Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
1
Alan Reinhardt
PSY 302 / L
19 Dec 2012
Professor Sinha
A Gender Comparison Regarding Ability to Identify Emotions Through Facial
Expressions
Emotions play huge roles in our lives. Oftentimes, motives for any action can be traced
back to an emotion. Sometimes, we may not comprehend why a significant other may become
angry when we arrive home later than expected. When conversing with him or her, you will see
anger on the face of your significant other but you may also see fear. Why were they frightened?
After asking helpful questions, related to their fear you have detected, you learn that they were
actually fearful of not knowing where you were; they were concerned for your safety. When
people in our society attain the ability to detect emotions through facial expressions,
understanding why individuals act a certain way will become more clear which can lead to better
communication in society.
The question posed deals with which group, men or women, is better at identifying facial
expressions. When researchers can understand which gender is better at identifying emotion,
what separates individuals from each other, or the unique qualities and characteristics of those
who succeed, will be more apparent. If those unique qualities, from the individuals who were
successful at identifying expressions, overlap then a precursor for success at identifying facial
expressions might be found. Isolation of that one, or those few, trait(s) that increase the skill of a
specific gender at identifying facial expressions will allow us to better understand this
phenomenon. Then, the ability to teach others how to utilize this skill will become easier. If
many people acquire this skill, communication among strangers and, more importantly, within
families will improve. In turn, this can lead to a more honest character. If both participants in a
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
2
conversation understand each other’s emotions through the facial expressions, then the
conversationalist will be able to match the emotion to the words being spoken and the content of
the dialogue. If the emotions portrayed by one individual do not match the content material of
their part of the conversation, then this person in the conversation is not being honest. The
second person in the conversation can then ask probing questions and clarify the conversation or
reveal the deceit. When people understand that this is how conversations are carried out, honesty
will be much more common and an improved quality of life will come about.
Previous studies of gender differences in the accuracy of identification of emotion
through facial expression have provided results that mostly favor females as the gender with
better emotional identification skills. Studies reviewed that demonstrate these results include
those completed by Scherer & Scherer (2011), Alaerts, Nackaerts, Meyns, Swinnen, &
Wenderoth (2011), Donges, Kersting, & Suslow (2012), and Hall, & Matsumoto (2004). On the
contrary, two reviewed studies point to no gender differences regarding the ability to interpret
emotions through facial expressions. These include Hampson, van Anders, & Mullin (2006) and
Duhaney, & McKelvie (1993).
Scherer & Scherer (2011) described the Emotion Recognition Index (ERI), which tests
participants on facial expressions and vocalizations with regard to emotion. The ERI is a test
consisting of two parts: the Index of Facial Emotion Recognition (FACIAL-I) and the Index of
Vocal Emotion Recognition (VOCAL-I). For FACIAL-I, 30 photos of expressions were taken
from Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA), a well-regarded study by Ekman, Friesen, & Tomkins
(1971), in which emotions can be viewed through facial features. For VOCAL-I, the sounds were
taken from a large cross cultural study of vocal emotion recognition, the International Study of
Vocal Emotion Expression (ISVEE), completed by Scherer (2001). Vocal portrayals of
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust were used. Seventy-two undergraduate psychology
students participated in the study. Results confirmed the applicability, validity, and reliability of
the ERI.
A similar test, the Emotion Recognition Test (ERT) was used with participants, 15 males
and 22 females, in a study by Alaerts, Nackaerts, Meyns, Swinnen, & Wenderoth (2011). Due to
technical problems, data on the test of recognizing emotions was lost for 2 male and 3 female
participants. All of the subjects were students at the K. U. Leuven. In this test, participants were
presented with a series of 144 video clips. Each clip contained a prime and target facial
expression. After viewing the prime, the participant was asked to identify whether the target
facial expression was happier, sadder, angrier, or not different than the prime. Results concluded
that females recognized emotions quicker than males and the gender effects were similar for all
different emotions (Alaerts, Nackaerts, Meyns, Swinnen, & Wenderoth 2011).
