Reference Material and Handouts for Tactical Science Course1
(Titles of courses are hyperlinked to the slide presentations, titles of articles are
hyperlinked to the supporting handout material)
Tactics, Science or Art?—Are tactics and strategy an art or a science? If they are an art, then
the qualities needed for success will be naturally endowed. If, however, they are science, then
there are principles that can be learned and applied. Depending on how this question is
answered will determine to a large extent everything from how to prepare and train for tactical
operations to the selection of commanders.
Handouts: (For student handout Tactics, Science or Art? click here)
• A Lesson in Tactical Science—This article describes the importance of understanding the
fundamental doctrinal principles for planning and decision making for tactical operations
and why tactical commanders need to thoroughly understand the consequences of
ignorance.
• A Sharp Mind is the Warrior’s Edge—article describing the importance of tactical science
and why the study of it should be required for tactical commanders.
• Convergence: The Blurring of Crime and War—article by Dr. John Alexander, retired
Colonel from U.S. Army Special Forces comparing crime and war. The article is
especially useful in understanding the commonalities, including the science, in the war on
crime and the war on terrorism.
• The Turnaround! This monograph is a true story, written by a businessman for other
business people of an actual incident in which tactical principles were effectively applied to
resolve a business crisis. In particular, this interesting narrative demonstrates the value of
scientific concepts and the advantage of understanding the underlying factors and
influences in a setting other than tactical operations and/or disaster responses.
Nature of Crises—This class describes the differences between a crisis and a conflict and
identifies the five characteristics present in every crisis. It defines commonly
misunderstood concepts, such as command, control and management. It provides a
fundamental understanding of factors and influences such as friction, fog, risk, uncertainty,
tempo and the human element. A strong emphasis is placed on the impact these factors
have on the successful resolution of conflicts.
Handouts: (For student handout Nature of Crises click here)
• Characteristics of Crises and Conflicts—describes the five characteristics inherent in every
crises and the definition of both a crisis and a conflict.
• Emerging Multi-Organizational Networks (EMONS)—describes the evolution of
emergency response organization and identifies the six factors inherent in every EMON.
• Priority of Life—because conflicts involve and opposing adversary who must be defeated
or thwarted to succeed, it is sometimes necessary to kill them. This article is a discussion
of the intrinsic value of human life and the advantages of thinking things through before a
life or death decision must be made.
• Splitting an EMON—describes how to locate the natural “seams” in a response
organization to enable effective and efficient divisions of labor.
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Current as of July 3, 2012
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Nine Principles of War—Nine tried and true principles have withstood the test of time and
provide insight and understanding of the influences inherent in tactical operations, regardless
of whether they manifest themselves as civil disturbances, earthquakes, fires, floods,
barricaded suspects or hostage situations. A commander who understands them gains
confidence and ability in the acquisition of assets, deployment of personnel, distribution of
power, formulation of plans, and their effective implementation.
Handouts: (For student handout Nine Principles of war click here)
• Diversions—identifies the two types of diversions and the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
• Force Multipliers—describes the advantages and provides examples of force
multipliers.
• Nine Principles of War—provides a brief description of the history and evolution of the
nine principles of war as well as defining and illustrating each of them.
• Principles of War: The Apocrypha—There is nothing sacred about the nine principles of
war; they are just those that have withstood the tests of time and trial. In fact, a number of
other principles have been proposed, and although not as well-known or accepted, they
nevertheless have strong influences and value for understanding. This article describes
some of the better known.
Strategy and Tactics—This class begins broadly by describing the differences between
strategy, tactics and techniques and their mutually supporting roles. It describes the two types
of strategies, as well as key factors such as force multipliers, threats and dilemmas. It
concludes with descriptions and illustrations of the “hammer and anvil,” “envelopment” and
“pincer,” three of the oldest tactics in history that remain viable and are in common use in law
enforcement operations today. By understanding the underlying principles which make them
effective, commanders will be better able to adapt them to particular circumstances.
Handouts: (For student handout Strategy and Tactics click here)
• Expressed and Implied Threats—Describes the two different types of threats and their
advantages and disadvantages in conflicts.
• Diversions—identifies the two types of diversions and the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
• Force Multipliers—describes the advantages and provides examples of force
multipliers.
