Chapter 6
Deviance and Social Control:
Sickos, Perverts, Freaks, and
Folks like Us
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of
SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
What is Deviance?
Deviance: the violation of social norms
Characteristics of deviance
Deviance is socially constructed
Acts may be deviant in one time and place but not
in others
A group or status may be defined as deviant
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Misconceptions About Deviance
Belief: Some acts are inherently deviant
Fact: Deviance is relative to time, place, & status
Belief: Those who deviate are socially recognized
Fact: Much deviance goes unrecognized
Belief: Deviants break the law purposefully
Fact: Deviance is often driven by emotion,
disagreements, or situational conditions
Belief: Deviance occurs due to human dishonesty
and selfishness
Fact: People do not attribute their deviance to
dishonesty or other negative traits
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime: Deviance that Violates the Law
Crime: deviance that violates laws and is
punished with formal penalties
Law: a type of norm that reflects opinions
about what is considered right and wrong in a
particular society
Consensus crimes: members of society agree
about the seriousness of the deviant acts
Conflict crimes: members of society disagree
about the seriousness of the acts, and/or the
law disadvantages a particular group
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Micro-Level Explanations of Deviance:
Rational Choice Theories: focus on
individual choices, costs, and benefits
Interactionist Theories: focus on
relationships and meanings
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Rational Choice Theories of Deviance
Individuals make choices about deviance based
on costs and benefits to themselves
Positive sanctions: rewards (benefits) for socially
approved behaviors
Negative sanctions: punishments (costs) for
breaking social norms
Social control occurs when costs of deviance
are higher than benefits
Punishment should impose high costs for
criminal behavior, as a deterrent
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Rational Choice Theories:
Social Control Theory
Bonds encourage us to adhere to norms
People are bonded to society in 4 ways
Attachment to others
2. Commitment to conventional activities
3. Involvement in activities that keep them busy
4. Belief in the social rules of their culture
1.
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Rational Choice Theories:
Social Control Theory, cont.
To follow norms, we conform to:
Internal controls: voices within that tell us when a
behavior is acceptable or unacceptable
External controls: society’s formal or informal
controls against deviant behavior
Social control occurs when we derive more
benefit from conformity than deviance
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic Interactionist Theories of Deviance
Focus on how others shape one’s definition of
what is normal and acceptable
Examine how society defines some acts as
deviant
Examine deviance-related symbols and how they
affect the self
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic Interactionist Theories:
Differential Association (or Reinforcement) Theory
Focuses on how we learn deviant and criminal
behavior from others
By associating with others who engage in crime
and have criminal values,
We learn how to commit crimes
Criminal behavior is reinforced
Possibility of becoming deviant depends on
duration, intensity, priority, and frequency of
time spent with deviant others
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic Interactionist Theories:
Labeling Theory
Individuals and behavior become deviant because they
are labeled as such
Societies define behaviors as deviant and impose sanctions
Primary (isolated) deviance—actors are not labeled deviant
Secondary (ongoing) deviance—actors are labeled
Being labeled reinforces deviant behavior
Deviance becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
Those with less power and status are more likely to be
labeled as deviant (link to conflict theory)
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic Interactionist Theories:
General Learning Theory of crime & deviance
Combines labeling and differential association
theories
The effects of labeling depend on the individual’s
associations with peer groups
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Macro and Meso-level Explanations of Deviance
Structural Functionalist Theories: focus on anomie
and strain
Conflict Theories: focus on social inequality and
power struggles
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Structural-Functionalist Theory of Deviance
Normally, deviance helps society because it
Sets examples of unacceptable behavior
Encourages behavior necessary to maintain society
Binds people together through common rejection of
deviant behavior
Provides work for those who deal with deviants
Signals social problems that need to be addressed
and thereby creates positive change
Opens society to creative new ways of thinking
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Structural-Functionalist Theory, cont.
Anomie and social disorganization can cause
abnormally high levels of deviance
Anomie: a breakdown of norms caused by lack of
shared, achievable goals or lack of socially
approved means of achieving those goals
Anomie is likely in conditions of rapid urbanization,
war, or economic change
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Structural-Functionalist Theory, cont.
Strain: another source of deviance
Strain: frustration resulting from gap
between socially shared goals and access to
legitimate methods of achieving those goals
Strain causes some people to turn to deviant
ways of achieving goals
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Structural-Functionalist Theory, cont.
Strain: five ways of adapting (Merton)
Conformity: embracing society's goals and adhering to
approved means of achieving them
Innovation: using illicit means to reach approved goals
Ritualism: strict adherence to social rules, but with no
hope of achieving goals
Retreatism: giving up on both the goals and the means
Rebellion: rejecting socially approved goals and means
and replacing them with alternative goals and
strategies
Deviance: retreatism, rebellion, innovation
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Conflict Theory of Deviance
Deviance results from power struggles
between socially unequal groups
Elites use deviance to maintain control
They have the power to define as deviant activities
and groups that threaten their interests or norms
To reduce crime and deviance, we must alter
the structure of society, making it more equal
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theoretical Perspectives
Feminist Theories of Deviance
Women are often victimized or defined as
deviant due to secondary social status
Low status results from structures such as the
gendered division of labor, separation of public and
private spheres, and socialized gender roles
Women are less often in a position to commit crimes,
and women’s crimes differ from men’s
Cultural attitudes toward crime against women differ
based on the status of women in the society
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime and Individuals
Crime and individuals: Micro-level analysis
How much crime is there?