Yet another study, examining emotions through facial expressions, was completed using
a test similar to that of the ERI and ERT. In a study by Donges, Kersting, & Suslow (2012), 81
participants were tasked to complete the Facial Discrimination Test. The participants were
composed of 53 females and 28 males, whose first language was German. The Facial
Discrimination Test consisted of showing facial stimuli portraying sad, happy, and neutral
expressions to subjects and having them identify the emotions. The stimuli were photographs
created by 10 individuals, 5 male and 5 female. The photographs were shown to participants in a
random sequence. Results concluded two major findings. First, neutral faces were seen as
negative emotions. Second, women had a greater ability to perceive positive facial emotions
(Donges, Kersting, & Suslow 2012).
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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A fourth study, showing that women have a greater ability to identify emotion, was
completed by Hall & Matsumoto (2004). Again, a new test was utilized with the participants,
composed of 69 male and 27 female undergraduate students from the University of California,
Berkeley. The participants viewed each of the JACFEE, Japanese and Caucasian Facial
Expression of Emotion, (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1988) expressions. Photographs were looked at
randomly, one at a time, for 10 seconds. For each expression, a rating was required indicating the
presence or absence of seven emotions. Those emotions were the seven universals including
anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. A 9 point scale was used to
determine the degree of presence of the emotion; the scale ranged from the emotion being totally
absent, identified with the number 0, to the emotion being very present, identified with the
number 8. Women’s ratings varied more than those of men. This greater variation was explained
by a tendency for them to give the target emotion higher ratings than men did (Hall &
Matsumoto 2004).
In a second part of this study, the Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test
(JACBART; Matsumoto et al., 2000) was used for 126 male and 237 female students at San
Francisco State University, completing the same task as the first portion of the study. The only
difference was that photographs were shown for 20 seconds, instead of 10. Results showed that
women were significantly more accurate than men at identify these seven emotions (JACBART;
Matsumoto et al., 2000).
Hampson, van Anders, & Mullin (2006) completed a study in which sixty-two
undergraduate students, 31 women and 31 men, were tested on accuracy of identification of
faces, facial expressions, and emotions. All images were photographs taken from the Pictures of
Facial Affect (Ekman & Friesen, 1976). The experiment was broken into three different parts.
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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Participants were tasked with matching faces, matching faces with emotions, and identify
emotions through facial expressions.
The first task asked subjects to match faces shown on a computer to one shown on a
response card. Six different faces were presented. This occurred four times, totaling the test to 24
times per respondent. Participants pressed the space bar once they recognized the face that
appeared on the screen, and matched it by pointing to the face on the response card.
The second task was for participants had to discriminate facial identity. Six different
emotional faces were presented five time each, totaling the test to 30 times per respondent.
Participants pressed the space bar once they recognized the face that appeared on the screen, and
matched it by pointing to the face on the response card. It is important to note that the task was to
match the face, not the emotion on the face presented. All faces on the response card had a
neutral expression.
The third task required participants to identify emotional expressions. Each face
displayed one of the following six: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, or a neutral
expression. The test was completed sixty times. Faces were shown on the computer, and when
the subject recognized the emotion, they pointed to a response card portraying a different face
that had the same facial expression.
In all three parts of this experiment, no gender differences were discernible (Hampson,
van Anders, & Mullin 2006). In part 1, accuracy of identifying individuals was extremely high in
both genders. Part 2 was similar to part one for men and women, both. Accuracy of identification
in the emotion from faces in part 3 was, again, high. Scores were at or near ceiling values and
gender differences were not statistically significant (Hampson, van Anders, & Mullin 2006).
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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The final study reviewed, by Duhaney & McKelvie (1993), is the most similar, out of all
the ones reviewed, to the one that will be completed in many respects. The testable emotional
material is the same, except a neutral facial expression will be added in this study. Male and
female actors are utilized in both studies. Also, undergraduate students are the participants of
both studies. The only major difference is the inclusion of intensity of emotion as a factor used
by Duhaney & McKelvie (1993).
