Literature: What
are we learning?
Language Arts
Mrs. Catlett
• Simple subject—is the key noun or
pronoun that tells what the sentence is
about.
• Compound subject—is made up of two or
more simple subjects that are joined by a
conjunction and have the same verb.
– Who or what is the sentence talking
about?
Subject (front side)
• Examples
• Simple subject
– Sarah went to the store.
• Compound
– Sarah and Susan went to the store.
Subject (Back side)
• Simple predicate—is the verb or verb
phrase that shows the action in the
sentence.
• Compound predicate—is made up of two
or more simple predicates that are joined
by a conjunction and have the same
subject.
– What is the subject (who or what) doing
in the sentence?
Predicate(front side)
• Examples
• Simple predicate (verb)
– Sarah went to the store.
• Compound
– Sarah ate and showered before school
was cancelled.
Predicate (Back side)
• Common noun—names a general class of
people
• Proper noun—specifies a particular person,
place, thing, event, or idea. Proper nouns are
always capitalized.
• Concrete noun—names an object that occupies
space or that can be recognized by any of the
sense.
• Abstract noun—names an idea a quality, or a
characteristic.
Noun (front side)
• Examples
Concrete
noun
• Common noun.
– Her aunt took her to the store.
• Proper noun
– Her aunt took her to visit the Vietnam
War Memorial which represents for
many a symbol of peace.
Abstract
noun
Noun (Back side)
• Action verb tells what someone or something
is doing.
• Transitive verb is followed by a direct
object—that answer the question what? Or
whom?
• Intransitive verb is not followed by a word
that answers what? Or whom?
• Linking verbs links, or joins, the subject of a
sentence with an adjective or nominative.
Verb (front side)
• Examples
• Action verb/transitive/direct object
– Adam jogged home.
• Action verb/intransitive
– Adam jogged in the direction of his
home.
Linking verb
The trucks were red.
Verb (Back side)
• Simple sentence—has only one main
clause and no subordinating clauses.
• Compound sentence—has two or more
main clauses.
• Complex sentence—has at least one main
clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.
• Compound-Complex Sentence—has two
or more main clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses.
Sentences (front side)
• Examples
• Simple sentence
– The bananas were ready to be picked.
• Compound Sentence
– Zach studied for his test, and Sarah stayed
home sick.
Sentences (Back side)
• Examples.
• Complex Sentence/subordinate clause
– Because they did not study for the test, these
students are going to fail the test.
• Compound-Complex Sentence
After a long weekend, Carla and Sarah
returned to college, but Sarah was able to sleep in
the next day.
Sentences (Back side)
The Simple Sentence
A simple sentence has one independent clause
(one subject and a verb):
I live in San Francisco.
Subject
Verb
Compound Sentence
You can make a compound sentence by
joining two logically related independent
clauses by using…
- a semicolon
- a coordinating conjunction
- a transition
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence contains two independent
clauses that are joined together.
She works in the city, but she lives in the suburbs.
Independent
Clause
Independent
Clause
Using a Semicolon
Independent Clause ; Independent Clause
I love living in the city ; there are so many things to do.
Independent
Clause
Independent
Clause
Using a Coordinating Conjunction
Independent Clause ,coordinating conjunction Independent Clause
He couldn’t watch the show , so he decided to tape it.
Independent
Clause
Independent
Clause
Coordinating Conjunctions
Logical Relationship
Coordinating
Conjunction
Addition
And
Contrast
But, yet
Choice
Or, nor
Cause
For
Result
So
FANBOYS
Another way to remember these is…
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
For 
And 
Nor 
But 
Or 
Yet 
So 
F
A
N
B
O
Y
S
CAUTION!
Do NOT use a comma every time you use the
words and, or, but, nor, for, so, yet. Use a
comma only when the coordinating conjunction
joins two independent clauses.
Simple Sentence
The necklace was beautiful but expensive.
