Blood is connective tissue in which the cells
are separated by a liquid called Plasma
Normal Blood Volume:
4 to 6 liters
Functions of Blood
1. Helps maintain homeostasis
2. Helps regulate body temperature
3. Contains buffers for acid/base balance
4. Transportation of vital substances
5. Protection from infection
6. Blood clotting
Formed Elements of Blood
1. Red Blood Cells (RBC's)
-- Erythrocytes
-- make up about 45% of our
blood volume
-- live for 120 days or 4 months
-- old RBC removed from the blood by the liver
& spleen
-- normal count: 4.2
to 6.2 million/mm3
2. White Blood Cells (WBC's)
-- Leukocytes
-- normal count: 5,000 to 10,000/mm3
3. Platelets
-- Thrombocytes
-- normal count:
150,000 to 300,000 /mm3
-- essential for blood clotting
-- live only 10 days
-- have no nucleus
-- considered a cell fragment
Cells that are found in the Red Bone Marrow are:
STEM CELLS -- which give rise to all your blood
cells
(RBC, WBC, & Platelets)
RBC's have a thin center & thicker edges
-- their large number & unique shape increases
their total surface area equal to a football field
-- RBC's transport oxygen, carbon
dioxide, & hydrogen ions
A red pigment located on RBC's that
carries Oxygen is called: Hemoglobin
-- when combined with O2 it's called:
Oxyhemoglobin
-- Oxyhemoglobin is bright red
-- hemoglobin without oxygen is dark
purple
HEMOGLOBIN
HEMATOCRIT
----Measures amount of
hemoglobin in whole blood.
----12
----Measures % of volume of
RBC’s in whole blood.
to 18g/100 ml. of whole blood. ----Normal value is around
45%
RBC's
WBC's
Plasma
CBC -- Complete Blood count
1. Hematocrit 4. WBC’s
2. Hemoglobin 5. Differential white cell count.
--counts each type of WBC
3. RBC’s
6. Stained Red Cell exam.
--looks at the shape of the RBC’s
WBC – White Blood Cell count
----an increase may indicate an infection
or inflammatory response.
---increased WBC count: Leukocytosis
----a decrease could indicate bone marrow
depression or a viral infection.
---decreased WBC count: Leukopenia
DIFFERENTIAL
----Looks at the number of each type of
WBC and it’s shape.
----Gives specific information about a
patient’s immune system.
The nuclei in mature
Neutrophils are
Eosinophils are
divided into
weak phagocytes, segments, so are
but good at
called SEGS.
detoxifying
Immature
allergens. Also,
Neutrophils
defend against
have unsegmented
parasites.
nuclei that look
like bands, so are
called BANDS
Fast-acting Neutrophils
are the first line of
defense against bacteria.
Survive only 4 to 10 hours.
Basophils secrete Histamine,
Heparin, and Serotonin. They
are involved in systemic
hypersensitivity reactions.
RED BLOOD
CELLS
PLATELETS
Monocytes are phagocystic
and produce substances that
mark invading organism for
destruction by lymphocytes.
Slower than Neutrophil, but
last longer.
STEM CELL
Lymphocytes include T-cells,
which turn immunity on or off,
and B-cells, which produce
antibodies.
Blood
Formed
Elements
Plasma
Plasma
Proteins
Albumin
Globulins
H2O
Fibrinogen
Water
Salts
Dissolved
gases
Hormones
Glucose
Wastes
Red
Blood Cells
Platelets
White
Blood cells
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
Neutrophils
Monocytes
Prothrombin
Eosinophils
Complements
Basophils
enzymes that help
antibodies fight infections
Lymphocytes
Steps in Blood Clotting
•Injury to blood vessel
•Platelets break up & release Platelet factors
•Platelet Factors combine with Prothrombin (an
inactive enzyme) and Calcium to form
Thrombin (an active enzyme)
-- Vitamin K is needed to stimulate the liver
to produce more Prothrombin
•Thrombin reacts with Fibrinogen to form a
fibrous gel called Fibrin (a clot)
Platelet
Trauma
Activated factor XII
Factor XII
Activated factor XI
Factor XI
Activated factor IX
Factor IX
Ca+
Factor VIII
Activated factor X
Factor X
Prothrombin activator
Ca+
Prothrombin
Fibrinogen
Fibrin
Thrombin
Fibrin
Ca+
Platelet plug
For normal clotting, we need:
Platelets Calcium Blood Proteins Vitamin K
& Platelet
Prothrombin &
Factors
Fibrinogen
A clot that remains stationary in the blood vessel
is called: a Thrombus
A dislodged blood clot that moves in the blood is
called an: Embolus
Partially blocked coronary arteries will cause:
Ischemic Heart Disease
This can cause pain during exercise and stress
Angina Pectoris
called:
If the coronary artery is totally blocked, the heart
tissue will die.