Participants included 15 men and 15 women, who were tested on ability to identify the
seven universal facial expressions. These thirty undergraduates from Bishops University where
shown twelve photographs. One man and one woman posed in six photographs a piece,
portraying facial expressions of happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. The
participants were shown each photograph for 10 seconds. They were then tasked with identifying
which of the six emotions was shown. In addition, they were asked to identify the intensity of the
emotion displayed on a scale of 1 to 7, one being the least intense and 7 being the most intense.
The results concluded that no gender effects on accuracy of identification of expressions were
present (Duhaney & McKelvie 1993).
The literature describing interpretation of emotions through facial expressions is fairly
complete, although it is lacking a definitive answer regarding gender differences with respect to
this ability. This current study will be building on all of the previous research and adding to the
information base already assembled.
In the present study, I asked if women are able to identify emotions through facial
expressions more successfully than men and predicted that the women will likely be more
successful than men at identifying these micro expressions through facial appearance. This
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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hypothesis is based on prior research. Overall, the research previously outlined shows support for
this hypothesis.
Methods
Data gathered through questionnaires entailed the following: information regarding the
participants’ level of confidence that they correctly identified the emotion with each gender, the
facial expression the participant felt he/she identified most correctly on both genders before and
after completion of the questionnaire, the participant’s ability to identify the seven universal
facial expressions and a neutral expression on men and women, and demographics.
Demographics included questions related to age, marital status, ethnicity, annual income,
religious preference, employment status, education level, gender, and grade point average of the
participant.
The quasi-independent variable is the gender of the participants. The dependent variable
is the success or failure by participants to read facial expressions and correctly identify emotions.
To operationalize this dependent variable, two terms must be defined: According to MerriamWebster (2012), success is “the favorable or prosperous termination of attempts or endeavors or
obtaining favorable or desired outcome.” Failure is a “failing to perform a duty or expected
action or a state of inability to perform a normal function.” If a participant correctly matches a
facial expression to the emotion it is portraying, a success will be marked. If a participant
incorrectly matches a facial expression to the emotion it is portraying, a failure will be recorded.
Pilot testing was completed prior to dissemination of the 31 surveys. These 5 tests
revealed confusion within several questionnaire items. The measures were corrected and the
survey was finalized and dispersed.
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
The ability of men and women to identify emotions through facial expressions was
measured through surveys and a comparison of success rates of both genders was performed.
Frequency statistics and a T-test were utilized. The questionnaire employed can be reviewed in
Appendix A. In Appendix B, the key to the 18 questions asking respondents to match a facial
expression in the picture on the bottom to the emotion that they believe corresponds on the top
can be viewed.
Participants in this study included 24 students enrolled in Psychology 302/L Research
Methods in Psychology - Section 1, along with 7 other students of varying majors who attend
California State University Monterey Bay. The sample of 31 participants was predominately
composed of young (M = 23.87, SD = 4.79) females (77.4%). Participants were selected based
on availability; therefore, convenience sampling was utilized. With the exception of the missing
answer, all respondents chose single as their marital status. The marked options for ethnicities
were reported as follows: Asian (6.5%), Black / African American (3.2%%), Hispanic / Latino
(48.4%), White / Caucasian (32.3%), Pacific Islander (3.2%), and Other (1%). Annual salary of
the participants mostly fell in the category of Under $10,000 (48.4%). Data for the other half of
the participants salary was reported as follows: $10,000 - $24, 999 (29%), 25,000 - $39,999
(12.9%). One individual marked each category of $50,000 - $74,999 (3.2%) and over $150,000
(3.2%), along with one person not recording a response (3.2%). Religious preference varied
among Protestant (12.9%), Catholic (35.5%), Jewish (6.5%), Other (16.1%), and No Religious
Affiliation (25.8%). Nearly one-third of the respondents considered themselves employed as
students (29%). The remaining respondents considered themselves employed full time (25.8%)
or part time (45.2%). The highest education level completed by respondents was reported as
follows: completed high school (9.7%), completed technical school / trade school (3.2%),
8
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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completed some college, but did not finish (38.7%), completed a two-year college degree / A.A. /
A.S. (38.7%), and completed a four-year college degree / B.A. / B.S. (3.2%). Grade point
average (M = 3.1, SD = 0.52) for respondents varied between 1.0 (3.2%) and 3.8 (9.7%).