• Strategies, Tactics and Techniques—describes the differences between strategies,
tactics and techniques and how they relate to one another in accomplishing tactical
objectives.
• Swarming Tactics—describes how swarming tactics work, their unique challenges and
compares them with the more conventional tactics, to include their advantages and
disadvantages.
• Symmetric and Asymmetric Strategies—Describes the two primary types of strategies
and how they apply in tactical operations.
• Tactical Dilemma—Describes the two principle methods for creating and
exploiting a tactical dilemma.
• The Tactical Trio—A brief overview of the three most common tactics used in law
enforcement comparing their advantages and disadvantages.
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Maneuvering in Time—The importance of time in the planning and execution of tactical
operations cannot be overstated. This class provides information on critical factors for
maneuvering in time, such as initiative, tempo and density. Boyd’s cycle is defined and
its role in maneuvering in time is described.
Handouts: (For student Maneuvering in Time click here)
• How to Accurately and Persuasively Explain the Use of Force—The use of the OODA loop
in understanding and explaining the use of force.
• Junctures and Leverage Points—Identifies the natural seams in a plan as well as the
opportunities for success or failure they provide.
• Maneuvering in Time—Describes the importance of time in tactical operations and the
three principle elements of maneuver.
• OODA Loop or Boyd’s Cycle—The importance of the measurement tool as an
estimation of operational tempo with a description of each component.
• Task Saturation—Describes a psychological condition making people
susceptible to ignoring critical cues during times of stress.
• Tempo and Initiative—Two fundamental factors for maneuvering in time and how they
interrelate.
• The OBE Condition—Describes what happens to the human decision making process
when there is more going on than can handled by a single person.
Terrain Analysis—This block of training enables students to recognize key terrain and the
impact it will play on the successful resolution of tactical and disaster relief operations.
Describes the use of a terrain analysis to predict the impact of terrain on the movement of
suspects, fires, floods and the determination of evacuation routes. It provides a five step
procedure for determining key terrain and describes each of the types in sufficient detail to
enable even the novice to recognize the impact the terrain will have on the operation and
incorporate its anticipated effect into a plan
Handouts: (For student handout Terrain Analysis click here)
• Coup d’oeil Concept—Defines and describes the concept of the “vision behind the eye,”
or more simply an experts ability to “see” behind walls, over a hill or into the future.
• Micro-terrain vs. Prominent Terrain—Describes the importance of terrain features too
small to be depicted on a map and their impact on tactical operations.
• Sectors of Fire vs. Fields of Fire—Defines the differences between two often confused
terms and explains their importance.
• Terrain Analysis—Identifies the time tested five step process for conducting a terrain
analysis and the implications and importance for planning.
• Terrain Appreciation—Describes the process used to gain insight in how terrain will affect
a tactical operation.
Envisioning and Achieving the End State—This class provides the means for a commander
to identify and define the manageable future (end state), as well as the tools necessary to
achieve it. Concepts such as constraints, restraints, preconditions, rules of engagement, OBE,
tempo, initiative, critical vulnerability and centers of gravity are discussed in detail. Essential
tasks, such as mission analysis, situation analysis, requests for information, mission type
orders and their impact are described. The essential and interactive relationships between the
operations and intelligence functions in envisioning and achieving the End State are discussed.
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Handouts: (For student handout Envisioning and Achieving the End State click here)
• Centers of Gravity and Critical Vulnerabilities—Provides information for identifying
factors that can be influenced to attain a satisfactory resolution.
• Centers of Gravity—A clear and cogent article on determining centers of gravity and
critical vulnerabilities. Although written from a military perspective, the article is so
clear that the reader will have no difficulty extrapolating the concepts to law
enforcement applications.
• Fog and Friction—Defines and describes two inherent influences in every crises.
• OpFor Gaming—Describes how rehearsals and gaming can be used to test plans and
assumptions.
• The Manageable Future: Envisioning the End State—Discuses the critical importance of
envisioning and attaining an end state and provides a methodology for indentifying it.
Gathering and Using Intelligence—Intelligence is often referred to as the “cornerstone” for
effective tactical decisions. This class describes the difference between information and
intelligence and the six requirements to identify and utilize good intelligence. The intelligence
axiom and the intelligence paradox are explained, as well the strategies of active and passive
intelligence gathering. A four-step intelligence process is described and how it is used to build
an effective intelligence collection plan. The class concludes with a tried and true six-step
method of intelligence reporting and a three-part after action report.