Difficult to estimate because not all crime is
reported to police
Crime levels and trends are examined using
rates per 100,000 individuals
There are multiple methods of measuring crime
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime and Individuals
How crime is measured:
Uniform Crime Reports - FBI
Type I crimes: murder, rape, robbery, etc.
Type II crimes: fraud, simple assault, vandalism, etc.
National Incident-Based Reporting System - FBI
Self-reported criminal participation surveys
Self-reported victimization surveys
Each method has flaws; triangulation of data
leads to the most accurate results
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime and Individuals
Predatory or street crime: crimes against
individuals or property
Victimless or public order crimes: criminal acts
committed by or between consenting adults
Conflict crimes: not everyone agrees acts ought to
be criminalized
Hate crimes: criminal offenses motivated by the
offender’s bias against a particular social group
Hate crimes are committed on the basis of religion,
ethnicity or race, national origin, gender, and sexual
orientation
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime and Organizations
Meso-level analysis:
Crimes involving organizations & institutions
Organized crime: on-going criminal enterprises
that aim to obtain personal economic gain
through illegitimate means
Hierarchically organized; rely on violence, corruption
Prominent in societies undergoing transition and/or
anomie, and among marginalized groups
Activities include sale of illegal goods and services;
infiltrating legitimate businesses; extortion
Transnational organized crime takes place across
borders and is an increasing problem
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Crime and Organizations
Crimes involving organizations & institutions
Occupational or white-collar crime: violation of
the law committed by an individual or group in
the course of legitimate, respected occupational
or financial activity
Types of occupational crimes:
Crimes
Crimes
Crimes
Crimes
against
against
against
against
companies
employees
consumers
the public
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
National & Global Crime
Macro-Level Analysis:
National & Global Crime
Terrorism: premeditated, politically motivated
violence against noncombatant targets by
subnational groups or clandestine agents,
usually intended to influence an audience
May be domestic or international
There are many types of terrorist groups
State organized crime: criminal acts committed
by government officials
E.g., complicity in smuggling, assassination, torture,
eavesdropping, accepting bribes, corruption
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
National & Global Crime
Cross-national comparisons:
Crime rates vary across societies due to
Different cultural values
E.g., different levels of stigma, or disapproval
attached to disobeying laws and norms
Different levels & causes of economic inequality
When income inequality increases, so does crime
Variations in overall economic health
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
National & Global Crime
Global Crimes
Global Crime: acts that violate international
laws, treaties, and agreements
E.g., crimes involving transnational conglomerates
that smuggle illegal goods, or nations that violate
environmental agreements
World systems perspective: sees the cause of
global crime as economic inequality and
competition between countries
Capitalism has increased inequality between core
and periphery nations
Periphery nations may resort to unconventional
means to meet their goals
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
National & Global Crime
Global internet crime: growing rapidly
Internet criminals have a wide audience
Sustains an “underground web” of illegal
businesses
Legitimate internet businesses inadvertently
connect people to illegal operations
Law enforcement is difficult due to
uncertainty about jurisdictions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Controlling Crime: Policy Considerations
The Criminal Justice Process
Structural-functionalist perspective: the
justice system is important for maintaining
order in society
Policy should focus on deterring deviance
Conflict perspective: the justice system
supports the powerful by depicting crime as a
threat from poor people and minorities
Policy should focus on the injustices of the system
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Controlling Crime: Policy Considerations
Prisons and Jails
Total institutions: completely control prisoners’ lives
and regulate all their activities
Inmates’ lives are changed through
Degradation: marks inmate as deviant
Mortification: breaks down inmate’s original self as he/she
experiences resocialization
Rigid social systems develop within prisons
Jails as “catchall” asylums for the poor, marginalized
U.S. incarceration rates have increased due to “get
tough” policies
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Comparative Incarceration Rates
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Controlling Crime: Policy Considerations
The purposes of prisons
From the functional perspective, prisons
serve many purposes:
Revenge or retribution
Removing dangerous people from society
Deterrence
Rehabilitation
However, the recidivism rate is high
The likelihood that someone who goes to prison
will later be a repeat offender is 75%
Suggests deterrence and rehabilitation functions
are not working very well
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Controlling Crime: Policy Considerations
The Death Penalty (or Capital Punishment)
The most controversial method of control
Most common argument for the death penalty is
that it deters others from committing crime
Studies suggest this is not the case; however, the death
penalty does serve as retribution
The death penalty is most common in Asia, the
Middle East, and parts of Africa
There is evidence that the death penalty is race
and class biased
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Controlling Crime: Policy Considerations
Alternative Forms of Social Control
For potential offenders:
Build social capital (networks, resources, shared values)
so as to reduce likelihood of crime and imprisonment
For minor offenders:
Education or job skills programs
Shock probation: early release of first time offenders in
hopes that the shock of prison life will deter them
Day treatment or half-way houses
Community service & work release programs
Restitution: offender compensates victim or community
Privatization of prison: attempt to make prisons more
cost effective, and make a profit
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.