This is called a:
Myocardial Infarction
or a M.I.
Serum
-- Blood Plasma minus its clotting factors
which are:
Prothrombin Fibrinogen
-- still contain Antibodies, so can be used to treat
patient who have a need for a specific antibody
ANTIGEN -- A Substance that can stimulate
the body to make Antibodies
ANTIBODY -- is a Substance that reacts with
the Antigen that stimulated its Formation
-- causes the Antigen to agglutinate (clump)
TYPE A
TYPE A ANTIGEN
TYPE B
TYPE B ANTIGEN
(located on the RBC)
ANTI-B ANTIBODIES
(located in the Plasma)
ANTI-A ANTIBODIES
TYPE O
TYPE AB
Universal Donor
Universal Recipient
TYPE A ANTIGEN
NO ANTIGEN
&
TYPE B ANTIGEN
(located on the RBC)
ANTI-A ANTIBODIES
NO ANTIBODIES
&
O
ANTI-B ANTIBODIES
(located in the Plasma)
A
AB
A
B
AB
O
B
TYPE Rh - Positive
TYPE Rh - Negative
TYPE Rh ANTIGEN
NO ANTIGEN
(located on the RBC)
NO ANTIBODIES
(located in the Plasma)
ANTI-Rh ANTIBODIES
will be produced with
exposure
Negative can give to Negative and to Positive
Positive can only give to Positive
Plasma never naturally contains Anti-Rh
Antibodies
-- causes a problem when Mom is Rh-negative.
and has a baby that is Rh-positive
-- at delivery a little of baby's blood mixes with
Mom's blood when placenta separates
-- this stimulates Mom's blood to make antibodies
-- not a problem with first pregnancy, but with each
subsequent pregnancy, Mom makes more
antibodies
-- eventually she has enough antibodies to cross the
placental barrier and attack baby's blood
-- a condition called Erythroblastosis Fetalis
-- give Rho Gam to prevent production of
antibodies
Membranes of the heart
Covering of the heart is called:
Pericardium
Membrane that covers surface
of heart: Epicardium or
Visceral Pericardium
Middle layer is major
portion of the heart, is
largely cardiac muscle,
& is called: Myocardium
Membrane that lines
the heart chambers: Endocardium
Aorta
Superior
vena cava
Left
Atrium
Pulmonary
arteries
Right
Pulmonary
veins
Pulmonary
valve
Aortic
valve
Right
Atrium
Tricuspid valve
Bicuspid or
Mitral Valve
Cordae
tendineae
Papillary
muscle
Inferior
vena cava
HEART
Left
Ventricle
Right
Ventricle
Septum
Apex
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Blood enters the RIGHT
ATRIUM from the SUPERIOR
& INFERIOR VENA CAVAS
LUNGS
RIGHT & LEFT PULMONARY VEINS
RIGHT ATRIUM
LEFT ATRIUM
TRICUSPID VALVE
BICUSPID OR MITRAL VALVE
RIGHT VENTRICLE
PULMONARY VALVE
PULMONARY TRUNK
LEFT
VENTRICLE
AORTIC VALVE
AORTA
Rt.. & Lt. PULMONARY ARTERIES
LUNGS
BODY
Heart Sounds
When you listen to the heart, the
sounds you hear are the valves
closing
Pulmonary Valve
Aortic Valve
The first sound
(Lup) is the:
closing
The second
sound (Dup) is
the:
closing
Mitral
Valve
Tricuspid
Valve
Cardiac Conduction
SA node
AV node
Lt. atrium
AV Bundle or
Bundle of HIS
Purkinje Fibers
Rt. Ventricle
Atriums
contract
Ventricles
contract
Lt. Ventricle
Lt. Bundle
Branch
Rt. Bundle
Branch
EKG
-- a graph of the electrical
activity of the heart
-- the P-wave signifies the
atriums contracting
-- the QRS-wave signifies the
ventricles contracting
QRS
-- the T-wave signifies the
relaxing of the ventricles
P-wave
T-wave
Terms
Heart Beat -- Number of beats of the heart per min.
