Assessment Techniques &
the Clinical Setting
Jarvis
Chapter 8
Learning Outcomes
1. Demonstrate the use of inspection, palpation, percussion, and
auscultation during a physical examination.
2. Discuss appropriate infection control measures used to prevent
spread of infection.
3. Know key terms.
Key Terms

Auscultation

Standard precautions

Bell

Stethoscope

Diaphragm

Transmission-based precautions

Doppler

Inspection

Nosocomial infection

Ophthalmoscope

Otoscope

Palpation

Percussion
Skills for Physical Examination

Inspection: what you see. Observe your patient in a
systematic, deliberate manner.





Always comes first.
Starts with the general survey.
Need good lighting & adequate exposure of patient.
Assess for symmetry between right & left sides of the body.
May need certain instruments:
 Otoscope: shines light into the ear canal & on to the
tympanic membrane
 Ophthalmoscope: illuminates the internal eye structures.
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)

Palpation: what you feel with your fingertips & hands (e.g.,
temperature, moisture, swelling, pulsation, rigidity, crepitation,
presence of lumps, presence of pain or tenderness).




Use dorsa (back) of hands & fingers to assess skin temperature (skin
is thinner than on palms)
Use finger tips to assess skin texture, swelling, pulsation, presence
of lumps
Identify tender areas, palpate these areas last
Start with light palpation to, progress to deep palpation if necessary
for organs or mass deeper within a body cavity (e.g., lower abdominal
area)
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)

Percussion: tapping the patient’s skin with short, sharp strokes to
assess underlying structures. Used most frequently to assess the
thorax & abdomen.

Direct percussion: striking hand contacts the body (e.g., tapping the
patient’s sinus areas)

Indirect percussion: most often used – striking hand contacts the
stationary hand fixed on the patient’s skin (e.g., tapping the flank area
to assess for kidney pain/tenderness)
Skills for Physical Examination (cont’d)
 Auscultation: listening to sounds produced by the body
(speech, difficult breathing, coughing) and by using a
stethoscope (heart, lungs, blood vessels, abdomen)
 Stethoscope: need quiet room; listen for the presence or
absence of a sound & the quality of sound heard.
 Bell: best for soft, low-pitched sounds (e.g., heart
murmurs). Hold lightly against the skin.
 Diaphragm: used most often; best for high-pitched sounds
(e.g., respirations, bowel, normal heart sounds). Hold
firmly against the skin.
Auscultation (cont’d)
 Clean bell &/or diaphragm with alcohol between
patients to avoid spreading germs.
 Warm, quiet room.
 Never listen through a gown – reach under the gown
with your stethoscope to listen.
 Once you know what normal sounds the body makes,
you will then be able to identify abnormal sounds.
Infection Control Measures
 Have a “clean” area for unused equipment & a
“used/dirty” area for equipment after using it.
 #1 WASH YOUR HANDS FOR 10-15 SEC
 Before & after physical contact with each patient
 In the patient’s presence
 After contact with body fluids (e.g., blood, wound drainage, saliva,
urine, stools). Wear gloves when potential exists for contact with
body fluids.
 After touching equipment contaminated with body fluids.
 After removing gloves.
Standard Precautions
 CDC establishes guidelines for decreasing transmission of
bloodborne & other infections in the hospitals.
 Standard Precautions (Table 8.2, p. 121)
 Used with ALL patients regardless of their risk or infection
status.
 Designed to reduce the risk of transmission of germs from both
known & unknown sources
 Apply to: (1) blood; (2) all body fluids, secretions, & excretions
(except sweat); (3) nonintact skin; & (4) mucous membranes.
Transmission-Based Precautions
 Used for patients with proven or suspected
transmissible infections.
 Used in addition to Standard Precautions to stop
transmission in hospitals
 3 types: (may be used alone or in combination)
 Airborne (e.g., TB)
 Droplet (e.g., pneumonia)
 Contact (e.g., Herpes zoster lesions)
General Approach to PE
 Start with nonthreatening actions (ht, wt, vital signs)
 Use a head-to-toe approach
 Explain each step & how the patient can help
 Encourage the patient to ask questions
 Arrange sequence of physical examination to allow as few position
changes as possible.
 Allow rest periods if needed.
 When finished, ensure that patient is comfortable, bed is in low
position, side rails are up, and call bell is within reach.
 For patients in distress, focus on the body areas appropriate to the
problem, collecting a mini-data base.
13
General Survey,
Measurement,
Vital Signs
Jarvis
Chapter 9