Respondents also marked 2.5 (6.5%), 2.7 (6.5%), 2.8 (9.7%), 3.0 (16.1%), 3.2 (16.1%), 3.3
(9.7%), 3.4 (12.9%), and 3.5 (9.7%). Demographic information can be examined in Appendix C.
Results
When responding to a sadness expression portrayed on a female face, 5 males (71.4%)
and 21 females (87.5%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a neutral
expression portrayed on a female face, 7 males (100%) and 21 females (87.5%) correctly
identified the emotion. When responding to an anger expression portrayed on a female face, 5
males (71.4%) and 20 females (83.3%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a
surprise expression portrayed on a female face, 7 males (100%) and 24 females (100%) correctly
identified the emotion. When responding to a contempt expression portrayed on a female face, 4
males (57.1%) and 13 females (54.2%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a
disgust expression portrayed on a female face, 4 males (57.1%) and 22 females (91.7%) correctly
identified the emotion. When responding to a fear expression portrayed on a female face, 6 males
(85.7%) and 18 females (75%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a joy /
happiness expression portrayed on a female face, 7 males (100%) and 22 females (91.7%)
correctly identified the emotion. The results output verifying this data can be viewed in
Appendix D.
When responding to a sadness expression portrayed on a male face, 6 males (85.7%) and
12 females (50%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a neutral expression
portrayed on a male face, 1 male (14.3%) and 12 females (50%) correctly identified the emotion.
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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When responding to an anger expression portrayed on a male face, 3 males (42.9%) and 4
females (16.7%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a surprise expression
portrayed on a male face, 7 males (100%) and 3 females (12.5%) correctly identified the
emotion. When responding to a contempt expression portrayed on a male face, 3 males (42.9%)
and 10 females (41.7%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a disgust
expression portrayed on a male face, 7 males (14.3%) and 4 females (16.7%) correctly identified
the emotion. When responding to a fear expression portrayed on a male face, 3 males (42.9%)
and 6 females (25%) correctly identified the emotion. When responding to a joy / happiness
expression portrayed on a male face, 7 males (100%) and 23 females (95.8%) correctly identified
the emotion. The results output confirming these figures can be viewed in Appendix E.
Chi-square tests of independence were calculated comparing the frequency of success for
men and women at identifying emotions through expressions on male and female faces. A
significant interaction was found (X2(1) = 4.775, p< .05) in relation to the frequency of success
at identifying the disgust expression on a female face in men and women. Females were more
likely to correctly identify the disgust expression on a female face (91.7%) than men (57.1%)
were. No significant differences were found between men and women with regards to sadness,
anger, contempt, fear, joy, and neutral expressions portrayed on female faces. No statistics were
computed for the emotion surprise because it was a constant. All males and all female identified
the expression for this emotion correctly when it was portrayed on a female face. No significant
differences were found between men and women with regards to surprise, disgust, sadness,
anger, contempt, fear, joy, and neutral expressions portrayed on male faces. The results output
substantiating this data can be inspected in Appendix F.
Discussion
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The data collected from this study present ambiguous findings. In this sample, men
outperformed women at identifying most emotions; the percentage of men who correctly
identified fear, contempt, and joy on both male and female faces was greater than the percentage
of women. In addition, the percentage of men who successfully identified surprise on a male
face, sadness on a male face, and a neutral expression on a female face was higher than the
percentage of women. A greater percentage of women outperformed men at correctly identifying
a neutral expression on a male face, and anger and sadness on a female face. Surprise on a
female face was the only emotion detected by every participant properly. Men correctly
identified ten of the sixteen emotions tested (.625%) more accurately than women, whereas
women correctly identified five of the sixteen emotions (.3125%) tested more accurately than
men. One of the sixteen emotions (.0625%) tested was correctly identified an equal number of
times by male and female participants. Despite the higher percentage of male participants
accurately identifying emotions, the only statistically significant result was produced by female
participants with regards to the disgust expression seen on a female face.
The results from this survey demonstrate that women have a statistically significant,
greater ability at identifying disgust when other women render the emotion as opposed to men.
