Structure of Memory
The Atkinson and Shiffrin Model (1968)
Memory is understood as a series of structures:
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Long-term memory
See p. 73

We use selective attention to focus only on a
limited aspect of all that we experience.
 We are bombarded, according to Wilson (2002) by
11,000,000 bits of information per second. Of that
number we consciously process 40 items.
▪ Cocktail party effect: you are having a conversation at a party,
then you hear your name on the other side of the room and
your attention shifts
Brew
Hall
Help
Summer
Cackle
Boxing
School
People
Wheel
Atrophy
Limits
Senses
History
Picture
Exams
Effect
Pizza
Telephone
Book
Approach

Primacy Effect
 Words near the start of the list have made it into
long term memory

Recency Effect
 Words near the end of the list are still in short
term memory
Brew
Hall
Help
Summer
Cackle
Boxing
School
People
Wheel
atrophy
Limits
Senses
History
Picture
Exams
Effect
Pizza
Telephone
Book
Approach
So what principle did the last
activity demonstrate?
Mental Processes guide behaviour.

Memory processes
 Encoding
 Storage
 Retrieval

During which stage(s) can schema processing
affect memory?

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GROUP ACTIVITY
In small groups (3-4), read the study on P. 72
Does schema processing influence both
encoding & retrieval?
So what principle did the last
activity demonstrate?
The mind can be studied scientifically



Working Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory



Suggested in 1960s when the cognitive
revolution began
Inspired by computer science (humans =
information processors)
Two premises:
 1. Memory consists of separate stores
 2. Memory processes are sequential
Take out a piece of paper and pen or pencil.
Follow the directions.
Memory Test
So what principle did the last activity
demonstrate?

Cognitive processes are influenced by social
& cultural factors

Encoding
 Refers to the laying down of a memory trace in
LTM (See page 72 “Research in Psychology”)
▪ To improve encoding we rely on:
▪ Elaboration
▪ Organizing
▪ Integrating
 Elaboration
▪ Involves adding meaning to the info so it becomes
integrated with what you already know or it becomes
personally relevant
▪ Example, my name is Mr. Weisse and I love soccer.
▪ Why is this a good example of elaboration?
 Method of Loci
▪ Loci: means “places” in Latin, plural of locus
▪ Mnemonic strategy that uses visual cues to remember unconnected info
▪ You will remember better if the item is attached to some other characteristic
 Example: Mole from “Austin Powers”

Organization
 Grouping or chunking info can help us remember
▪ Acronyms are a great example
▪ NATO, APA, RWRCPHS
▪ Grouping similar items together is known as “clustering”
▪ Example: list of 40 words made up of animals, jobs, and fruit, you would notice
the similar items and organize them. When asked to remember them you
would most likely cluster.
 Conceptual hierarchy
▪ Good example are animal classifications in biology

Schemas
 Organized clusters of knowledge about people,
objects, and events, often based on our previous
experiences
 Stored in LTM
 We expect new info to fit in with our schemas
 Write down who/what you would expect to see and/or
do at a bar
▪ Now what if you saw a 5 year old by him/her self at the bar,
that does not fit in our schemata of a bar

Semantic Network
 A structure or framework made up of individual words or
concepts that are linked to other similar words or concepts by
pathways
▪ Pathways are short for very similar concepts, and longer for those less
associated

Contextual effects
 Where learning takes place may also play a role in recall
▪ Internal and external cues can lead to recall. Therefore, learning in the
place you are to take a test might help.
▪ This is known as the encoding specificity principle

The following are included in info processing:
 Perception
 Memory
 Language
 Reasoning
 Problem solving
An information processing model of human
cognition suggests that a stimulus produces a
sensation that is then perceived and processed for
meaning.
The processing occurs as a part of what we know in
our long term memory and short term
expectations. Both of which are analyzed in
working memory to determine what response
should be used.

Influential tools cognitive psychologists have used
to understand how info is processed.
 Reaction Times
▪ Speed at which info is processed
 Working memory
▪ Amount of info that can be processed
 Emotional intelligence
▪ The interaction between information processing and how we
and others feel.

The faster a task is done, the more cognitively able
that person is thought to be
 This has been associated with intelligence and memory
performance

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Reaction time is a measure of speed of response.
Why do you suppose reaction time is so closely
related to cognitive abilities?
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Everyday activities require the ability to hold
information temporarily in mind while we perform
the mental task.
Working memory has limits. We can not work on to
much at once or we will botch it all up. Think about
driving while talking on a mobile phone, eating,
looking for a CD or cassette tape.
Example from Mr. Weisse. “Telephone pole”

Cognitive theories of emotion emphasize how we
interpret events as well as how our bodies react to
events in their explanations of emotions.
 Easily recognizable physiological responses can be seen
with fear and rage

Question for you to ponder: Do we have any say in
our choice of emotions we experience? Please
explain.

We can exhibit a bit of control. This is called
emotional regulation.
 Emotional regulation can be found in three areas
▪ Emotions lead to behavioural responses that are not useful
▪ When emotions arise from a mistaken or misunderstanding of
the situation
▪ When emotions lead to behavioural responses that are in
conflict with other goals we have

Baddeley and Hitch (1974, 1990)
 Can be understood as a model with three parts
▪ Short term store for verbal info
▪ Short term store for visual info
▪ “central executive”
 The verbal and visual stores hold verbal and visual info while the
central executive manipulates that info
See the model on page 73

Explicit Memory
 Involves intentional or conscious recollection of previous
experiences

Declarative Memory
 Is thought to handle explicit memory and store factual
information. It can be subdivided into two parts
▪ Episodic memory system: made up of personal facts about your life, a
mental diary
▪ Semantic Memory system: contains general facts, a mental encyclopedia

Implicit memory
 Involves unintentional or unconscious remembering and is
thought to handle:
▪ Procedural memories
▪ Classically conditioned responses

Procedural memory system
 Stores memory for skills, actions, or habits