(HR)
(Average is 70 beats per minute)
Bradycardia -- heart rate less than 60 beats/min.
Tachycardia -- heart rate greater than 100
beats/min.
Stroke Volume -- the volume of blood ejected
from the ventricles during each
(SV)
(Average = 70 cc/beat.)
beat
Cardiac Output (CO) -- volume of blood pumped by
one ventricle per minute
(Average = 5 Liters)
Cardiac output=(HR x SV)70 x 70=4900 cc ~ 5L/min.
Systole
Cardiac Cycle -- the complete heart beat Diastole
Coronary Circulation
-- blood flows into the heart
by way of the right & left
coronary arteries
left
coronary
artery
-- coronary arteries are the
Aorta's first branches
-- this way the blood with
the highest % of O2 is
delivered to the heart muscle
-- the coronary arteries fill
when the ventricles are relaxed
right
coronary
artery
Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery
--veins are removed from other areas of the body
& used to bypass the blockage in the coronary artery
Types of Blood Vessels
-- take blood away from the
Artery
heart
-- contain large amount of
elastic fibers to
accommodate increase in
blood volume with each
Capillary
heart beat
-- blood flow is fastest in the
arteries
Arteriole
-- are small arteries that carry blood to the capillaries
-- under control of the ANS (Sympathetic)
-- whether dilated or constricted, affects blood pressure
-- blood flow is the slowest here because:
-- exchange of nutrients and waste molecules
takes place here
-- O2 & glucose diffuse out
& CO2 diffuses in
CO2
O2
Capillary
Venule
-- takes blood to the heart
-- wall are thinner & less
elastic than arteries
-- contains valves to prevent back flow
Vein
-- small vessels that drain blood from the
capillaries & then join together to form a vein
Branches of the Aorta
-- forms the right carotid & rt. subclavian
-- supplies the rt. side of the head & rt. arm
Rt. carotid
Lt. common carotid
Rt. subclavian
Brachiocephalic
-- supplies lt. side of
head
-- supplies left arm
Lt. subclavian
Other Systemic Arteries
Common Iliac
Arteries
Femoral
Posterior
tibial
Popliteal
Pedal
Hepatic Portal Circulation
-- also called Portal Circulation
-- refers to blood flow
Inferior vena cava
Hepatic Vein
through the liver
-- digestive organs send their
blood to the liver by way
of the Hepatic Portal Vein
-- Blood leaves the liver by
the Hepatic veins to the
Inferior Vena Cava
-- this detour serves 2 functions:
1. remove excess glucose for storage as glycogen
2. remove & detoxify any poisonous substances
Blood Pressure
fastest? slowest?
-- the pressure or push of blood
Arteries Capillaries
-- exists in all blood vessels
Blood Pressure Gradient -- blood does not circulate
if not present
-- liquids can only flow from an area of higher
pressure to an area of lower.