Interestingly, the only emotion seen through facial expression by all participants was seen on a
female face as well. Findings support the original hypothesis that predicted women will likely be
more successful than men at identifying expressions through facial appearance.
When reviewing the results, it a noticeable difference can be seen regarding correct
identification on the face of males and females. Perhaps an explanation for this can be seen by
the methods utilized in the survey. For the emotions portrayed on the female face, the same
actor’s face was used. For the emotions portrayed on the male face, different actors were used.
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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This was due to the inability of acquiring the same male actor to portray the facial expressions.
At face value, it seems that participants identified emotions on the female face much more
accurately than on the male face. This could be due to a carryover effect; more specifically, the
practice effect.
This outcome somewhat shows support for the majority findings of previously reviewed
studies, the four articles that state the gender with better emotional identification skills is
females. The current study did find that women are better at identifying one emotion when seen
on the face of females. Can the successful interpretation of an emotion of one facial expression,
out of sixteen measured, be generalized to say that women are more successful at identifying
emotions through facial expressions than men? The evidence provided demonstrates women do
seem to be more successful at identifying and interpreting disgust on a female face through facial
expressions than men. Data suggests that women are more accurate but, on the whole, very little
difference can be seen between men and women.
Results from this study can lead to several real world implications. First, female
therapists may be more effective with female clients, rather than males. Understanding how a
patient feels can lead to asking more probing questions which can assist in exploring beliefs and
feelings leading to a more successful and quicker resolution. Understanding how one is feeling
may be especially useful in a career such as a marriage counselor. Problems between the couple
can be identified more accurately, swiftly exposed, and resolved more quickly. Second, women
who can see how someone is feeling may be suited for a career in law enforcement. Not only can
they excel, but they can provide a new avenue to reaching the truth. Understand a suspects
emotion state can prove to make interrogation easier. Also, detecting lies and reaching the truth
can be made easier when utilizing this ability. If an individual makes a statement that does not
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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match an emotion they seem to be experiencing, probing that topic would seem a good idea in
search for the truth.
An explanation for findings resulting in this way is not as clear as one would have hoped.
One possibility explanation why women see disgust on other female’s faces more easily than
men could be cultural. Although the seven expressions are universal and do not vary across
cultural boundaries, interpretation of them could be greatly affected by friends, family, values,
beliefs, traditions etc. In our society, many individuals grew up with the belief that women are
more caring and more in tune with their emotions. This relates to the belief, which many people
share, that women are natural caregivers; they know what their children require by instinct.
Perhaps this could explain why females can read a facial expression and interpret an emotion
with less difficulty than men.
Continued research on interpretation of facial expressions regarding emotion is needed. A
possible direction for future research could be geared towards understanding why women tend to
perform better than men at identifying emotion through facial expression. Research pertaining to
emotions and natural instinct warrants interest. Although natural instinct would be difficult to
measure, detecting chemical changes or activity in the brain of a participant while they are
interpreting an emotion seems a fruitful avenue for exploration.
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References
Alaerts, K., Nackaerts, E., Meyns, P., Swinnen, S. P., & Wenderoth, N. (2011). Action and
emotion recognition from point light displays: An investigation of gender differences.
Plos ONE, 6(6), doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020989
Donges, U., Kersting, A., & Suslow, T. (2012). Women’s greater ability to perceive happy facial
emotion automatically: Gender differences in affective priming. Plos ONE, 7(7),
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041745
Duhaney, A., & McKelvie, S. J. (1993). Gender differences in accuracy of identification and
rated intensity of facial expressions. Perceptual And Motor Skills, 76(3, Pt 1), 716-718.
doi:10.2466/pms.1993.76.3.716
Ekman, P. (2009). Sett original. Retrieved from
https://face.paulekman.com/face/site/training.aspx
Evans Ness, A., & Rooney F., B. (2008). Methods in psychological research. (p. 129, 241).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
failure. 2012. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved September 22, 2012, from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/failure
Hall, J. A., & Matsumoto, D. (2004). Gender Differences in Judgments of Multiple Emotions
From Facial Expressions. Emotion, 4(2), 201-206. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.201
Hampson, E., van Anders, S. M., & Mullin, L. I. (2006). A female advantage in the recognition
of emotional facial expressions: Test of an evolutionary hypothesis. Evolution And
Human Behavior, 27(6), 401-416. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.05.002
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Henley, J. (2009, May 11). The guardian. The truth about lying. Retrieved from
http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/may/12/psychology-lying
microexpressions-paul-ekman
Scherer, K. R., & Scherer, U. (2011). Assessing the ability to recognize facial and vocal
expressions of emotion: Construction and validation of the Emotion Recognition Index.