Handouts: (For student handout Gathering and Using Intelligence click here)
• Debriefings and After Action Reviews—Describes the differences between debriefings
and after action reviews as well as the IDR format used by the military to document
lessons learned.
• Failure Analysis—Describes the differences between proximate cause and root cause as
well as describing the most common reasons tactical missions fail.
• Gathering and Disseminating Intelligence—Describes passive and active approaches for
gathering intelligence and “push-pull” methods for disseminating it.
• Information vs. Intelligence—Defines the differences between information and
intelligence.
• Intelligence Paradox and Intelligence Axiom—Describes and defines two little know
characteristics of the intelligence function and their impact on reliable intelligence.
• Intelligence-EEIs, OIRs and Assumptions—Identifies the three fundamental types of
intelligence and explains their relationships.
• Intelligence—Provides and overall view of the process and the product as well as the
process for transforming information into intelligence.
• SALUTE Reports—Describes the five step format for gathering, reporting and storing
field observations.
• Trends, Potentials, Capabilities and Intentions—Defines the four fundamental factors for
incorporating intelligence into planning and decision making.
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Logistics—The logistics function is a critical role in any tactical organization but especially
those that are prolonged, complex, multi-disciplinary and/or multi- jurisdictional. It provides
the service and support necessary to conduct operations. The most scientific of any of the
four functions involved in tactical operations, this class describes the procurement,
distribution and recovery of critical assets and resources, as well as the inherent
responsibility for sustainment.
Handouts: (For student handout Logistics click here)
• Logistics—Describes the functions necessary for an effective logistical operation.
Operations—Of the four functions comprising any tactical organization, the operations
component is the most visible. This class provides a time honored method for conducting an
operational analysis, the differences between a unified and joint command, and compares
concepts such as command, control and management. It describes the various types of support
and defines the four types of orders. It concludes with a method of analyzing the
“battlespace.”
Handouts: (For student handout Operations click here)
• Command and Control—Describes the roles of the command and control function
and their importance in coordination and collaboration of tactical operations.
• Command vs. Control—Identifies the fundamental differences between the two most
often confused terms involved in all organizations. Provides a test to quickly determine
the difference.
• Command Relationships—Describes the formal and informal supervisorial relationships
during tactical operations and when organizations are augmented with specialists and/or
reinforcements.
• Decision Points and Trip Wires—These are two techniques for allowing a commander to
maintain control of an organization without becoming involved in minutia.
• Force Continuum—A description of the two underpinning philosophies of force
continuums and how a force continuum is used for planning and decision making.
• Four Types of Orders—Identifies the four types of orders and how they are used to control
tactical organizations.
• Insubordination vs. Command Responsibility—describes the three justifications for
insubordination in domestic law enforcement applications and compares them with the
responsibilities of command for the conduct of subordinates.
• Junctures and Leverage Points—Identifies the natural seams in a plan as well as the
opportunities for success or failure they provide.
• Operational Analysis (METT-T)—Provides the first step in gaining true situational
awareness for translating operational requirements into tactical guidance for
planning implementation.
• Operations—Describes a five step method for an operational analysis and the
importance of the operations function in implementing a plan.
• Perspectives on Planning—This article appeared in the Marine Corps Gazette under the
“Issues and Ideas” section. It was written by a Marine Corps Colonel who describes the
importance of commander’s intent and how it impacts both the process and the plans that
are based on it. It is particularly poignant in that it describes what works in military
environments and why. The lessons are easily extrapolated to law enforcement
applications.
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Phases of Hostage Recovery Operations—this article does not discuss operations as a
whole but serves as an example of the benefits of breaking complex operations into
“bite-sized” chunks, usually called phases.
Principles of Communications—Describes the four fundamental principles for
communications and the role communications plays in command and control.
Reinforcements—Identifies the two predominant command and control issues involved
in augmenting deployed personnel.