Learning Outcomes
1.
Discuss the 4 areas of a general survey and changes
in the aging adult.
2. Assess height, weight and BMI of an adult client and
document.
3. Assess and interpret vital signs and oxygen saturation of an
adult client and document.
4. Relate factors, risk factors, and lifestyle modifications that
affect blood pressure.
5. Discuss key terms.
Key Terms

Eupnea

Apnea

Bradypnea

Tachypnea

Cheyne-Stokes

Bradycardia

Tachycardia

Rate & rhythm

Pulse pressure

Stroke volume

Mean arterial pressure (MAP)

Systolic pressure

Diastolic pressure

Hypothermia

Hyperthermia

Sinus rhythm

Sinus arrhythmia

Hypertension

Orthostatic hypotension

Cardiac output
General Survey
 Objective data of physical characteristics & overall
impression of the client with first encounter
 4 areas of the general survey include:
 Physical appearance: age, sex, LOC, skin color, facial features &
symmetry, any distress
 Body structure: stature (height), nutrition, symmetry, posture,
position, body build, contour
 Mobility: Gait, range of motion, involuntary movement
 Behavior: Facial expression, mood & affect, speech, dress,
personal hygiene
Measurement
 Height
 Weight
 BMI = weight (kg)/height (m)2
OR
weight (lbs)/height (in) x 703
Vital Signs
 Temperature
 Pulse
 Respirations
 Blood pressure
Temperature
 Regulated by hypothalamus
 Stable temperature required for cellular metabolism
 Oral mean temp: 98.6° F (37° C)
 Oral normal range: 96.4° F-99.1° F
35.8° C-37.3° C
 Rectal temp: 1° F higher (0.4°-0.5° C higher)
 Axial temp:
1° F lower (0.4°-0.5° C lower)
 Lower in older adults: mean 97.2° F (36.2° C)
Temperature (cont’d)
 Oral
temp: place thermometer at base of tongue
in sublinguinal pockets; tell client to keep lips
closed
 Axillary temp: safe & accurate for infants &
young children; clients who cannot close mouth
 Rectal temp: use for comatose or confused
patients when other routes are not practical –
wear gloves & insert lubricated rectal probe
about 1 inch (2-3cm) into the rectum
 Tympanic membrane thermometer: senses
body’s core temperature in the eardrum – safe,
noninvasive, nontraumatic, quick, with minimal
chance of cross-contamination between patients
Pulse Rate & Rhythm

Stroke volume (SV): amount of blood the left ventricle pumps into the aorta
with each beat – average 70 mL

Pulse: pressure wave generated by each heart beat – rate & rhythm can be
palpated in radial artery

If rhythm is regular, count # of beats starting with 0 for 30 sec. & multiply
by 2 = heart rate

If rhythm is irregular (arrhythmia), count # of beats for 60 sec. to determine
heart rate

Normal range: 50-90

Bradycardia: <50 bpm

Tachycardia: >90 bpm
Pulse Force & Elasticity
 Stroke volume (SV) x Rate (R) = Cardiac output (CO) – amount of
blood ejected every minute by the left ventricle into the aorta
 Force of heart’s SV is measured by 3-point scale with peripheral
pulses:




3+ = full, bounding
2+ = normal
1+ = weak, thready
0 = absent
 Elasticity: condition of the artery – normally feels springy,
resilient
Respirations

Normally regular & automatic

Normal range: 10-20 per minute

Count respirations discretely for 30 sec. if normal, 60 sec. if patient has breathing
problems

Ratio of pulse to respirations: 4:1
Blood Pressure (BP)