-- it is the difference between 2 blood pressures
BP in Vena Cava
is 0
BP in Aorta is
100 mm Hg
-- or the difference between the beginning & the
end of a vessel
-- pressure drops throughout the vessel's length
Systolic Blood Pressure
-- pressure in an artery when left ventricle is
contracting
Diastolic Blood Pressure
-- pressure in an artery when left ventricle is
resting
Textbook BP:
Pulse Pressure
120/80
120
- 80 = 40
-- Difference between the Systolic & the Diastolic
blood pressure
-- expressive of the health of the heart & tone of the
arteries
-- over 50 points or under 30 is considered abnormal
(hypertension or ICP)
(shock)
Pulse -- surge of blood entering the artery
-- vessel expands & then
returns to normal
Temporal
-- place fingertips over
artery, & press it over a
bone or other firm
surface
-- Provides information
about the heart beat:
1. Rate
2. Strength
3. Rhythm
Femoral
Carotid
Apical
Brachial
Radial
Popliteal
Posterior
tibial
Dorsalis
pedis
Lymph
-- specialized fluid formed in the tissue spaces
-- pressure in the arterioles forces fluid into
the interstitial spaces
-- this fluid is called:
Lymph
Cells
Interstitial Fluid Capillary
Arteriole
-- most of this fluid will be
returned to the venules
-- what doesn't, enter the
lymphatic capillaries
Venule
-- this fluid is now called:Lymph
Blood Capillary
-- lymph capillaries are similar to veins because they
contain valves & the fluid is moved by muscle
contraction
-- lymph veins empty into:
Thoracic Duct &
Right Lymphatic Duct
-- which then returns the
lymph fluid to the venous
circulation
Function of the Lymphatic
System
1. Produce Lymphocytes
2. Transport fluids to the blood
stream
3. Absorb fat molecules
Organs of the Lymphatic System
Lymph Node
-- clustered along the lymphatic vessels
-- Function
1. Defense -- filter the lymph fluid
-- fluid enters the node by way of an afferent
vessel
-- fluid leaves by way of an efferent vessel
2. White Blood Cell Formation
Thymus Gland
-- Produces: Thymosin
-- decreases in size with age
-- important for the maturation & maintenance
of the immune system & especially the T-Cells
Spleen
-- largest lymphoid organ in the body
-- located upper left quadrant of the abdomen
-- protected by the ribs, but can be injured
-- Functions:
1. Filters the blood
2. Destroys worn out RBC's & salvages the iron
in hemoglobin
-- what other organ does this? Liver
3. Serves as a reservoir for blood that can be
returned to the circulatory system when needed
-- it stores up to 1 pint of blood
Lymph nodes clean lymph fluid & the spleen cleans
the blood
Tonsils
-- composed of lymphoid tissue located
in the mouth & throat
1 . "tonsils" Palatine tonsils
2. "adenoids" Pharyngeal tonsils
3. near the base of the tongue Lingual tonsils
-- serves as the first line of defense from the exterior
-- removal of the palatine tonsils is called:
Tonsillectomy
-- removal of the pharyngeal tonsils is called:
Adenoidectomy
I M M U N E SYSTEM
----Protects us from:
1. Bacteria
2. Foreign tissue cells
3. Cancerous cells
Lymphocytes
1. B-Cells ( B Lymphocytes)
----Originates from the Stem Cells in our Bone Marrow
----Goes through 2 stages of development
A. First stage of development occurs in the bone marrow.
1. These cells enter the blood stream and end in
up the lymph nodes.
2. Contains antibodies for a specific antigen.
B. 2 nd stage – immature B-Cells become activated
because of contact with specific antigen.
1.These activated cells divide into Plasma Cells &
Memory Cells
2. Function of B-Cells is to produce Humoral or
Antibody-mediated Immunity.
2. T-Cells ( T Lymphocyte)
----First stage of development occurs in the Thymus gland.
1. Ends up in the lymph nodes.
2. As with B-Cells, 2nd stage begins with contact
with a specific antigen.
3. Functions in Cell-mediated Immunity.
STEM CELLS ( BONE MARROW)
Lymphocytes
B-CELLS
T-CELLS
Lymphoid Tissue
Plasma Cells Memory Cells
Antibodies
Killer
T-Cells
Sensitized T-Cells
Helper Memory Suppressor
T-Cells
T-Cells T-Cells
(Stimulates other immune cells (Stops the immune
response)
including B & Killer T-Cells)