: method in which sociologist joins
a group for a period to get an accurate sense of how it
operates
Experiments
• Experiment: artificially
created situation that
allows researcher to
manipulate variables
– Experimental group:
exposed to independent
variable
– Control group: not
exposed to independent
variable
– Hawthorne effect
(placebo effect):
unintended influence of
observers of
experiments on subjects
Use of Existing Sources
Secondary analysis: research
techniques that make use of
previously collected and
publicly accessible
information and data
Content analysis: systematic
coding and objective
recording of data, guided by
some rationale
Table 2-2 Existing Sources Used In Sociological Research
SOURCE: Developed by the Richard T. Schaefer.
Most Frequently Used Sources
Other Sources
•
•
•
•
•
•
Census data
Crime statistics
Birth, death, marriage, divorce,
and health statistics
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Newspapers and periodicals
Personal journals, diaries, e-mail, and letters
Records and archival material of religious
organizations, corporations, and other
organizations
Transcripts of radio programs
Motion pictures and television programs
Web pages, blogs, and chat rooms
Song lyrics
Scientific records (such as patent applications)
Speeches of public figures (such as politicians)
Votes cast in elections or by elected officials on
specific legislative proposals
Attendance records for public events
Videos of social protests and rallies
Literature, including folklore
Table 2-3 Major Research Designs
SOURCE: Developed by the Richard T. Schaefer.
Existing sources/
Secondary analysis
Survey
Ethnography
Experiment
Advantage: Yields
information about
specific issues
Advantage: Yields
detailed information
about specific groups or
organizations
Advantage: Yields
direct measures of
people’s behavior
Advantage:
Cost-efficient
Limitation: Can be
expensive and timeconsuming
Limitation: Involves
months if not years of
labor-intensive data
Limitations: Ethical
limitations on the
degree to which
subjects’ behavior can
be manipulated
Limitation: Limited to
data collected for
some other purpose
Examples:
questionnaires,
interviews
Example: observation
Example: deliberate
manipulation of
people’s social
behavior
Example: analysis of
census or health data
Stanford Prison Experiment
• Prison Experiment
Ethics of Research
• Code of ethics: standards of acceptable behavior
developed by and for members of a profession
• ASA’s Code of Ethics (1997)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent when data are collected from research
participants or when behavior occurs in a private context
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance
7. Disclose all sources of financial support (1999)
Confidentiality
• Rik Scarce: doctoral candidate in sociology, jailed for
refusing to divulge what he knew about a 1991 raid
on a university lab by animal rights activists
Conflict of Interest
• Money given in support of basic research can come
with strings attached
• Example: Exxon Corporation’s support for research
on jury verdicts
Value Neutrality
• Value neutrality: Max Weber’s term for objectivity of
sociologists in the interpretation of data
• Investigators have ethical obligation to accept
research findings even when data run counter to
their personal views, to theoretically-based
explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs
Feminist Methodology
• Feminist perspective has had a great impact on current
generation of researchers
–
–
–
–
–
See work and family as closely integrated
Recently interested in victimization and self-injury
Impact on global research
Tend to involve and consult subjects more
More oriented toward social change, public consciousness, and
influencing policy
– More open to multidisciplinary approach
Queer Theory and Methodology
• Queer theorists challenge the sexual
orientation generalizations inherent to much
research
– “Veiled reporting” technique may result in
underreporting of gays and lesbians in research
due to wording of survey or interview questions
and the manner in which they are asked
Research Today
• 2-2 Visual Sociology
– Consider images from reality TV or social media from a
sociological perspective. What can you learn from them?
What sociological concepts can you relate to them?
– Might some images be misinterpreted by researchers?
How might scholars guard against such misinterpretation?
Figure 2-6 Women More Sexualized than Men in Top Films
A content analysis of the characters in top box-office films of 2014 showed that women are much
more likely than men to be shown in sexy attire, with some degree of nudity, or specifically referred to
as "attractive." Note: Data based on analysis of 4,100 speaking or named characters in the topgrossing films released in 2014.
Source: Smith et al. 2015.
Which of the following terms is used to
describe a systematic, organized series of
steps that ensures maximum objectivity
and consistency in researching a
problem?
A. scientific method
B. social science
C. Experiment
D. Value Neutrality
The use of photographic or video
documentation in sociological study
is known as…
A.
B.
C.
D.
Iconography
Visual Sociology
Secondary Sociology
Image Analysis
Researchers find that pet owners live
longer, healthier lives. Within this
study pet ownership is the…
A. independent variable
B. Dependent variable
C. Spurious variable
D. Operational Variable