The Planning Process—One of the most interesting aspects of operational planning is that
the process is more important than the product. This class begins with the advantages and
disadvantages of individual and collective planning, and how the
planning process works to focus the efforts of units and individuals to achieve the desired end
state. It provides information on such aspects as the difference between analysis and synthesis,
centers of gravity, critical vulnerabilities, deconfliction, mission analysis, constraints and
restraints, branches and sequels, couplings, and others.
Handouts: (For student handout The Planning Process click here)
• Branches, Sequels, and Couplings—Provides answers to unfolding
circumstances regarding “what next?” and “what if?”
• Centers of Gravity and Critical Vulnerabilities—Provides information for identifying
factors that can be influenced to attain a satisfactory resolution.
• Command and Control Architecture—Indentifies and describes the eight essential
functions inherent in every tactical response organization.
• Command and Control—Describes the roles of the command and control function
and their importance in coordination and collaboration of tactical operations.
• Command vs. Control—Identifies the fundamental differences between the two most
often confused terms involved in all organizations. Provides a test to quickly determine
the difference.
• Commander’s Intent: The Seed of Haitian Success—Although this article was written for
the military it provides the clearest example of the importance and purpose of
commander’s intent we’ve found. In particular, the author provides an example of
precisely what commander’s intent looks like.
• Commander’s Intent-Tactical Edge—This article appeared in the professional journal for
the National Tactical Officer’s Association, the Tactical Edge. The article provides an
overview of the concept of commander’s intent and provides additional information on
follow on actions and other concepts.
• Constraints and Restraints—Two useful tools to indentify and clearly convey the limits
imposed by plans and commanders.
• Decision Points and Trip Wires—These are two techniques for allowing a commander to
maintain control of an organization without becoming involved in minutia.
• Expressed and Implied Threats—Describes the two different types of threats and their
advantages and disadvantages in conflicts.
• Focus of Effort and Main Effort—Provides methods for a commander to distribute
authority by identifying what is most important and who is responsible for accomplishing
it.
• Mission Tasking—Highlights the importance of the intent accompanying the task and
provides information on the two types of tasks.
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Napoleonic Staff—Identifies the functions that comprise the essential core of a
command and control staff to support planning and decision making.
Reinforcements—Identifies the two predominant command and control issues involved
in augmenting deployed personnel.
Rules of Engagement—Describes a methodology for setting forth the conditions under
which personnel may initiate or continue actions against adversaries.
Situational Awareness and a Common Operational Picture—Describes the importance
of a person’s knowledge and understanding of circumstances surrounding a tactical
operation or emergency response and the importance of sharing a common operational
picture.
SOPs and MOUs—Provides an overview of two important documents to reduce
complexity and increase efficiency in planning tactical responses.
Plans—The plan may be considered a “blueprint” for tactical operations. This class provides
information on the three methods for implementing a plan, the three types of plans and the
five component parts of every plan. Control measures, such as decision points, trip wires,
rules of engagement are defined and described to enable a commander to maintain control of
an operation without having to unduly supervise every aspect.
Handouts: (For student handout Plans click here)
• Components of a Tactical Plan—Describes the five component parts of every tactical plan
and the importance of a standard format for planning and briefing to ensure clarity.
• Decision Points and Trip Wires—These are two techniques for allowing a commander to
maintain control of an organization without becoming involved in minutia.
• Four Types of Orders—Identifies the four types of orders and how they are used to control
tactical organizations.
• Junctures and Leverage Points—Identifies the natural seams in a plan as well as the
opportunities for success or failure they provide.
• Logistics—Describes the functions necessary for an effective logistical operation.
• Phases of Hostage Recovery Operations—this article does not discuss plans as a whole
but serves as an example of the benefits of breaking complex operations into “bite-sized”
chunks, usually called phases.
• Rules of Engagement—Describes a methodology for setting forth the conditions under
which personnel may initiate or continue actions against adversaries.
• Three Types of Tactical Plans—Identifies the three types of tactical plans and their uses.
Fighting in Five Dimensions—One of the most overlooked dimensions in modern tactical
operations, especially in the war on terrorism, is cyberspace. Nevertheless, what most people
think of as involving only such “white collar” such as computer fraud and money laundering,
cyberspace has a tremendous impact on the physical realm. This class provides information on
the differences between humanspace and cyberspace and how they interact, the human
dimensional barrier, maneuvering in cyberspace, and five critical but often overlooked
implications necessary to dominate this dimension in tactical operations.