Journal Of Nonverbal Behavior, 35(4), 305-326. doi:10.1007/s10919-011-0115-4
Seidel, K. (2000). Unmasking the face. Retrieved from
http://www.neurodiversity.com/nvc/game.html
success. 2012. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved September 22, 2012, from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/success
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Appendix A
In the following questions, please choose or fill in one answer that best fits you:
1. What is your age? ________
2. What is your marital status?
Married
Single
Divorced
3. Would you describe yourself as:
American Indian / Native American
Asian
Black / African American
Hispanic / Latino
White / Caucasian
Pacific Islander
Other ___________________________
4. Which of the following best describes your annual salary (plus any bonus) before taxes?
Under $10,000
$10,000 - $24,999
$25,000 - $39,999
$40,000 - $49,999
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
$50,000 - $74,999
$75,000 - $99,999
$100,000 - $124,999
$125,000 - $149,999
Over $150,000
5. What, if any, is your religious preference?
Protestant
Catholic
LDS / Mormon
Jewish
Other ______________
No religious affiliation
6. How would you describe your current employment status?
Employed full time
Employed part time
Unemployed / Looking for work
Student
Homemaker
Retired
7. What is the highest level of education you completed?
Elementary school only
Some high school, but did not finish
17
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Completed high school
Completed technical school / trade school
Some college, but did not finish
Two-year college degree / A.A / A.S.
Four-year college degree / B.A. / B.S.
Some graduate work
Completed Masters or professional degree
Advanced Graduate work or Ph.D.
8. What is your gender?
Male
Female
9. My most recent, official grade point average score (GPA) was ___________ .
18
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
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1. I am confident that I can match facial expressions to pictures of female faces
portraying the corresponding emotions (Ex. Matching a female face portraying fear to
the phrase “Fear Expression” or matching a female face portraying surprise to the
phrase “Surprise Expression”).
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
2. I am confident that I can match facial expressions to pictures of male faces portraying
the corresponding emotions (Ex. Matching a male face portraying fear to the phrase
“Fear Expression” or matching a male face portraying surprise to the phrase “Surprise
Expression”).
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
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Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
21
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
22
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
23
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
24
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
25
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Disgust Expression
26
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
27
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Match the facial expression in the picture on the bottom to the corresponding emotion on the top:
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
28
1. I am confident that I correctly matched the facial expressions to pictures of female
faces portraying the corresponding emotions (Ex. Matched a female face portraying
fear to the phrase “Fear Expression” or matched a female face portraying surprise to
the phrase “Surprise Expression”).
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
2. I am confident that I correctly matched the facial expressions to pictures of male faces
portraying the corresponding emotions (Ex. Matched a male face portraying fear to
the phrase “Fear Expression” or matched a male face portraying surprise to the phrase
“Surprise Expression”).
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
29
3. I feel that I best matched the __________________, on the face of the female, to the
corresponding emotion. (Ex. Matched the female face portraying fear to the phrase
“Fear Expression” or matched the female face portraying surprise to the phrase
“Surprise Expression”).
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
4. I feel that I best matched the __________________, on the face of the male, to the
corresponding emotion. (Ex. Matched the male face portraying fear to the phrase
“Fear Expression” or matched the male face portraying surprise to the phrase
“Surprise Expression”).
