MEMORY
Chapter 6
WHAT IS MEMORY?
Memory is the system by which we
retain information and bring it to
mind.
Without memory, experience would
leave no mark on our behavior; we
would be unable to retain the
information and skills we acquire
through experience.
HUMAN MEMORY AS AN INFORMATION
PROCESSING SYSTEM
3 basic processes of human memory;
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
These processes allow us to take
information, encode it in a form that can
be stored in memory, and later retrieve it
when it is needed.
Three Basic Processes of Memory
Encoding
Converting
information into a
form usable in
memory
Storage
Retaining
Information in
memory
Retrieval
Bringing to mind
information
stored in
memory
MEMORY ENCODING: TAKING IN
INFORMATION
Information about the outside world comes to
us through our senses, but for this information
to enter memory, it must undergo a process of
memory encoding, or conversion into a form
we can store in memory.
Ways we encode information;
Acoustically (coded by sound)
Visually (coded by forming a mental picture)
Semantically (coded by meaning)
MEMORY STORAGE: RETAINING
INFORMATION IN MEMORY
Memory storage is the process of
retaining information in memory.
Not all information becomes an
enduring or long-term memory.
Some information is retained for
only a fraction of a second.
MEMORY RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING
STORED INFORMATION
Memory retrieval is the process of accessing
stored information to make it available to
consciousness.
Retrieving long-held information is one of the
marvels of the human brain.
Some memories seem to be retrieved
effortlessly, others depend on the availability
of retrieval cues, cues associated with the
original learning, to jog them into awareness.
MEMORY STAGES
Some memories are fleeting; others are
more enduring.
The three-stage model of memory
proposes three distinct stages of
memory that vary with the length of time
information is stored;
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
SENSORY MEMORY: GETTING TO KNOW
WHAT’S OUT THERE
Sensory memory is a storage system that
holds sensory information in memory for
a very short time.
Stimuli that you bring in constantly strike
your sensory receptors, forming
impressions that are briefly held in
sensory memory in a kind of temporary
storage device called sensory register.
SENSORY MEMORY: GETTING TO KNOW
WHAT’S OUT THERE
 This information lasts in memory for perhaps a
fraction of a second to as long as 3-4 seconds.
 The sensory impression disappears and is
replaced by the next one.
 Iconic memory- A sensory store for holding
mental representation of a visual image for a
fraction of a second.
 A visual held in iconic memory is so clear and
accurate that people can report exact details of
the image.
SENSORY MEMORY: GETTING TO KNOW
WHAT’S OUT THERE
Some people can recall a visual image they
have previously seen as accurately as if
they are still looking at it. This is known as
eidetic memory
This is also known as photographic memory
(eidetic comes from the Greek eidos,
meaning “image”).
Eidetic imagery is rare in adults, but it
occurs in about 5% of young children.
SENSORY MEMORY: GETTING TO KNOW
WHAT’S OUT THERE
Echoic memory is a sensory store for
holding a mental representation of a
sound for a few seconds after it
registers in the ears.
Although sounds held in echoic
memory fade quickly, they last about
two or three seconds longer than
visual images.
SHORT-TERM, OR WORKING, MEMORY:
THE MIND’S BLACKBOARD
Many sensory impressions don’t just
fade away into oblivion; they are
transferred into short-term memory for
further processing.
Short-term memory is the memory
subsystem that allows for retention and
processing of newly acquired information
for a maximum of about 30 seconds.
SHORT-TERM, OR WORKING, MEMORY:
THE MIND’S BLACKBOARD
Short-term memory relies on both acoustic
and visual coding, but mostly on acoustic (ex.
Repeating a phone number to yourself until
you dial it).
In the 1950s psychologist George Miller did
studies to determine the storage capacity if
short-term memory.
Professor Miller determined that people can
retain 7 items (plus or minus 2), referred to as
the “Magic 7”.
ROW 1
6293
ROW 2
73932
ROW 3
835405
ROW 4
3820961
ROW 5
18294624
ROW 6
9284619384
ROW 7
1992199319941995
SHORT-TERM, OR WORKING, MEMORY:
THE MIND’S BLACKBOARD
Did you do better remembering the 7 th row
than the 5 th or 6 th ?
If you did, it is because of chunking- the
process of breaking a large amount of
information into smaller chunks to make it
easier to recall.
Children learn the alphabet by chunking a
series if letters (that’s why they often say the
letters lmnop as if they are one word)
LONG-TERM MEMORY: PRESERVING THE
PAST
Long-term memory is a storage system that
allows you to retain information for periods
of time beyond the capacity of short-term
memory.
Some info can remain for days or weeks,
whereas other info can last a lifetime.
Short-term memory storage is limited, but
long-term storage is virtually limitless.
LONG-TERM MEMORY: PRESERVING THE
PAST
Consolidation is the process by which the
brain converts unstable, fresh memories into
stable, long-term memories.
The first 24 hours after information is
acquired are critical for consolidation to occur.
REM sleep plays an important role in
consolidating daily experiences, so if you have
a test the next day, make sure you get a good
night’s sleep.
DECLARATIVE MEMORY: “KNOWING THAT”
 Declarative Memory: Memory of facts and personal
info that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind.
 Ex. There are 50 states, what street we live on.
 Semantic Memory: Memory of facts.
 Ex. Which film won Best Picture last year, who wrote
Grapes of Wrath.
 Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences
that constitute the story of your life.
 Ex. What you had for dinner last night, when you fell
out of a tree when you were 10.
FLASHBULB MEMORY: WHAT WERE YOU
DOING WHEN…?
Extremely stressful or emotionally arousing
personal or historical events may leave vivid,
lasting, and highly detailed memories called
flashbulb memories.
Flashbulb memories are enduring memories
of emotionally charged events that seem
permanently seared into the brain.
Some flashbulb memories are accurate, but
others are prone to the kinds of distortion we
see in other forms of long-term memory.
ELIZABETH LOFTUS: THE FICTION OF
MEMORY
http://www.ted.com/talks/eli
zabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_
memory.html
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: :WHAT DID YOU
SEE ON THE DAY IN QUESTION?”
In reaching a verdict, juries give considerable
weight to eyewitness testimony. Yet memory
researchers find that eyewitness testimony
can be as flawed and strewn with error as
other forms of memory.
Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus describes how a
misinformation effect may lead to distortions
in eyewitness testimony from when the event
happened to when the events are recalled (in
court).
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: :WHAT DID YOU
SEE ON THE DAY IN QUESTION?”
The accuracy of eyewitness testimony involves
the following factors.
Ease of recall- People who take longer to
answer questions are less likely to be
accurate in their recall.
Degree of Confidence- People who say with
certainty, “That’s the person who did it, “ may
not be any more accurate than those who
admit they could be mistaken.
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: :WHAT DID YOU
SEE ON THE DAY IN QUESTION?”
General knowledge about a subjectPeople who know more about a subject
are more likely than those who know less
about the subject to be reliable
witnesses.
Racial identification- People are
generally better able to recognize faces
of people of their own race than the face
of people of other races.
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY: :WHAT DID YOU
SEE ON THE DAY IN QUESTION?”
Types of questions- Leading or suggestive
questions by investigators can result in the
misidentification of perpetrators, whereas
open-ended questions, tend to increase the
accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Facial characteristics- Faces with
distinctive features are much more likely to
be accurately recognized than
nondistinctive faces.
USING MNEMONICS TO IMPROVE
MEMORY
A mnemonic is a device for improving
memory.
The word mnemonic is derived from the
name of the Greek goddess Mnemosyne,
the goddess of memory.
These are some of the most widely used
mnemonic devices.
ACRONYMS AND ACROSTICS
The method of acronyms (also called the first
letter system) is among the easiest and most
widely used mnemonic devices.
An acronym is a word composed of the first
letters of a series of words.
The acronym HOMES can help you remember
the names of the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario,
Michigan, Erie, Superior)
Ex. ROY G. BIV or PEMDAS
ACRONYMS AND ACROSTICS
An acrostic is a verse or saying in which
a letter of each word, typically the first
letter, stands for something else.
Generations of musicians have learned
the lines of the treble clef (E, G, B, D,
and F) by committing to memory the
acrostic “Every Good Boy Does Fine.”
Ex. Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
POPULAR SAYINGS AND RHYMES
Popular sayings and poems help us remember
a variety of things, including when to turn the
clock forward or back (“Fall back, spring
forward”).
Rhymes can be used as a mnemonic for
remembering specific information.
Ex. “Thirty days hath September, April, June,
and November…” for remembering the number
of days in each month.
VISUAL CUES AND IMAGERY
 Visual cues can help us remember to remember.
 When you remember to do something, pin a reminder
note where you will be most likely to notice it.
 Visual imagery can help us remember new words,
names, and word combinations.
 Ex. To remember hippocampus, think of a hippopotamus
 Memory expert Harry Lorayne recommended linking
imagery to tasks that need to be remembered.
 Ex. If you want to remember to mail a letter, picture the
letter on the handle of the front door. Seeing the front
door handle may cue you to take the letter to the mailbox.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING
MEMORY
Pay attention- Paying attention not only
means focusing more closely on the material
at hand; it also means placing yourself in a
quiet area that is conducive to studying and
free of distractions (no tv, radio, phone, etc.)
Practice, practice, practice- Repeating
information out loud or silently can help
convert it from short-term memory into a
more enduring long-term memory.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING
MEMORY
Use External Memory Aids- Writing a reminder
note to yourself will allow you to expend your
mental efforts more profitably on something
else.
Other types of notes, such as class notes, are
tools that you can use to retain more
information.
External memory aids, such as electronic
organizers and computerized to-do lists, may
also be helpful.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING
MEMORY
Link Time-Based Tasks to External CuesFor example, if you need to take
medication in the early evening, link it with
having dinner.
Mentally Rehearse What You Intend to DoRehearsing what you plan to do may in
crease the likelihood of performing the
intended action. Ex. “I intend to pick up my
clothes from the dry cleaners today.”
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING
MEMORY
Control Stress- Though we may need some
level of stress to remain active and alert,
prolonged or intense stress can interfere with
the transfer of new learning into long-term
memory.
Adopt Healthy Habits- Adopting a healthier
lifestyle, such as a healthy diet, maintaining a
regular sleep schedule, and exercising
regularly, may help enhance your memory.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING
MEMORY
Avoid eating a large meal before cracking
open your textbook (eating facilitates a
restful mood and digestion, not mental
alertness).
Also, avoid studying on an empty stomach.
Using alcohol and other drugs does not mix
with the mental alertness needed to learn
and retain information.
Make sure you get enough sleep.