Independent
Clause
No comma- not an
independent clause
Using a Transition
Independent Clause ; transition , Independent Clause
I love San Francisco ; however, I hate the traffic.
Independent
Clause
Independent
Clause
Click here to see lists of
transitions.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one
independent clause and one dependent clause.
John cannot set up his typewriter
Independent Clause
because the wall has no outlet.
Subordinating
Conjunction
Dependent Clause
Example- Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains at least one
independent clause and one dependent clause.
She will go to school in the city
Independent Clause
until she finds a job.
Dependent Clause
Subordinating
Conjunction
Complex Sentences
Use a comma after a dependent clause if it begins
the sentence.
When I first moved to the city,
Subordinating
Conjunction
Use a comma if
the dependent
clause is the first
part of the
sentence.
I was afraid to drive the steep and narrow streets.
Independent
Clause
• Subordinating conjunction joins two
clauses in such a way as to make one
grammatically dependent on the other.
• Example:
– We go to the park whenever Mom lets
us.
Common Subordinating
Conjunctions(front side)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
after
as if
as though
if
since
so that
when
whereas
While
although
as long as
because
even though
than
unless
whenever
wherever
as
as soon as
before
in order that
though
until
where
whether
Common Subordinating
conjunctions(back side)
Relationship
Transition
Addition
Moreover
Furthermore
In addition
besides
Contrast
However
In contrast
Result or Effect
Consequently
Thus
Therefore
Reinforcement/Emphasis
Indeed
In fact
On the contrary
On the other hand
Accordingly
Hence
As a result
Relationship
Transition
Exemplification
For example
For instance
In particular
Time
Meanwhile (at the same time)
Subsequently (after)
Thereafter (after)
Reinforcement/Emphasis
Indeed
In fact
Exemplification
For example
For instance
In particular
• A phrase is a group of words that acts in a
sentence as a single part of speech.
• A clause is a group of words that has a
subject and a predicate and is used as a
sentence or part of a sentence.
Clauses vs. phrases (front side)
• Types of phrases
– Prepositional phrase
– Verbal phrase
– Participle phrase
– Appositive phrase
– Infinitive phrase
– Gerund phrase
• Types of clauses
– Subordinate clause
• Adjective
• Adverb
• Noun
Clauses vs. Phrases(back side)
• Adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase
that modifies, or describes, a noun or a
pronoun.
• Example: The servers at the new
restaurant are courteous. (phrase modifies
servers)
Adjective Phrases
• Adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase
that modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
• Example: The servers dress with a
flamboyant flair. (modifies dress the verb)
• Example: The restaurant is popular with
young people.(modifies popular an
adjective)
• Example: The restaurant opens early in
the morning. (modifes early an adverb)
Adverb phrase
Infinitive is formed with the word to and a
word that can act as a verb. Infinitives
are often used as nouns.
Infinitive phrases are a group of words
that includes an infinitive and other
words that complete its meaning.
Example: To write is Alice’s ambition.
To write a great novel was Alice’s
ambition.
Infinitive (phrases)
Participle is a verb from that can act as
the main verb in a verb phrase or as an
adjective to modify a noun or pronoun.
Participial phrases are groups of words
that includes a participle and other
words that complete its meaning.’
Participles end in -ed, --ing, or en
Example: His playing skill improves daily.
Participle/ Participial phrases
Gerund is a verb from that ends in –ing
and is used a a noun.
Gerund phrases are groups of words that
include a gerund and other words that
complete its meaing.
Example: Exercising on a bike is fun for
all ages.
Gerund (phrases)
• An adjective clause is a subordinate
(dependent clause) that modifies, or
describes, a noun or a pronoun in the
main clause of a complex sentence.
• Adjective clauses begin with relative
pronouns (TW6): who(ever), whose,
whom(ever), which(ever), where(ever),
when(ever), and that
Adjective Clause
• Example: The Aqua-Lung, which divers
strap on, holds oxygen.