Handouts: (For student handout Fighting in Five Dimensions click here)
• Advanced Battlespace and Cybermaneuver Concepts: Implications for Force XXI—Written
by one of the world’s experts on five-dimensional battlespace, this article was originally
published in Parameters, a military magazine with a strategic focus. The author argues that
the traditional perception of the battlefield reveals some limiting assumptions. He points
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out that to be na effective force in the modern era new operational concepts need to evolve
and the doctrine and materiel requirements will need to adapt to the new understanding.
Air Combat, the Mesh, and the Cloud—although this article is focused on air combat it is an
exceptional clear description with the ramifications of five-dimensional battlespace with
information stored in a “cloud” and pushed as a “mesh.”
Fighting in the Fifth Dimension—identifies the five dimensions involved in modern
battlespace, the characteristics that distinguish them, the maneuver objectives and the
tactical imperative of not ignoring any of them.
Five-Dimensional Battlespace—a short article on fighting in all five dimensions and
explains what makes each dimension unique, to include the maneuver elements and
tactical objectives.
Maneuvering in Time—describes the importance of time in tactical operations and the
three principle elements of maneuver.
Postcard from Mumbai: Modern Urban Siege—Detailed article describing how the
Mumbai terrorists exploited cyberspace to plan, control and coordinate the attacks as
well as communicate during them. The article is especially valuable in providing a
glimpse of the future implications.
Terrain Analysis—Identifies the time tested five step process for conducting a terrain
analysis and the implications and importance for planning.
YouTube War: Fighting in a World of Cameras in Every Cell Phone and Photoshop on
Every Computer—published by the Strategic Studies Institute, this is a comprehensive
examination of the consequences of fighting when everyone has a capability of
capturing photographic evidence and altering it before publishing it to the world.
Crisis Decision Making—Human decision making is not an entirely rational process. The
“scientific method” employing discrete steps, algorithms and formulas ignore this fundamental
and intrinsic factor. More has been learned about how people actually think in the last 20
years than in all previous history. By using a series of intuitive exercises, students will gain an
appreciation and understanding of how the human brain actually works under stress, as well as
methods to methods to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of making tactical decisions
by “programming” the brain with “software.”
Handouts: (For student handout Crisis Decision Making click here)
• Adaptive Decision-Making—A short article describing the mental process of effectively
reacting to a change in a situation.
• A Survey of the Research on Human Factors Related to Lethal Force Encounters:
Implications for law enforcement training, tactics and testimony—A scholarly discussion
of the human thought process as it applies to tactics, training and testimony.
• Coup d’oeil Concept—Defines and describes the concept of the “vision behind the eye,”
or more simply an experts ability to “see” behind walls, over a hill or into the future.
• Crisis Decision Making Under Stress—A short but comprehensive articles on crisis
decision making to include a discussion of Boyd’s Cycle and the effects of time.
• Decision Making Under Pressure—This article is written by a medical doctor who has
done extensive research in human decision making. It identifies five pitfalls common in
all critical decision making and summarizes each with a key lesson.
• Fog and Friction—Defines and describes two inherent influences in every crises.
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Good Decisions—This article provides tips and strategies for avoiding psychological traps
when making decisions. The author talks about the impacts of how a decision is framed, the
effects of selective perception, information overload, emotions and other critical factors.
Intuitive Policing: Emotional/Rational Decision Making in Law Enforcement—This is
a research article focused specifically on decision making by police officers. It is an
easy to read and understand scientific paper on the nuances involved in making
decisions in law enforcement situations.
Reactions vs. Decisions—Describes the differences between reactions and decisions
and their impact on decision making during times of high stress.
Task Saturation—Describes a psychological condition making people
susceptible to ignoring critical cues during times of stress.
The Expert Mind—A scholarly article on the mental processes of experts and some of
the methods and techniques they use to excel.
The Neuroscience of Leadership—Describes the physiological and organizational
factors and influences on leading a complex organization.
The OBE Condition—Describes what happens to the human decision making process
when there is more going on than can handled by a single person.
The Speed of the Game: Your Brain on Policing—Describes the physiological aspects
of the brain when confronting situations common to law enforcement. Explains the
importance of training and its impact on decision making.
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