Fear Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Surprise Expression
Sadness Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Disgust Expression
Neutral Expression
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Appendix B
Key – Part I
Fear Expression
Anger Expression
Disgust Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Sadness Expression
Surprise Expression
30
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Neutral Expression
Contempt Expression
31
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
32
Key – Part II
Women
Men
Sadness Expression
Surprise Expression
Neutral Expression
Fear Expression
Anger Expression
Disgust Expression
Surprise Expression
Anger Expression
Contempt Expression
Neutral Expression
Disgust Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Fear Expression
Contempt Expression
Joy / Happiness Expression
Sadness Expression
Images of faces were retrieved from Subtle Expression Training Tool by Dr. Paul Ekman,
an article entitled “The truth about lying,” by Jon Henley, and an interactive game, “Unmasking
the face” by nuerodiversity.com.
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Appendix C
GPA
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
1.0
1
3.2
3.2
3.2
2.5
2
6.5
6.5
9.7
2.7
2
6.5
6.5
16.1
2.8
3
9.7
9.7
25.8
3.0
5
16.1
16.1
41.9
3.2
5
16.1
16.1
58.1
3.3
3
9.7
9.7
67.7
3.4
4
12.9
12.9
80.6
3.5
3
9.7
9.7
90.3
3.8
3
9.7
9.7
100.0
31
100.0
100.0
Total
Age
33
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
35
1
3.2
3.2
3.2
38
6
19.4
19.4
22.6
39
10
32.3
32.3
54.8
40
4
12.9
12.9
67.7
41
2
6.5
6.5
74.2
42
1
3.2
3.2
77.4
43
3
9.7
9.7
87.1
44
1
3.2
3.2
90.3
46
2
6.5
6.5
96.8
63
1
3.2
3.2
100.0
31
100.0
100.0
Total
Marital Status
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
34
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Valid
Single
30
96.8
Missing
System
1
3.2
31
100.0
Total
100.0
100.0
35
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
36
Ethnicity
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Missing
Total
Asian
2
6.5
6.7
6.7
Black / African American
1
3.2
3.3
10.0
Hispanic / Latino
15
48.4
50.0
60.0
White / Caucasian
10
32.3
33.3
93.3
Pacific Islander
1
3.2
3.3
96.7
Other
1
3.2
3.3
100.0
Total
30
96.8
100.0
1
3.2
31
100.0
System
Annual Salary
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
37
Cumulative
Percent
Under $10,000
15
48.4
50.0
50.0
$10,000 - $24,999
9
29.0
30.0
80.0
$25,000 - $39,999
4
12.9
13.3
93.3
$50,000 - $74,999
1
3.2
3.3
96.7
Over $150,000
1
3.2
3.3
100.0
30
96.8
100.0
1
3.2
31
100.0
Valid
Total
Missing
Total
System
Religious Preference
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
38
Cumulative
Percent
Protestant
4
12.9
13.3
13.3
Catholic
11
35.5
36.7
50.0
Jewish
2
6.5
6.7
56.7
Other
5
16.1
16.7
73.3
No Religious Affiliation
8
25.8
26.7
100.0
30
96.8
100.0
1
3.2
31
100.0
Valid
Total
Missing
Total
System
Employment Status
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
39
Cumulative
Percent
Employed full time
8
25.8
25.8
25.8
Employed part time
14
45.2
45.2
71.0
9
29.0
29.0
100.0
31
100.0
100.0
Valid
Student
Total
Education Level
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Completed high school
3
9.7
10.3
10.3
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Completed technical school /
trade school
Some college, but did not
finish
Two-year college degree /
A.A. / A.S.
Four-year college degree /
B.A. / B.S.