Try these:
1. Road maps, which show roadways, can
be fascinating.
Adjective Clause
• An adverb clause is a subordinate clause
(dependent clause) that often modifies the
verb in the main clause of a complex
sentence. It tells how, when, where, why,
or under what conditions the action
occurs.
• Adverb clauses begin with subordinating
conjunctions(see next page)
Adverb Clause
• Example: After we won the meet, we
shook hands with our opponents.
Adverb Clause
• A noun clause is a subordinate clause
(dependent clause) used as a noun. It
(the clause) can be replaced with a
pronoun (it, they, he, she, etc).
• Noun clauses begin with relative pronouns
(TW6): who(ever), whose, whom(ever),
which(ever), where(ever), when(ever), and
that
• They also begin with how(ever), if,
whether, why, what (ever)
Noun Clause
Literary Elements
Plot Graphic Organizer
Climax
Event(s) leading
up to climax
Event(s) leading
up to climax
Introduction
Event(s) after
the climax
Event(s) after
the climax
Resolution
Allegory:
A story in which the characters
represent
abstract qualities or ideas. For
example, in
westerns, the sheriff represents
the good, and
the outlaw represents evil.
Alliteration:
The repetition of first
consonants in a group of words
as in “Peter Piper Picked a Peck
of Pickled Peppers.”
Allusion:
A reference to something or
someone often literary. For
instance, if you were trying to
instill confidence in a friend and
said, “Use the force,” that would
be an allusion to Stars Wars.
The verb form of allusion is to
allude.
Antagonist:
A major character who opposes
the protagonist in a story or
play.
Archetype:
A character who represents a
certain type of person. For
example, Daniel Boone is an
archetype of the early American
frontiersman.
Assonance:
The repetition of vowel
sounds as in “Days wane away.”
Atmosphere:
The overall feeling of a work,
which is related to tone and
mood.
Blank verse:
Unrhymed lines of poetry
usually in iambic pentameter.
Plenty of modern poetry is
written in blank verse.
Characterization:
The means by which an author
establishes character. An
author may directly describe the
appearance and personality of
character or show it through
action or dialogue.
Climax:
The point at which the action in
a story or play reaches its
emotional peak.
Conflict:
The elements that create a
plot. Traditionally, every plot
is build from the most basic
elements of a conflict and an
eventual resolution. The
conflict can be internal
(within one character) or
external (among or between
characters, society, and/or
nature).
Contrast:
To explain how two things differ.
To compare and contrast is to
explain how two things are alike
and how they are different.
Couplets:
A pair of rhyming lines in a
poem often set off from the rest
of the poem. Shakespeare’s
sonnets all end in couplets.
Denouement:
The resolution of the conflict in
a plot after the climax. It also
refers to the resolution of the
action in a story or play after
the principal drama is
resolved—in other words,
tying up the loose ends or
wrapping up a story.
Dramatic Monologue:
A poem with a fictional narrator
addressed to someone who
identity the audience knows, but
who does not say anything.
Elegy:
A poem mourning the dead.
End rhyme:
Rhyming words that are at the
ends of their respective lines—
what we typically think of as
normal rhyme.
Epic:
A long poem narrating the
adventures of a heroic figure—
for example, Homer’s The
Odyssey.
Fable:
A story that illustrates a moral
often using animals as the
character—for example, The
Tortoise and the Hare.
Figurative Language:
Language that does not mean
exactly what it says. For
example, you can call someone
who is very angry “steaming.”
Unless steam was actually
coming out of your ears, you
were using figurative language.
First Person Point of View: The
point of view of writing which
the narrator refers to himself as
“I.”
Foreshadowing:
A technique in which an author
gives clues about something that
will happen later in the story.
Free Verse:
Poetry with no set
meter (rhythm) or
rhyme scheme.
