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COMPARISON
The Laws of Manu
Known by many names—Manavadharmashastra, Manu Smriti, and the Law Codes of Manu—the Laws of Manu is both a
legal and a religious text that elaborates on the basic Hindu tenets while providing a window into the religion, culture,
and society of ancient India. It covers topics ranging from the role of women to the definition of sin to an explanation of
the caste system and its utility in the maintenance of the universe. The Laws of Manu probably dates to between the
second century BCE and the second century CE, most likely during the end of the Maurya Dynasty (324–180 BCE).
The Laws of Manu is part of the set of early post-Vedic texts—that is, texts written after the ancient Hindu Vedas (ca.
1200–900 BCE)—known as the Dharma Shastras, which further develop the concept of dharma. While a clear,
authoritative definition of Hinduism continues to elude scholars, who debate whether Hinduism is a religion or a way of
life, the concepts of dharma, karma, and moksha are constant.
Questions to Consider
1. What values prevailed in ancient India, as evident in the laws?
2. What factors must be considered upon entering a marriage?
3. Overall, how were women viewed in India? What evidence supports your opinion?
4. How did religion shape the culture and politics of classical India?
4. Having bathed, with the permission of his teacher, and performed according to the rule the Samavartana (the rite on
returning home), a twice-born man shall marry a wife of equal caste who is endowed with auspicious (bodily) marks.
5. A damsel who is neither a Sapinda on the mother's side, nor belongs to the same family on the father's side, is
recommended to twice-born men for wedlock and conjugal union.
6. In connecting himself with a wife, let him carefully avoid the ten following families, be they ever so great, or rich in
kine, horses, sheep, grain, or (other) property,
7. (Viz.) one which neglects the sacred rites, one in which no male children (are born), one in which the Veda is not
studied, one (the members of) which have thick hair on the body, those which are subject to hemorrhoids, phthisis,
weakness of digestion, epilepsy, or white or black leprosy.
8. Let him not marry a maiden (with) reddish (hair), nor one who has a redundant member, nor one who is sickly, nor
one either with no hair (on the body) or too much, nor one who is garrulous or has red (eyes),
9. Nor one named after a constellation, a tree, or a river, nor one bearing the name of a low caste, or of a mountain, nor
one named after a bird, a snake, or a slave, nor one whose name inspires terror.
10. Let him wed a female free from bodily defects, who has an agreeable name, the (graceful) gait of a Hamsa or of an
elephant, a moderate (quantity of) hair on the body and on the head, small teeth, and soft limbs.
11. But a prudent man should not marry (a maiden) who has no brother, nor one whose father is not known, through
fear lest (in the former case she be made) an appointed daughter (and in the latter) lest (he should commit) sin.
12. For the first marriage of twice-born men (wives) of equal caste are recommended; but for those who through desire
proceed (to marry again) the following females, (chosen) according to the (direct) order (of the castes), are most
approved.
Key Concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
Key Concept 2.2: The Development of States and Empires
AP World History
13. It is declared that a Sudra woman alone (can be) the wife of a Sudra, she and one of his own caste (the wives) of a
Vaisya, those two and one of his own caste (the wives) of a Kshatriya, those three and one of his own caste (the wives)
of a Brahmana.
15. Twice-born men who, in their folly, wed wives of the low (Sudra) caste, soon degrade their families and their children
to the state of Sudras.
16. According to Atri and to (Gautama) the son of Utathya, he who weds a Sudra woman becomes an outcast, according
to Saunaka on the birth of a son, and according to Bhrigu he who has (male) offspring from a (Sudra female, alone).
17. A Brahmana who takes a Sudra wife to his bed, will (after death) sink into hell; if he begets a child by her, he will lose
the rank of a Brahmana.
55. Women must be honoured and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands, and brothers-in-law, who desire (their
own) welfare.
56. Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they are not honoured, no sacred rite yields
rewards.
57. Where the female relations live in grief, the family soon wholly perishes; but that family where they are not unhappy
ever prospers.
58. The houses on which female relations, not being duly honoured, pronounce a curse, perish completely, as if
destroyed by magic.
59. Hence men who seek (their own) welfare, should always honour women on holidays and festivals with (gifts of)
ornaments, clothes, and (dainty) food.
60. In that family, where the husband is pleased with his wife and the wife with her husband, happiness will assuredly be
lasting.
61. For if the wife is not radiant with beauty, she will not attract her husband; but if she has no attractions for him, no
children will be born.
62. If the wife is radiant with beauty, the whole house is bright; but if she is destitute of beauty, all will appear dismal.
63. By low marriages, by omitting (the performance of) sacred rites, by neglecting the study of the Veda, and by
irreverence towards Brahmanas, (great) families sink low.
Key Concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
Key Concept 2.2: The Development of States and Empires
AP World History
Rock Edicts of Asoka
King Asoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary
rulers in world history. The British historian H.G. Wells has written: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs
that crowd the columns of history ... the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star." Although Buddhist
literature preserved the legend of this ruler -- the story of a cruel and ruthless king who converted to Buddhism and
thereafter established a reign of virtue -- definitive historical records of his reign were lacking. Then in the nineteenth
century there came to light a large number of edicts, in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These edicts, inscribed
on rocks and pillars, proclaim Asoka's reforms and policies and promulgate his advice to his subjects. The present
rendering of these edicts, based on earlier translations, offers us insights into a powerful and capable ruler's attempt to
establish an empire on the foundation of righteousness, a reign which makes the moral and spiritual welfare of his
subjects its primary concern. The edicts were proclaimed c.256BCE after Asoka’s conversion to Buddhism.
Questions to Consider
1. What values did Asoka attempt to install in India?
2. How did religion influence the laws proclaimed by Asoka?
7
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire
self-control and purity of heart.[14] But people have various desires and various passions, and they may practice all of
what they should or only a part of it. But one who receives great gifts yet is lacking in self-control, purity of heart,
gratitude and firm devotion, such a person is mean.
12
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the householders of all religions, and he honors
them with gifts and honors of various kinds.[22] But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors
as much as he values this -- that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.[23] Growth in essentials can be
done in different ways, but all of them have as their root restraint in speech, that is, not praising one's own religion, or
condemning the religion of others without good cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it should be done in a mild
way. But it is better to honor other religions for this reason. By so doing, one's own religion benefits, and so do other
religions, while doing otherwise harms one's own religion and the religions of others. Whoever praises his own religion,
due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own
religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good.[24] One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by
others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other
religions.
Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value
gifts and honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions. And to this end many
are working -- Dhamma Mahamatras, Mahamatras in charge of the women's quarters, officers in charge of outlying
areas, and other such officers. And the fruit of this is that one's own religion grows and the Dhamma is illuminated also.
Key Concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
Key Concept 2.2: The Development of States and Empires
AP World History
Analytical Questions
1. How were the Laws of Manu and Asoka’s Rock Edicts similar?
2. Why did both rulers incorporate religion into the law?
3. How were the law codes different?
4. What accounted for the differences?
5. How are these law codes similar to those of other Classical Era empires? How are they similar to law codes in other
time periods?
Key Concept 2.1: The Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
Key Concept 2.2: The Development of States and Empires
AP World History