Total
Missing
Total
System
40
1
3.2
3.4
13.8
12
38.7
41.4
55.2
12
38.7
41.4
96.6
1
3.2
3.4
100.0
29
93.5
100.0
2
6.5
31
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Gender
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Male
Valid
7
22.6
22.6
22.6
Female
24
77.4
77.4
100.0
Total
31
100.0
100.0
41
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Appendix D
Identification of emotion portrayed on a female face by female participants:
Female Sadness
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
21
87.5
87.5
87.5
Incorrect Identification
3
12.5
12.5
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
42
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
43
Female Neutral
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
Incorrect Identification
Total
21
87.5
87.5
87.5
3
12.5
12.5
100.0
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Anger
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
20
83.3
83.3
83.3
Incorrect Identification
4
16.7
16.7
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
44
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Surprise
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
24
100.0
100.0
100.0
45
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Contempt
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
13
54.2
54.2
54.2
Incorrect Identification
11
45.8
45.8
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
46
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Disgust
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
22
91.7
91.7
91.7
Incorrect Identification
2
8.3
8.3
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
47
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Fear
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
18
75.0
75.0
75.0
Incorrect Identification
6
25.0
25.0
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
48
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Female Joy
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
22
91.7
91.7
91.7
Incorrect Identification
2
8.3
8.3
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
49
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
50
Identification of emotion portrayed on a female face by female participants:
Female Sadness
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
5
71.4
71.4
71.4
Incorrect Identification
2
28.6
28.6
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
51
Female Neutral
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
7
100.0
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
52
Female Anger
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
5
71.4
71.4
71.4
Incorrect Identification
2
28.6
28.6
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
53
Female Surprise
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
7
100.0
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
54
Female Contempt
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
4
57.1
57.1
57.1
Incorrect Identification
3
42.9
42.9
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
55
Female Disgust
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
4
57.1
57.1
57.1
Incorrect Identification
3
42.9
42.9
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
56
Female Fear
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
6
85.7
85.7
85.7
Incorrect Identification
1
14.3
14.3
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
57
Female Joy
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
7
100.0
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
58
Appendix B
Identification of emotion portrayed on a male face by female participants:
Male Surprise
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
3
12.5
12.5
12.5
Incorrect Identification
21
87.5
87.5
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
59
Male Fear
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
6
25.0
25.0
25.0
Incorrect Identification
18
75.0
75.0
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
60
Male Disgust
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
4
16.7
16.7
16.7
Incorrect Identification
20
83.3
83.3
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
61
Male Anger
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
4
16.7
16.7
16.7
Incorrect Identification
20
83.3
83.3
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
62
Male Neutral
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
12
50.0
50.0
50.0
Incorrect Identification
12
50.0
50.0
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
63
Male Joy
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Correct Identification
Valid
Incorrect Identification
Total
23
95.8
95.8
95.8
1
4.2
4.2
100.0
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
64
Male Contempt
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
10
41.7
41.7
41.7
Incorrect Identification
14
58.3
58.3
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
65
Male Sadness
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
12
50.0
50.0
50.0
Incorrect Identification
12
50.0
50.0
100.0
Total
24
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
66
Identification of emotion portrayed on a male face by male participants:
Male Surprise
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Incorrect Identification
7
100.0
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
67
Male Fear
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
3
42.9
42.9
42.9
Incorrect Identification
4
57.1
57.1
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
68
Male Disgust
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
1
14.3
14.3
14.3
Incorrect Identification
6
85.7
85.7
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
69
Male Anger
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
3
42.9
42.9
42.9
Incorrect Identification
4
57.1
57.1
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
70
Male Neutral
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
1
14.3
14.3
14.3
Incorrect Identification
6
85.7
85.7
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
71
Male Joy
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
7
100.0
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
72
Male Contempt
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
3
42.9
42.9
42.9
Incorrect Identification
4
57.1
57.1
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
73
Male Sadness
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Correct Identification
6
85.7
85.7
85.7
Incorrect Identification
1
14.3
14.3
100.0
Total
7
100.0
100.0
Running head: GENDER, EMOTION, AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
74
Appendix F
Gender * Female Disgust Crosstabulation
Female Disgust
Total
Correct
Incorrect
Identification
Identification
Count
4
3
7
Expected Count
5.9
1.1
7.0
Count
22
2
24
20.1
3.9
24.0
26
5
31
26.0
5.0
31.0
Male
Gender
Female
Expected Count
Count
Total
Expected Count
Chi-Square Tests
Value
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity
Correctionb
Likelihood Ratio
df
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (2-
Exact Sig. (1-
sided)
sided)
sided)
4.775a
1
.029
2.564
1
.109
4.063
1
.044
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear Association
N of Valid Cases
.062
4.621
1
.032
31
a. 2 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.13.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
.062