Genre:
A kind of style usually art or
literature. Some literary genres
are mysteries, westerns, and
romances.
Hyperbole:
A huge exaggeration. For
example, “Dan’s the funniest
guy on the planet!” or “That
baseball card is worth a zillion
dollars!”
Iambic pentameter:
Ten-syllable lines in which every
other syllable is stressed. For
example: “With eyes like stars
upon the brave night air.”
Imagery:
The use of description that
helps the reader imagine how
something looks, sounds,
feels, smells, or taste. Most
of the time, it refers to
appearance. For example,
“The young bird’s white,
feathered wings flutter as he
made his way across the
nighttime sky.”
Internal rhyme:
A rhyme that occurs within one
line such as “He’s King of the
Swing.”
Irony:
Language that conveys a certain
ideas by saying just he opposite.
Literal Language:
Language that means
exactly what it says.
Lyric:
A type of poetry that expresses
the poet’s emotions. It often
tells some sort of brief story,
engaging the reading in the
experience.
Metaphor:
A comparison that doesn’t
use “like” or “as”—such as
“He’s a rock” or “I am an
island.”
Meter:
The pattern of stressed and
unstressed syllables in the lines
of a poem.
Monologue:
A long speech by one character
in a play or story.
Mood:
The emotional atmosphere of a
given piece of writing.
Motif:
A theme or pattern that
recurs in a work.
Myth:
A legend that embodies the
beliefs of people and offers some
explanation for natural and social
phenomena.
Onomatopoeia:
The use of words that sound like
what they mean such as “buzz.”
Paradox:
A seeming contradiction.
For example, “It was the best
of times. It was the worst of
times.”
Parody:
A humorous, exaggerated
imitation of another work.
Personification:
Giving inanimate object human
characteristics. For example,
“The flames reached for the
child hovering in the corner.”
Plot:
The action in the story.
Prose:
Writing organized into sentences
and paragraphs. In other words,
normal writing—not poetry.
Protagonist:
The main character of a novel,
play, or story.
Pun:
The use of a word in a way that
plays on its different meanings.
For example, “Noticing the
bunch of bananas, the hungry
gorilla went ape.
Quatrain:
A four-line stanza.
Rhetorical Question:
A question not meant to be
answered such as “Why can’t we
just get along?”
Sarcasm:
Language that conveys a certain
idea by saying just he opposite
such as if it’s raining outside
and you say, “My what a
beautiful day.”
Satire:
A work that makes fun of
something or someone.
Sensory imagery:
Imagery that has to do with
something you can see, hear,
taste, smell, or feel. For
example, “The stinging, salty air
drenched his face.”
Simile:
A comparison that uses “like” or
“as” For example, “I’m as
hungry as a wolf,” or “My love is
like a rose.”
Soliloquy:
A monologue in which a
character expresses his or her
thoughts to the audience and
does not intend the other
characters to hear them.
Sonnet:
A fourteen-line poem written
iambic pentameter. Different
kinds of sonnets have different
rhyme schemes.
Stanza:
A section of poetry separated
from the sections before and
after it; a verse “paragraph.”
Subplot:
A line of action
secondary to the main story.
Symbolism:
The use of one things to
represent another. For example,
a dove is a symbol of peace.
Theme:
The central idea of a work.
Tone:
The author’s attitude toward his
or her subject. For example, a
tone could be pessimistic,
optimistic, or angry.
Voice:
The narrative point of view
whether it’s in the first, second,
or third person.
Drama…
• …is
a story told in front of an
audience
Elements of Drama
• Playwright-the
author of a play
• Actors-the people
who perform
• Acts-the units of
action
• Scenes-parts of
the acts
Elements of Drama
• Characterizationplaywright’s
technique for
making
believable
characters
Dramatic Speech
• Dialogueconversation
between or among
characters
• Monologue-long
speech by one
single character
(private thoughts)
Stage Directions
• Found in brackets [ ]
• Describe scenery and
how characters speak
• C, Center Stage
• L, Stage Left
• R, Stage Right
• U, Upstage or Rear
• D, Downstage or
Front
Theater
• Where a play
takes place
Set
• Construction on
the stage that
shows time/place
• Could be called
Scenery
Props
• Small movable
items that the
actors use to make
actions look real
Informational Texts
FICTION
• Writing or story
created from the
imagination, not
presented as fact,
though it may be
based on a true
story or situation.