Force of the blood ejected from left ventricle into the aorta -- normal range
90/60-120/80

Systolic BP: maximum pressure felt on the artery when the left ventricle is
contracting (systole)

Diastolic BP: resting pressure that the blood exerts constantly between
each contraction (diastole)

Pulse pressure: difference between systolic & diastolic BPs

Mean arterial pressure (MAP): average pressure reached inside the
arteries; usually ranges between 77-97 mmHg. Calculate: (DP x 2) + SP /
3
5 Factors Determining BP
 Cardiac output (C): increased CO = higher BP; decreased CO
= lower BP
 Peripheral vascular resistance: vasoconstriction = smaller
arteries & more resistance = higher BP; vasodilatation = larger
arteries & less resistance = lower BP
 Circulating blood volume: increased blood volume (AKA fluid
overload or hypervolemia) = higher BP; decreased blood volume
(AKA fluid deficit, hypovolemia, dehydration) = lower BP
5 Factors Determining BP (cont’d)
 Viscosity: thickness of blood (usually related to % of
RBCs or hematocrit (HCT)) – thick blood = higher BP
 Elasticity of blood vessel walls: stiff, noncompliant walls
(e.g., arteriosclerosis) = increased resistance = higher BP
Assessment of BP

Measured with stethoscope & sphygmomanometer (BP cuff)

Width of cuff should equal 40% of circumference of arm; length should
equal 80% of circumference

Cuff too narrow = falsely high BP

Cuff too large = falsely low BP

Allow 5 minutes to rest before assessing BP

For complete physical exam, assess BP in both arms

If 2 BP values are different, use the higher value

Use bell or diaphragm of stethoscope to assess BP
Assessing for Orthostatic (Postural)
Hypotension
 Drop in systolic BP of >20 mmHg or increased pulse of >20 bpm
when changing from a lying or sitting position to standing position
 Causes: peripheral vasodilatation w/o compensatory increased
CO, prolonged bedrest, older age, hypovolemia, drugs to treat
hypertension
 Suspect with c/o dizziness on standing or fainting (syncope) –
patients are at risk for falls
 Assess BP & pulse in lying, sitting, & standing positions – record
BP using even numbers
General Survey, Measurement, & Vital Signs
in the Aging Adult

General survey: sharper body contour, flexion of the spine, wider stance,
shorter steps

Measurement: decreased body wt d/t shrinking of muscles & loss of
subcutaneous fat; fat is redistributed to abdomen & hips; height decreases
d/t shortening of spinal column; kyphosis & flexion in hips & knees

Vital signs: less likely to have fever; higher risk for hypothermia d/t loss of
fat; pulse rate WNL, but may be irregular; rigid arterial walls d/t
arteriosclerosis; decreased in vital capacity & more shallow respirations with
increased respiratory rate; systolic BP increases but diastolic BP usually does
not – leads to increased pulse pressure
Measurement of Oxygen Saturation
 Pulse Oximeter: measures arterial oxygen saturation –
amount of oxygen binding to hemoglobin molecules
 Normal range: 95%-100%
Using a Doppler
 Doppler ultrasound: used to detect blood flow through
peripheral arteries
 Used to detect sounds (BP) or peripheral pulses that are
hard to hear or feel
Primary (Essential) Hypertension

High BP (>120/80) d/t unknown causes

95% of HTN (hypertension) cases is primary HTN

Prehypertension: 120-139/80-89

Stage 1 hypertension: 140-159/90-99

Stage 2 hypertension: >160/100
Risk Factors for HTN

Smoking

High cholesterol, high triglycerides

Diabetes mellitus

Age >60 years

Black adult & postmenopausal women

Family history of CV (cardiovascular) disease

Obesity

Stress

Strong emotions – fear, anger, pain which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system
Lifestyle Modifications for HTN Prevention
& Management
 Stop smoking
 Lose weight
 Limit alcohol (ETOH) intake
 Increase physical activity
 Reduce sodium (salt) intake
 Maintain adequate potassium (K), calcium (Ca) & magnesium
(Mg) intake
 Reduce intake of saturated fat & cholesterol