NONFICTION
• literature that is
not fictional
What is “informational text”?
• Informational texts are nonfiction texts that
explain or convey information. Some examples
are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Textbooks
Encyclopedias
Newspapers
Magazine
Web sites
pamphlets
Examples of Informational Texts:
BROCHURE
• Pamphlet or
booklet that
describes or
advertises
something
Examples of Informational Texts:
ATLAS
• A collection of maps in book form
Examples of Informational Texts:
THESAURUS
• A book of
synonyms,
sometimes
including
contrasting words
Examples of Informational Texts:
ALMANAC
• A publication, usually an annual,
containing useful facts and statistical
information
Features of Informational Texts
• It is important to be able to recognize features of
informational texts…..
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Headings
Sub-headings
Index
Table of Contents
Glossary
Graphic Features (photographs, diagrams,
illustrations)
– Captions
– Topic/Main Idea
– Supporting Details
Features of Informational Texts
Headings and Sub-headings
• Titles of sections using bold print, different
font sizes and colors
• These headings and sub-headings help to
organize the text into sections
Features of Informational Texts
INDEX
• a list of items (as
topics or names)
given at the end of
a printed work that
gives for each item
the page number
where it may be
found
Features of Informational Texts
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
• A table of
contents, usually
headed simply
"Contents," is a list
of the parts of a
book or document
organized in the
order in which the
parts appear.
Features of Informational Texts
GLOSSARY
• a collection of
specialized
terms with their
meaning
Features of Informational Texts
GRAPHIC FEATURES
• a graphic
representation (as
a picture, map, or
graph) used
especially for graphic
feature
illustration
The
caption
Mona Lisa, by
Italian painter Leonardo
da Vinci, is one of the
most recognizable artistic
paintings in the Western
world.
Features of Informational Texts
CAPTIONS
• the heading
especially of an
article or
document; the
explanatory comment
or designation
accompanying a
pictorial illustration
APPLE
Features of Informational Texts
AUDIENCE
A reading, listening, or
viewing public
Sometimes it may be
important to understand
who the intended
audience is, especially if
you are creating
informational text.
Features of Informational Texts
CITATION
• A citation is a reference to
a work, such as a book or
a journal article - it
provides the necessary
information needed to
locate the work. A book
citation provides the
author, title, publisher,
publication place, and
year of a work.
• Citations often appear at
the end of the work in the
form of a bibliography.
FACT
• A piece of
information that
can be shown or
demonstrated to
be true.
OPINION
• a judgment one
holds as true
Writing
Main Idea
ma
• Main Idea - is like the heart
of the text or a paragraph.
• It is the controlling idea.
• All the other supporting details in the
text or within a paragraph should tell
us more about the main idea.
General Versus Specific
• The main idea is a
general one.
• The supporting ideas
in the passage are
specific ones.
• Which word is the
most general:
Potato or Vegetable?
What about the topic?
• The topic is the general subject of a
reading passage.
• To find the topic, just ask yourself:
“Who or what is this passage
about?”
• The topic can be expressed in a
word or a phrase.
WHO?
Supporting Details
• Supporting details prove the value of the
main idea. What are they here?
Homeless people have many problems.
In winter, it’s hard to stay warm and it gets
too hot in summer. It’s also hard to keep
things safe without a home. Worst is the
lack of privacy.
SUPPORTING
DETAILS
• Examples and
illustrations to
the topic
sentence or
main idea of a
piece of writing